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The Day (Time and Dates)
The mean solar day is the average length of a day
as determined by noting one passage of the sun
across the meridian of an observer and calculating
the time that it takes for the sun to cross the
same point in the sky a second time. Because the
sun's time in making such a circuit varies
seasonally, the uniform length of our day is based
on a fictional average rather than on what is
actually seen on any given day (called the
apparent solar day). The mean solar day is the
basis of our 24-hour calendar day. It is actually
24 hours, 3 minutes, 56.55 seconds long in
sidereal time.
The mean sidereal day is determined by a procedure
similar to that of fixing the solar day; however,
this procedure uses a star's passage across a
reference point on the celestial sphere (that
point now being the vernal equinox) instead of the
sun's passage. The mean sidereal day is 23 hours,
56 minutes, 4.10 seconds long in solar time. That
means that the solar day appears to be about 4
minutes longer than the sidereal day because Earth
in its solar orbit has to move a little farther to
get back to the point at which the sun crosses the
same meridian.
Names of the Days (Time and Dates)
The names of the days in English derive from
either ancient Latin or Saxon systems of naming
days after gods or astrological planets.
English Latin Saxon
Sunday Dies Solis (Sun) Sun's Day
Monday Dies Lunae (Moon) Moon's Day
Tuesday Dies Martis (Mars) Tiw's Day
Wednesday Dies Mercurii (Mercury) Woden's Day
Thursday Dies Jovis (Jupiter) Thor's Day
Friday Dies Veneris (Venus) Frigg's Day
Saturday Dies Saturni (Saturn) Saterne's Day
The Hours
1 mean solar day = 24 mean solar hours
1 mean solar hour = 60 mean solar minutes
1 mean solar minute = 60 mean solar seconds
1 mean solar day = 86,400 mean solar seconds
When Does a Day Begin (Time and Dates)?
The standard measurement of the day is from
midnight to midnight. This is accepted for civil
purposes throughout most of the world, but it has
not always been so. Some ancient peoples counted
the day from dawn to dawn; others, for instance
certain Germanic tribes, counted nights and then
grouped them into units of 14-our fortnight;
still others, such as Jews, count their days from
sunset to sunset.
The 12-Hour System of Counting Hours
Midnight = 12 A.M. or 12 M
Noon = 12 P.M. or 12 N
A.M. (ante meridiem) = before noon
P.M. (post meridiem) = after noon
The 24-Hour System of Counting Hours (Time and Dates)
Because the 24-hour system does not repeat numbers
and clearly distinguishes between midnight and
noon, it is less confusing than the 12-hour system.
It is the official system of the U.S. military and
it is also used generally throughout Europe. In
the 24-hour system, midnight can be designated by
2400 of one day or 0000 of the day following.
How Is the Day Subdivided (Time and Dates)?
The length of the day is determined by the
rotation of Earth. But the division of the day
into hours is an arbitrary standard, as is the
uniform length of the hour. Before the invention
of mechanical clocks, hours were usually of
unequal length. Different cultures divided their
days in different ways. The Greeks, the Egyptians,
and the Romans had a 24-hour day. But they divided
it into 12 hours of light and 12 of dark, which
meant that the length of the hours depended on
the seasons. Only after the invention of
mechanical clocks in the late Middle Ages did
there develop a need for an hour of uniform length.
Standard Time Around the World
Standard time was fixed in 1883 to prevent the
myriad of short time differences that would result
if every locality determined the mean solar time
by different meridians, depending on the longitude
of the particular place. Lines at every 15 degrees
longitude were drawn down a map of Earth to create
24 international time zones differing from each
preceding and following zone by one hour. Because
of political boundaries, such lines often depart
from the strict 15 degrees rule and sometimes
zigzag or demarcate areas that differ by half an
hour only.
The continental United States has four meridians
designated to determine standard times: 75 degrees,
90 degrees, 105 degrees, and 120 degrees west of
Greenwich, England. Canada has two other time
zones, one in the east, Atlantic Standard Time,
based on 60 degrees west of Greenwich, and the
other in the far west, Yukon Standard Time, with
a meridian at 135 degrees west of Greenwich.
Alaska - Hawaii Standard Time is determined by the
meridian that runs through Anchorage at 150
degrees and Nome Standard Time is set at the
165 degrees meridian.
Greenwich Mean Time and the Prime Meridian
The mean solar time determined by the meridian
that runs through Greenwich, England (Greenwich
Mean Time) is called Universal Time. It is used
all over the world in navigation, both air and sea,
and for scientific purposes, as in astronomy. From
Greenwich, too, longitudes are measured around the
world, Greenwich being 0 degrees, called the prime
meridian.
CLOCKS - MEASURING TIME
The sundial may be the oldest device for measuring
time, going back to the Fertile Crescent of about
2000 b.c. Its operation is based on the fact that
the shadow of a fixed object will move around it
from one side to the other as the sun moves from
east to west. Naturally, the duration of the hours
marked off by a sundial changes according to the
seasons of the year. Along with sundials, ancient
peoples used water clocks that measured time by a
constant rate of flow of water through a bowl-like
device with an outlet. Sand flowing from one
compartment into another also was used in late
medieval Europe to measure time. These last two
methods could be used at night; they also counted
more uniform units of time.
With the invention of mechanical clocks, the hours
became uniform. The first mechanical clocks
appeared in Europe in the thirteenth century
(mechanical timepieces existed in China at least
two centuries earlier, though the Chinese never
developed them highly). The earliest ones were
driven by weights strung around a drum. As the
weight fell, the mechanism was activated. Next
came spring-driven clocks, though they had the
disadvantage of running differently when the
spring was just wound and at its most tense
position and after it had unwound somewhat. The
workings of all clocks depend on a motion or
vibration that is constant and regular.
In 1583 the great Italian physicist Galileo
(1564 - 1642) observed that the time it took for
a pendulum to complete one total swing (called the
period of oscillation) was almost independent of
its magnitude, that is, how far it swung from side
to side. He understood that this could be used as
a frequency mechanism for regulating a clock. In
1656 a Dutch inventor, Christian Huygens
(1629 - 95), working independently, constructed
the first pendulum clock. Pendulum clocks remained
the most precise means of measuring time into the
twentieth century. Pendulums could be constructed
to oscillate at specified frequencies once such
factors as latitude, the pull of gravity, and
weather and its effect on the materials out of
which the clock was made had been compensated for.
Quartz clocks, introduced in the 1930s, improved
on the pendulum, though only after years of
development. By controlling the frequency of an
electric circuit through the regular mechanical
vibration of the quartz crystal, high degrees of
constancy in vibration can be achieved, making a
quartz clock even more accurate than a pendulum.
In the 1940s atomic clocks were introduced. Their
frequencies are based on the vibrations of certain
atoms and molecules that vibrate the same number
of times per second. Atomic clocks are constant to
within a few seconds every 100,000 years.
Time Zones: International (Time and Dates)
The following list gives the time in cities around
the world when it is 12 noon Eastern Standard Time.
An asterisk (*) indicates the morning of the
following day.
Addis Ababa 8 P.M.
Alexandria 7 P.M.
Amsterdam 6 P.M.
Athens 7 P.M.
Baghdad 8 P.M.
Bangkok 12 M
Barcelona 6 P.M.
Beijing 1 A.M.*
Belfast 5 P.M.
Belgrade 6 P.M.
Berlin 6 P.M.
Bogota 12 N
Bombay 10:30 P.M.
Brasilia 2 P.M.
Brussels 6 P.M.
Bucharest 7 P.M.
Budapest 6 P.M.
Buenos Aires 2 P.M.
Cairo 7 P.M.
Calcutta 10:30 P.M.
Calgary 10 A.M.
Cape Town 7 P.M.
Caracas 1 P.M.
Casablanca 5 P.M.
Copenhagen 6 P.M.
Delhi 10:30 P.M.
Dublin 5 P.M.
Edinburgh 5 P.M.
Florence 6 P.M.
Frankfurt 6 P.M.
Geneva 6 P.M.
Glasgow 5 P.M.
Halifax 1 P.M.
Hanoi 1 A.M.*
Havana 12 N
Helsinki 7 P.M.
Ho Chi Minh City 1 A.M.*
Hong Kong 1 A.M.*
Istanbul 7 P.M.
Jakarta 12 M
Jerusalem 7 P.M.
Johannesburg 7 P.M.
Karachi 10 P.M.
Kuala Lumpur 1 A.M.*
Leningrad 8 P.M.
Lima 12 N
Lisbon 5 P.M.
Liverpool 5 P.M.
London 5 P.M.
Madrid 6 P.M.
Managua 11 A.M.
Manila 1 A.M.*
Marseilles 6 P.M.
Mecca 8 P.M.
Melbourne 3 A.M.*
Mexico City 11 A.M.
Monaco-Ville 6 P.M.
Montreal 12 N
Moscow 8 P.M.
Munich 6 P.M.
Naples 6 P.M.
Oslo 6 P.M.
Ottawa 12 N
Panama 12 N
Paris 6 P.M.
Prague 6 P.M.
Quebec 12 N
Rangoon 11:30 P.M.
Rio de Janeiro 2 P.M.
Riyadh 8 P.M.
Rome 6 P.M.
San Juan 1 P.M.
Santiago 1 P.M.
Seoul 2 A.M.*
Shanghai 1 A.M.*
Stockholm 6 P.M.
Sydney 3 A.M.*
Tangiers 5 P.M.
Teheran 8:30 P.M.
Tel Aviv 7 P.M.
Tokyo 2 A.M.*
Toronto 12 N
Tripoli 7 P.M.
Vancouver 9 A.M.
Venice 6 P.M.
Vienna 6 P.M.
Vladivostock 3 A.M.*
Warsaw 6 P.M.
Winnipeg 11 A.M.
Yokohama 2 A.M.*
Zurich 6 P.M.
Time Zones: United States (Time and Dates)
The "lower 48" U.S. states and Washington, D.C. are
divided into four time zones: Eastern, Central,
Mountain, and Pacific. The time in each zone is one
hour earlier than in the zone to its east and one
hour later than in the zone to its west. The basic
pattern of time zones in states is given below.
Eastern Central Mountain Pacific
(12N) (11 A.M.) (10 A.M) (9 A.M.)
-------- --------- --------- ---------
Connecticut Alabama Arizona California
Delaware Arkansas Colorado Idaho*
District of Florida* Idaho* Nevada
Columbia Illinois Kansas* Oregon*
Florida* Indiana* Montana Washington
Georgia Iowa Nebraska*
Indiana* Kansas* New Mexico
Kentucky* Kentucky* North
Maine Louisiana Dakota*
Maryland Minnesota Oregon*
Massachusetts Mississippi South
Michigan Missouri Dakota*
New Hampshire Nebraska* Texas*
New Jersey North Utah
New York Dakota* Wyoming
Ohio South
Pennsylvania Dakota*
Rhode Island Tennessee*
South Carolina Texas*
Tennessee* Wisconsin
Vermont
Virginia
West Virginia
*The asterisk indicates states that
fall into two time zones.
Daylight Saving Time in the United States
Daylight Saving Time is attained by advancing the
clock one hour. In 1967 the Uniform Time Act went
into effect in the United States. It proclaimed
that all states, the District of Columbia, and
U.S. possessions were to observe Daylight Saving
Time starting at 2 A.M. on the last Sunday in
April and ending at 2 A.M. on the last Sunday in
October. Any state could exempt itself by law and
a 1972 amendment to the act authorized the states
split by time zones to consider that split in
exempting themselves. Arizona, Hawaii, part of
Indiana, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and
American Samoa are now exempt. The Department of
Transportation, which oversees the act, has
modified some local zone boundaries in Alaska,
Florida, Kansas, Michigan, and Texas over the last
several years. Daylight Saving Time was extended
by Congress during 1974 and 1975 to conserve
energy, but the country then returned to the
previous end-of-April to end-of-October system
until 1987, when new legislation went into effect.
The new bill, signed by President Reagan on July
8, 1986, moved the start of Daylight Saving time
up to the first Sunday in April, but it did not
change the end from the last Sunday in October.
International Time Adjustments (Time and Dates)
It is common throughout the world for clock time
to be adjusted to use added daylight during summer.
Generally, Western Europe goes on daylight time on
the last Sunday in March and changes back on the
last Sunday in September. The Soviet Union stays
on "advanced time" year round. China, by
government order, operates as one time zone even
though it should, geographically, be in five
different zones. For religious reasons, Israel is
approximately two hours behind the rest of their
time zone. This means that the sun may be setting
there as early as 3:30 P.M.
Paraguay, Ireland, and the Dominican Republic
adjust their clock time in winter instead of
summer. Thus, their time is aptly known as winter
time.
International Date Line (Time and Dates)
An imaginary line set at 180 degrees longitude
runs down the Earth. When someone crosses the line
traveling to the west, one day is added - that is,
Sunday on the east side of the line becomes Monday
as one crosses westward. The line, of course, was
fixed at the longitude exactly opposite Greenwich,
England, on the other side of the Earth, but it
zigzags for political reasons so that parts of
countries do not find themselves on the wrong
side - for instance, all of Siberia is in the
Asian system and all of Alaska in the American.
Divisions of Time (Time and Dates)
Unit Duration Abbreviation
second sec., s.,"
minute 60 seconds min., m.,'
hour 60 minutes hr., h., hrs.
day 24 hours da., d.
week 7 days wk., w., wks.
fortnight 2 weeks
month 30 days (generally) mo., m., mos.
year 12 months yr., yrs.
olympiad 4 years
decade 10 years
century 100 years cen., c.
millennium 1,000 years
Year: 365 days; 52 weeks; 12 months.
Calendar year: The civil or legal year from
January 1 through December 31.
Fiscal year: A financial year; an accounting
period of 12 months. The U.S.
government's fiscal year ends
September 30, but a fiscal year may
end on the last day of any month.
Leap year: A span of 366 days occurring in years
divisible by four, such as 1976 and
1984. Even century years, such as 1600,
must be divisible by 400. Dates in
ordinary years move forward a single
day each year, but during leap year,
they "leap" forward two days following
the last day of February, the 29th.
Equinox: The day the sun crosses the equator; day
and night are equal in length everywhere.
Vernal Equinox: In the Northern Hemisphere, about
March 21, the first day of spring.
Autumnal Equinox: In the Northern Hemisphere,
about September 22, the first
day of autumn.
Solstice: The day the sun is farthest from the
equator.
Summer solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere, June
21, the first day of summer; the
longest day of the year.
Winter solstice: In the Northern Hemisphere,
December 21, the first day of
winter; the shortest day of the
year.
Words Describing Periods of Time (Time and Dates)
annual yearly
biannual twice a year (at unequally
spaced intervals)
bicentennial relating to a period of 200
years
biennial relating to a period of two
years
bimonthly every two months; twice a month
biweekly every two weeks; twice a week
centennial relating to a period of 100
years
decennial relating to a period of 10 years
diurnal daily; of a day
duodecennial relating to a period of 12 years
millennial relating to a period of 1,000
years
novennial relating to a period of nine
years
octennial relating to a period of eight
years
perennial occurring year after year
quadrennial relating to a period of four
years
quadricentennial relating to a period of 400
years
quincentennial relating to a period of 500
years
quindecennial relating to a period of 15 years
quinquennial relating to a period of five
years
semiannual every six months (at equally
spaced intervals)
semicentennial relating to a period of 50 years
semidiurnal twice a day
semiweekly twice a week
septennial relating to a period of seven
years
sesquicentennial relating to a period of 150
years
sexennial relating to a period of six
years
thrice weekly three times a week
tricennial relating to a period of 30 years
triennial relating to a period of three
years
trimonthly every three months
triweekly every three weeks; three times
a week
undecennial relating to a period of 11 years
vicennial relating to a period of 20 years
Major U.S. Holidays (Time and Dates)
*January 1 New Year's Day
*January 15 Martin Luther King,
Jr.'s Birthday
January 19 Robert E. Lee's
Birthday
(Southern states)
January 20 Inauguration Day
February 2 Groundhog Day
February 12 Lincoln's Birthday
February 14 Valentine's Day
February 22 Washington's Birthday
March 17 St. Patrick's Day
March or April Easter Sunday
April 1 April Fools' Day
April 14 Pan American Day
May 1 May Day
Second Sunday in May Mother's Day
Third Saturday in May Armed Forces Day
May 30 Memorial Day
June 3 Jefferson Davis'
Birthday (Southern
states)
June 14 Flag Day
Third Sunday in June Father's Day
*July 4 Independence Day
*First Monday in September Labor Day
September 17 Citizenship Day
Fourth Friday in September American Indian Day
*October 12 Columbus Day
October 24 United Nations Day
October 31 Halloween
First Tuesday after the Election Day
first Monday in November
*November 11 Veterans' Day
*Fourth Thursday in November Thanksgiving Day
*December 25 Christmas Day
* These are the officially designated national
holidays, but with three modifications: the days
honoring Martin Luther King, Jr., George
Washington, and Christopher Columbus are observed
not on the indicated dates, but on the Mondays
closest to those dates on the calendar.
Major Canadian Holidays (Time and Dates)
January 1 New Year's Day
March or April Good Friday
Easter Monday
First Monday before May 25 Victoria Day
July 1 Canada Day
First Monday in September Labor Day
Second Monday in October Thanksgiving Day
November 11 Remembrance Day
December 25 Christmas Day
December 26 Boxing Day
Major Foreign Holidays (Time and Dates)
January 1 New Year's Day throughout the
Western world and in India,
Indonesia, Japan, Korea, the
Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan,
and Thailand; founding of
Republic of China (Taiwan)
January 2 Berchtoldstag in Switzerland
January 3 Genshi-Sai (First Beginning)
in Japan
January 5 Twelfth Night (Wassail Eve or
Eve of Epiphany) in England
January 6 Epiphany, observed by Catholics
throughout Europe and Latin
America
mid-January Martin Luther King, Jr.'s
birthday on the third Monday
in the Virgin Islands
January 15 Adults' Day in Japan
January 20 St. Agnes Eve in Great Britain
January 26 Republic Day in India
January 29 Australia Day in Australia
January - February Chinese New Year and Vietnamese
New Year (Tet)
February Hamstrom on the first Sunday
in Switzerland
February 3 Setsubun (Bean-throwing
Festival) in Japan
February 5 Promulgation of the
Constitution Day in Mexico
February 11 National Foundation Day in
Japan February 27 Independence
Day in the Dominican
Republic
March 1 Independence Movement Day in
Korea; Constitution Day in
Panama March 8 Women's Day in
many socialist
countries
March 17 St. Patrick's Day in Ireland
and Northern Ireland
March 19 St. Joseph's Day in Colombia,
Costa Rica, Italy, and Spain
March 21 Benito Juarez's Birthday in
Mexico
March 22 Arab League Day in Arab League
countries
March 23 Pakistan Day in Pakistan
March 25 Independence Day in Greece;
Lady Day (Quarter Day) in Great
Britain
March 26 Fiesta del Arbol (Arbor Day)
in Spain
March 29 Youth and Martyrs' Day in
Taiwan March 30 Muslim New Year
in Indonesia
March - April Carnival/Lent/Easter: The
pre-Lenten celebration of
Carnival (Mardi Gras) and the
post-Lenten celebration of
Easter are movable feasts
widely observed in Christian
countries.
April 1 Victory Day in Spain; April
Fools' Day (All Fools' Day) in
Great Britain
April 5 Arbor Day in Korea
April 6 Van Riebeeck Day in South
Africa
April 7 World Health Day in UN member
nations
April 8 Buddha's Birthday in Korea and
Japan; Hana Matsuri (Flower
Festival) in Japan
April 14 Pan American Day in the
Americas April 19 Declaration
of Independence Day
in Venezuela
April 22 Queen Isabella Day in Spain
April 23 St. George's Day in England
April 25 Liberation Day in Italy; ANZAC
Day in Australia and New
Zealand April 29 Emperor's
Birthday in Japan
April 30 Queen's Birthday in The
Netherlands; Walpurgis Night
in Germany and Scandinavia
May Constitution Day on first
Monday in Japan
May 1 May Day - Labor Day in the
U.S.S.R. and most of Europe and
Latin America
May 5 Children's Day in Japan and
Korea; Victory of General
Zaragosa Day in Mexico;
Liberation Day in The
Netherlands May 8 V-E Day in
Europe May 9 Victory over
Fascism Day in the U.S.S.R.
May 31 Republic Day in South Africa
June 2 Founding of the Republic Day
in Italy
June 5 Constitution Day in Denmark
June 6 Memorial Day in Korea; Flag Day
in Sweden
June 8 Muhammad's Birthday in
Indonesia June 10 Portugal Day
in Portugal
June 12 Independence Day in the
Philippines
mid-June Queen's Official Birthday on
second Saturday in Great
Britain
June 16 Soweto Day in UN member nations
June 17 German Unity Day in Germany
June 20 Flag Day in Argentina
June 22 Midsummer's Day in Finland
June 24 Midsummer's Day in Great
Britain June 29 Feast of Saints
Peter and Paul in Chile,
Colombia, Italy, Peru,
Spain, and Venezuela
July 1 Half-year Holiday in Hong Kong;
Bank Holiday in Taiwan
July 5 Independence Day in Venezuela
July 9 Independence Day in Argentina
July 10 Bon (Feast of Fortune) in Japan
July 12 Orangemen's Day in Northern
Ireland
July 14 Bastille Day in France
mid-July Feria de San Fermin during
second week in Spain
July 17 Constitution Day in Korea
July 18 National Day in Spain
July 20 Independence Day in Colombia
July 21 - 22 National Holiday in Belgium
July 22 National Liberation Day in
Poland July 24 Simon Bolivar's
Birthday in Ecuador and
Venezuela
July 25 St. James Day in Spain
July 28 - 29 Independence Day in Peru
August Bank Holiday on first Monday
in Fiji, Grenada, Guyana, Hong
Kong,Ireland,and Malawi;
Independence
Day on first Tuesday in Jamaica
August 1 Lammas Day in England; National
Day in Switzerland
August 5 Discovery Day in Trinidad and
Tobago
August 9 National Day in Singapore
August 10 Independence Day in Ecuador
August 12 Queen's Birthday in Thailand
August 14 Independence Day in Pakistan
August 15 Independence Day in India and
Korea; Assumption Day in
Catholic countries
August 16 National Restoration Day in the
Dominican Republic
August 17 Independence Day in Indonesia
August 31 Independence Day in Trinidad
and Tobago
September Rose of Tralee Festival in
Ireland
September 7 Independence Day in Brazil
September 9 Choxo-no-Sekku (Chrysanthemum
Day) in Japan
September 14 Battle of San Jacinto Day in
Nicaragua
mid-September Sherry Wine Harvest in Spain
September 15 Independence Day in Costa Rica,
Guatemala, and Nicaragua;
Respect for the Aged Day in
Japan
September 16 Independence Day in Mexico and
Papua New Guinea
September 18 - 19 Independence Day in Chile
September 28 Confucius' Birthday in Taiwan
October 1 National Day in People's
Republic of China; Armed Forces
Day in Korea; National Holiday
in Nigeria
October 2 National Day in People's
Republic of China; Mahatma
Gandhi's Birthday in India
October 3 National Foundation Day in
Korea
October 5 Proclamation of the Portuguese
Republic Day in Portugal
October 7 Foundation Day in the German
Democratic Republic
October 9 Korean Alphabet Day in Korea
October 10 Kruger Day in South Africa;
Founding of Republic of China
in Taiwan
October 12 Columbus Day in Spain and
widely throughout Latin America
October 19 Ascension of Muhammad Day in
Indonesia
October 20 Revolution Day in Guatemala;
Kenyatta Day in Kenya
October 24 United Nations Day in UN member
nations
October 26 National Holiday in Austria
October 28 Greek National Day in Greece
November 1 All Saints' Day, observed by
Catholics in most countries
November 2 All Souls' Day in Ecuador,
El Salvador, Luxembourg, Macao,
Mexico, San Marino, Uruguay,
and Vatican City
November 4 National Unity Day in Italy
November 5 Guy Fawkes Day in Great Britain
November 7 - 8 October Revolution Day in the
U.S.S.R.
November 11 Armistice Day in Belgium,
France, French Guiana, and
Tahiti
November 12 Sun Yat-sen's Birthday in
Taiwan
November 15 Proclamation of the Republic
Day in Brazil
November 17 Day of Penance in Federal
Republic of Germany
November 19 National Holiday in Monaco
November 20 Anniversary of the Revolution
in Mexico
November 23 Kinro-Kansha-No-Hi (Labor
Thanksgiving Day) in Japan
November 30 National Heroes' Day in the
Philippines
December 5 Discovery by Columbus Day in
Haiti; Constitution Day in the
U.S.S.R.
December 6 Independence Day in Finland
December 8 Feast of the Immaculate
Conception, widely observed in
Catholic countries
December 10 Constitution Day in Thailand;
Human Rights Day in UN member
nations
mid-December Nine Days of Posada during
third week in Mexico
December 25 Christmas Day, widely observed
in all Christian countries
December 26 St. Stephen's Day in Austria,
Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein,
San Marino, Switzerland, and
Barcelona (Spain); Boxing Day
in Great Britain and Northern
Ireland
December 28 National Day in Nepal
December 31 New Year's Eve throughout the
world; Omisoka (Grand Last Day)
in Japan; Hogmanay Day in
Scotland
Religious Holidays
Holy Days of Obligation (Time and Dates)
Members of the Roman Catholic faith are required
to attend Mass on Sundays and also on Holy Days of
Obligation. Saturday evening masses also fulfill
the Sunday obligation in the United States. Rome
recognizes 10 days of devotion (technically called
"solemnities"), but canon law permits some local
selectivity regarding their observance. In this
chart the starred entries are days of obligation
for Catholics in the United States.
Holy Day Date First Observed
**Solemnity of Mary January 1 1970
Epiphany of Our Lord January 6 third century
St. Joseph March 19 fifteenth
century
Ascension of the Lord forty first (?)
days after century
Easter
Corpus Christi Thursday 1246
after
Trinity
Sunday
Saints Peter and Paul June 29 third century
Assumption of Mary August 15 seventh century
All Saints Day November 1 835
Immaculate Conception December 8 1854
Christmas December 25 fourth (?)
century
** The Solemnity of Mary replaces the Feast of the
Maternity of Mary, which had been observed on
October 11. In falling on January 1, it also
replaces the feast of the Circumcision of Christ,
which was celebrated on that day until 1970.
Major Jewish Holidays (Times and Dates)
Approximate Hebrew
Name Date Date
------- ---------------- -------
Purim (Lots) March 14 Adar
Pesach(Passover) March/April 14-21 Nisan
Shavuos (Pentecost) May/June 6 Sivan
Tisha b'Av (Ninth of Av) mid-July 9 Av
Rosh Hashana (New Year) September 1,2 Tishri
Yom Kippur September/October 10 Tishri
(Day of Atonement)
Succos (Tabernacles) September/October 15 Tishri
Hanukkah (Feast of winter solstice 25 Kislev
Dedication)
Additional Sources of Information (Time and Dates)
Chase, William D. and Helen M. Chase's Annual
Events, 1987. Contemporary Books, 1986.
Gregory, Ruth W. Anniversaries & Holidays, 4th ed.
American Library Association, 1983.
Harland, W. B., et al. A Geologic Time Scale.
Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Holy Days in the United States, History, Theology,
Celebration. U.S. Catholic Conference, 1984.
Kolatch, Alfred J. The Jewish Book of Why. David
Publications, 1981.
Landes, Davis S. Revolution in Time: Clocks and
the Making of the Modern World. Harvard University
Press, 1983.
Parise, Frank, ed. Book of Calendars. Facts on
File, 1982.
Powers, Mala. Follow the Year: A Family
Celebration of Christian Holidays. Harper & Row,
1985.
Urdang, Laurence, and Donohue, Christina N., eds.
Holidays & Anniversaries of the World. Gale
Research, 1985.
Van Straalen, Alice. The Book of Holidays Around
the World. Dutton, 1986.
Zerubavel, Eviator. The Seven Day Cycle: The
History and Meaning of the Week. The Free Press,
1985.
Weights and Measures
Circular Measures (U.S.) (Weights and Measures)
60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 degree
30 degrees = 1 sign
60 degrees = 1 sextant
90 degrees = 1 quadrant
360 degrees = 1 circle
Cloth Measures (U.S.) (Weights and Measures)
2 1/2 inches = 1 nail
4 nails = 1 quarter
4 quarters = 1 yard
Cubic Measures (U.S.) (Weights and Measures)
1,728 cu. inches = 1 cu. foot
5.8 cu. feet = 1 bulk barrel
27 cu. feet = 1 cu. yard
128 cu. feet = 1 cord (wood)
40 cu. feet = 1 ton (shipping)
2,150.42 cu. inches = 1 standard bushel
231 cu. inches = 1 standard gallon
Liquid Measure (U.S.) (Weights and Measures)
1 fluid dram = 60 minims or 1/8 fluid
ounce
1 teaspoon = 1/3 tablespoon or 1/8
fluid ounce
1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons or 1/2
fluid ounce
1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.) = 2 tablespoons or 6
teaspoons
1 gill (gi.) = 1/2 cup or 4 fluid
ounces
1 cup = 16 tablespoons or 8
fluid ounces
1 pint (pt.) = 2 cups or 4 gills or
16 fluid ounces
1 quart (qt.) = 2 pints or 4 cups or
32 fluid ounces
1 British imperial quart = 1.20095 U.S. quarts
1 gallon (gal.) = 4 quarts or 8 pints or
16 cups
1 British imperial gallon = 1.20095 U.S. gallons
1 barrel = 31.5 U.S. gallons (a
petroleum barrel = 42
U.S. gallons)
Avoirdupois Weights (U.S.) (Weights and Measures)
27 11/32 grains = 1 dram
16 drams = 1 ounce
16 ounces = 1 pound
100 pounds = 1 hundredweight
20 hundredweights = 1 ton = 2,000 pounds
Square Measures (U.S.) (Weights and Measures)
144 sq. inches = 1 sq. foot
9 sq. feet = 1 sq. yard
40 sq. rods = 1 road
4 roads = 1 acre
4,840 sq. yards = 1 acre
640 acres = 1 sq. mile
Miscellaneous (U.S.) (Weights and Measures)
3 inches = 1 palm
4 inches = 1 hand
6 inches = 1 span
18 inches = 1 cubit
21.8 inches = 1 Bible cubit
2 1/2 feet = 1 military pace
Customary and Metric Systems of Measurement
On December 23, 1975, the U.S. Metric Conversion
Act was signed, declaring a national policy of
encouraging the voluntary use of the metric system.
Today, the metric system, or SI system (for
Systeme International d'Unites), exists side by
side with the U.S. customary system, which dates
back to colonial days but is different from the
British Imperial System. The debate on whether the
United States should adopt the metric system has
been going on for nearly 200 years. Today the
United States is the only country in the world not
totally committed to adopting the system.
The metric system is often considered a simpler
form of measurement in that it includes only seven
base units for different types of measurement:
The unit of length is the meter.
The unit of mass is the kilogram.
The unit of temperature is the kelvin.
The unit of time is the second.
The unit of electric current is the ampere.
The unit of light intensity is the candela.
The unit of substance amount is the mole.
All other metric units are derived from these
units. For example, a newton, the unit of force,
involves meters, kilograms, and seconds. A pascal,
the unit of pressure, is one newton per square
meter. Although the metric system was designed to
fill all the needs of scientists and engineers,
laymen need only know and use a few simple parts
of it.
The metric system is based on the decimal system
and follows a consistent name scheme using
prefixes. Multiples and submultiples are always
related to powers of 10. For example, deka means
ten times, hecto means a hundred times, kilo means
a thousand times, mega means a million times, and
so on; deci means a tenth of, centi means a
hundredth of, milli means a thousandth of, micro
means a millionth of, and so on.
Linear Measure (Metric Weights and Measures)
10 millimeters (mm) = 1 centimeter (cm)
10 centimeters = 1 decimeter (dm)
10 decimeters = 1 meter (m)
10 meters = 1 dekameter (dam)
10 dekameters = 1 hectometer (hm)
10 hectometers = 1 kilometer (km)
10 kilometers = 1 myriameter (mym)
Area Measure (Metric Weights and Measures)
100 sq. millimeters = 1 sq. centimeter
10,000 sq. centimeters = 1 sq. meter
100 sq. meters = 1 are (a)
100 ares = 1 hectare (ha)
100 hectares = 1 sq. kilometer
Fluid Volume Measure (Metric Weights and Measures)
10 milliliters (ml) = 1 centiliter (cl)
10 centiliters = 1 deciliter (dl)
10 deciliters = 1 liter (l)
10 liters = 1 dekaliter (dal)
10 dekaliters = 1 hectoliter (hl)
10 hectoliters = 1 kiloliter (kl)
Mass (Metric Weights and Measures)
10 milligrams (mg) = 1 centigram (cg)
10 centigrams = 1 decigram (dg)
10 decigrams = 1 gram (g)
10 grams = 1 dekagram (dag)
10 dekagrams = 1 hectogram (hg)
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram (kg)
1,000 kilograms = 1 metric ton (t)
Cubic Measure
1,000 cu. millimeters = 1 cu. centimeter
1,000 cu. centimeters = 1 cu. decimeter
1,000 cu. decimeters = 1 cu. meter = 1 stere
Comparing the commonest measurement units
Approximate conversions from customary to metric
units and vice versa.
LENGTH (Customary to Metric Conversion)
millimeters = inches x 25
centimeters = feet x 30
meters = yards x 0.9
kilometers = miles x 1.6
inches = millimeters x 0.04
inches = centimeters x 0.4
yards = meters x 1.1
miles = kilometers x 0.6
AREA (Customary to Metric Conversion)
square centimeters = square inches x 6.5
square meters = square feet x 0.09
square meters = square yards x 0.8
square kilometers = square miles x 2.6
square hectometers = acres x 0.4
square inches = square centimeters x 0.16
square yards = square meters x 1.2
square miles = square kilometers x 0.4
acres = square hectometers x 2.5
MASS (Customary to Metric Conversion)
grams = ounces x 28
kilograms = pounds x 0.45
megagrams = short tons x 0.9
(metric tons)
ounces = grams x 0.035
pounds = kilograms x 2.2
short tons = megagrams x 1.1
(metric tons)
LIQUID VOLUME (Customary to Metric Conversion)
milliliters = ounces x 30
liters = pints x 0.47
liters = quarts x 0.95
liters = gallons x 3.8
ounces = milliliters x 0.034
pints = liters x 2.1
quarts = liters x 1.06
gallons = liters x 0.26
QUICK WAYS TO MEASURE WHEN YOU DON'T HAVE A RULER
- Most credit cards are 3 3/8 inches by 2 1/8
inches.
- Standard business cards are printed 3 1/2 inches
wide by 2 inches long.
- Floor tiles are usually manufactured in 12-inch
by 12-inch squares.
- U.S. paper currency is 6 1/8 inches wide by
2 5/8 inches long.
- The diameter of a quarter is approximately 1
inch, and the diameter of a penny is
approximately three-quarters of an inch.
- A standard sheet of paper is 8 1/2 inches wide
and 11 inches long.
Special Weights and Measures
acre - 43,560 square feet. It originally referred
to the area a yoke of oxen could plow daily (about
70 square yards).
ampere - A unit of electric current. A potential
difference of one volt across a resistance of one
ohm produces a current of one ampere.
astronomical unit (A.U.) - The unit of length used
in astronomy equal to the mean distance of Earth
from the sun, or about 93 million miles.
bale - A large bundle of goods. In the United
States the approximate weight of a bale of cotton
is 500 pounds.
board foot (fbm) - A measurement used in lumber:
144 cubic inches (12 inches by 12 inches by 1
inch).
bolt - Used in measuring cloth: 40 yards.
British thermal unit (Btu) - The amount of heat
needed to increase the temperature of one pound of
water by 1 degree F.
bundle - Two reams of paper.
caliber - The diameter of a bore of a gun, usually
expressed in modern U.S. and British usage in
hundredths or thousandths of an inch and typically
written as a decimal fraction.
carat - Originally the weight of a seed of the
carob tree in the Mediterranean region, today it
has two separate meanings: (1) 200 milligrams, or
3.086 grains troy, used for measuring the weight
of gemstones, and (2) a measure of the amount of
gold per 24 parts of gold alloy; also spelled
karat. Thus, 24-carat gold is pure, and 18-carat
gold is 3/4 gold and 1/4 other metal.
case - Four bundles of paper.
chain (ch) - A unit of length equal to 66 feet and
usually divided into 100 links. Used in surveying.
decibel - A unit of relative loudness. The
smallest amount of change that can be detected by
the human ear is one decibel. A 20-decibel sound
is 10 times as loud as a 10-decibel sound; a
30-decibel sound is 100 times as loud.
10 decibels - a light whisper
20 decibels - quiet conversation
30 decibels - normal conversation
40 decibels - light traffic
50 decibels - a typewriter; loud conversation
60 decibels - a noisy office
70 decibels - normal traffic; a quiet train
80 decibels - raucous music; the subway
90 decibels - heavy traffic; thunder
100 decibels - a plane at takeoff
The speed of sound is usually placed at 1,088 feet
per second at 32 degree F at sea level.
ell (English) - 1 1/4 yards or 1/32 bolt. Used for
measuring cloth.
em - A printer's measure designating the square
width of any given type size. The em of 10-point
type is 10 points. An en is one half of an em.
freight ton (measurement ton) - 40 cubic feet of
merchandise. Used for cargo freight.
gauge - A measure of shotgun bore diameter. Gauge
numbers originally referred to the number of lead
balls of the gun barrel diameter in a pound. Today
an international agreement assigns millimeter
measures to each gauge.
great gross - 12 gross, or 1,728.
gross - 12 dozen, or 144.
hand - A unit of measure equal to 4 inches. Used
especially to measure the height of horses.
hertz - A unit of electromagnetic wave frequency
equal to one cycle per second.
hogshead (hhd) - Two liquid barrels.
horsepower - The power needed to lift 33,000
pounds a distance of 1 foot in 1 minute (about
1 1/2 times the power an average horse can exert)
or to lift 550 pounds 1 foot in 1 second. Used to
measure the power of steam engines, etc.
knot - The rate of speed of 1 nautical mile per
hour. Used for measuring the speed of ships.
league - Any of various units of distance from
about 2.4 to 4.6 statute miles.
light-year - A unit of length in interstellar
astronomy equal to the distance that light travels
in one year in a vacuum, or about
5,878,000,000,000 miles.
magnum - A large bottle of wine holding about
2/5 gallon.
ohm - The unit of electrical resistance in which a
potential difference of one volt produces a
current of one ampere.
parsec - The unit of measure for interstellar
space equal to a distance having a heliocentric
parallax of one second, or to 206,265 times the
radius of Earth's orbit, or to 3.26 light-years,
or to 19.2 trillion miles.
pi - The ratio of the circumference of a circle to
its diameter. A transcendental number having a
value to eight places of 3.14159265. For practical
purposes, the value is 3.1416.
pica - One-sixth inch, or 12 points. Used to
measure typographical material.
pipe - Two hogsheads. Used to measure wine and
other liquids.
point - .013836 (approximately 1/72 ) inch or 1/12
pica. Used in printing to measure type size.
quintal - 100,000 grams, or 220.46 pounds
avoirdupois.
quire - 24 or 25 sheets of paper.
ream - 480 or 500 sheets of paper, or 20 quires.
Temperature (Weights and Measures)
Prefixes are not as commonly used with temperature
measurements as they are with those for weight,
length, and volume. The following can be used as
general guidelines to tell the weather in both
Celsius and Fahrenheit.
0 degrees C Freezing point of water (32 degrees F)
10 degrees C A warm winter day (50 degrees F)
20 degrees C A mild spring day (68 degrees F)
30 degrees C Quite warm - almost hot (86 degrees F)
37 degrees C Normal body temperature (98.6
degrees F)
40 degrees C Heat wave conditions (104 degrees F)
100 degrees C Boiling point of water (212 degrees F)
To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius,
multiply by five-ninths after subtracting 32; to
convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, multiply by
nine-fifths and then add 32.
CONVERTING HOUSEHOLD MEASURES (Weights and Measures)
From To Multiply by
units dozens 12
baker's dozens units 13
teaspoons milliliters 4.93
teaspoons tablespoons 0.33
tablespoons milliliters 14.79
tablespoons teaspoons 3
cups liters 0.24
cups pints 0.50
cups quarts 0.25
pints cups 2
pints liters 0.47
pints quarts 0.50
quarts cups 4
quarts gallons 0.25
quarts liters 0.95
quarts pints 2
gallons liters 3.79
gallons quarts 4
HISTORIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Units of Volume Location Customary Metric
amphora Greece 10.3 gal. 38.8
amphora Rome 6.84 gal. 26 l
bath Israel 2,250 cu. 37 l
in.
ephah Israel 1.1 bu. 40 l
gallon, beer England 282 cu. 4.62 l
in.
hekat Israel 291 cu. 4.77 l
in.
tun England 252 gal. 954 l
Units of Weight Location Customary Metric
carat England, 3 1/6 206 mg
U.S. grains
denarius Rome 0.17 oz. 4.6 g
dinar Arabia 0.15 oz. 4.2 g
drachma Greece 0.154 oz. 4.36 g
livre France 1.08 lb. 490 g
livre (demikilo) France 1.10 lb. 500 g
mite England 0.05 grain 3.24 mg
obol Greece 11.2 grains 0.73 g
pfund Germany 1.1 lb. 500 g
pound, tower: England
12 oz. 5,400 grains 350 g
15 oz. 6,750 grains 437 g
16 oz. 7,200 grains 467 g
shekel Israel 0.5 oz. 14.1 g
shekel, trade Babylonia 0.3 oz. 8.37 g
Units of Length Location Customary Metric
cubit Greece 18.3 in. 46.5 cm
Rome 17.5 in. 44.4 cm
hand England, 4 in. 10.2 cm
U.S.
stadion Greece 622 ft. 190 m
stadium Rome 606 ft. 185 m
COMMON FRACTIONS AND THEIR DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS
1/2 .5000 2/7 .2857 5/9 .5556
1/3 .3333 2/9 .2222 5/11 .4545
1/4 .2500 2/11 .1818 5/12 .4167
1/5 .2000 3/4 .7500 6/7 .8571
1/6 .1667 3/5 .6000 6/11 .5455
1/7 .1429 3/7 .4286 7/8 .8750
1/8 .1250 3/8 .3750 7/9 .7778
1/9 .1111 3/10 .3000 7/10 .7000
1/10 .1000 3/11 .2727 7/11 .6364
1/11 .0909 4/5 .8000 7/12 .5833
1/12 .0833 4/7 .5714 8/9 .8889
1/16 .0625 4/9 .4444 8/11 .7273
1/32 .0313 4/11 .3636 9/10 .9000
1/64 .0156 5/6 .8333 9/11 .8182
2/3 .3750 5/7 .7143 10/11 .9091
2/5 .4000 5/8 .6250 11/12 .9167
METRIC PREFIXES
The prefixes below, in combination with the basic
metric units such as meter, gram, and liter, provide
the multiples and submultiples in the International
System. For example, centi + meter = centimeter,
meaning one one-hundredth of a meter.
Note: "10xN" means "10 raised to the Nth power"
Prefix Symbol Multiples Equivalent
------ ------ -------- ----------
exa E 10x18 quintillionfold
peta P 10x15 quadrillionfold
tera T 10x12 trillionfold
giga G 10x9 billionfold
mega M 10x6 millionfold
kilo k 10x3 thousandfold
hecto h 10x2 hundredfold
deka da 10 tenfold
Prefix Symbol Submultiples Equivalent
------ ------ ------------ ----------
deci d 10x-1 tenth part
centi c 10x-2 hundredth part
milli m 10x-3 thousandth part
micro u 10x-6 millionth part
nano n 10x-9 billionth part
pico p 10x-12 trillionth part
femto f 10x-15 quadrillionth part
atto a 10x-18 quintillionth part
Mile-to-kilometer and Kilometer-to-mile
Conversions
Miles to Kilometers Kilometers to Miles
------------------- -------------------
Miles Kilometers Kilometers Miles
----------------------------------------
1 1.6 1 0.6
2 3.2 2 1.2
3 4.8 3 1.8
4 6.4 4 2.4
5 8.0 5 3.1
6 9.6 6 3.7
7 11.2 7 4.3
8 12.8 8 4.9
9 14.4 9 5.5
10 16.0 10 6.2
20 32.1 20 12.4
30 48.2 30 18.6
40 64.3 40 24.8
50 80.4 50 31.0
60 96.5 60 37.2
70 112.6 70 43.4
80 128.7 80 49.7
90 144.8 90 55.9
100 160.9 100 62.1
1,000 1,609 1,000 621
----------------------------------------
Roman Numerals (Weights and Measures)
I = 1 XXX = 30
II = 2 XL = 40
III = 3 L = 50
IV = 4 LX = 60
V = 5 LXX = 70
VI = 6 LXXX = 80
VII = 7 XC = 90
VIII = 8 C = 100
IX = 9 D = 500
X = 10 M = 1000
XX = 20
A dash on top of a symbol multiplies its value by
1,000.
Additional Sources of Information (Weights, Measures)
Dresner, Stephen. Units of Measurement: An
Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Units, Both Scientific
and Popular, and the Quantities They Measure.
Books on Demand UMI.
Gerolde, Steven. Universal Conversion Factors.
Penwell Books, 1971.
Johnstone, William D. For a Good Measure. Avon,
1977.
Kula, Witolde. Measures and Men. Princeton
University Press, 1985.
Lowe, D. Armstrong. Guide to International
Recommendations on Names and Symbols for
Quantities and on Units of Measurement (WHO
supplement, vol. 52), World Health, 1975.
Miller, David M. Understanding the Metric System
(paperbound programmed learning book). Allyn &
Bacon, 1965.
Symbols and Signs
Symbols Used in Biology
male organism or cell
staminate plant or flower
female organism or cell
pistillate plant or flower
o Individual, especially female, organism
∞ indefinite number
x crossed with; hybrid
+ wild type
P parental generation
F filial generation; offspring
Symbols Used in Chemistry
+ "and," "plus," "together" "with," used between
the symbols of reacting substances in chemical
equations; when placed above a symbol or to its
right as a superscript, the plus sign indicates
a unit charge of positive electricty; the sign
also indicates dextrorotation
─ single bond, used between the symbols of
elements or groups that form a compound; when
placed above a symbol or to its right as a
superscript, the dash indicates a unit charge
of negative electricity; it also signifies
levorotation or the removal of a part from a
compound
single bond; a unit of positive charge of
electricity; separates parts of a compound
considered loosely joined
═ "forms" or "results in," used between the
symbols of reacting substances in chemical
equations; a double bond; two unit charges of
negative electricity when placed above a symbol
or to its right as a superscript
≡ triple bond or triple negative charge
: unshared pair of electrons; sometimes, a double
bond
() groups or radicals within a compound
[] with parentheses, shows certain radicals; in
coordination formulas, it shows relationship to
the central atom
gives, passes over to, or leads to is in
equilibrium with; forms and is formed from
precipitation of a substance
a substance as a gas
≡ is equivalent to; used in equations to show how
much of one substance will react with a given
amount of another so that no excess of either
remains
< bivalent element
> bivalent radical
Chemical Elements
Element Symbol Element Symbol
-------- ------ ------- ------
actinium Ac gallium Ga
aluminum Al germanium Ge
americum Am gold Au (aurum)
antimony Sb (stibium) hafnium Hf
argon Ar helium He
arsenic As holmium Ho
astatine At hydrogen H
barium Ba indium In
berdelium Bk iodine I
beryllium Be iridium Ir
bismuth Bi iron Fe (ferrum)
boron B krypton Kr
bromine Br lanthanum La
cadmium Cd lawrencium Lr
calcium Ca lead Pb (plumbum)
califorium Cf lithium Li
carbon C lutetium Lu
cerium Ce magnesium Mg
cesium Cs manganese Mn
chlorine Cl mendelevium Md
chromium Cr mercury Hg
(hydrargyrum)
cobalt Co molybdenum Mo
columbium Cb neodymium Nd
(see niobium)
copper Cu neon Ne
curium Cm neptunium Np
dysprosium Dy nickel Ni
einsteinium Es niobium Nb
(formerly columbium)
erbium Er nitrogen N
europium Eu nobelium No
fermium Fm osmium Os
fluorine F oxygen O
francium Fr palladium Pd
gadolinium Gd phosphorus P
platinum Pt strontium Sr
plutonium Pu sulfur S
polonium Po tantalum Ta
potassium K (kalium) Technetium Tc
praseodymium Pr tellurium Te
promethium Pm terbium Tb
protactinium Pa thallium Tl
radium Ra thorium Th
radon Rn thulium Tm
rhenium Re tin Sn (stannum)
rhodium Rh titanium Ti
rubidium Rb tungsten W (wolfram)
ruthenium Ru uranium U
samarium Sm vanadium V
scandium Sc xenon Xe
selenium Se ytterbium Yb
silicon Si yttrium Y
silver Ag (argentum) zinc Zn
sodium Na (natrium) zirconium Zr
Symbols Used in Physics
α alpha particle
Å angstrom unit
ß beta ray
y gamma radiation
ε electromotive force
ⁿ efficiency
µ magnetic moment
v frequency
p density; specific resistance
σ conductivity; cross section; surface
tension
φ luminous flux; magnetic flux
Ω ohm
B magnetic induction; magnetic field
c speed of light
e electronic charge of electron
E electric field
G conductance; weight
h Planck's constant
H enthalpy
L inductance
n index of refraction
P momentum of a particle
R universal gas constant
S entropy
T absolute temperature; period
V electrical potential; frequency
W energy
X magnification; reactance
Y admittance
Z impedance
Symbols Used in Medicine and Pharmacology
Å angstrom unit
a.c. before meals
ad up to; so as to make
add. let there be added; add
ad lib. at pleasure; as needed or desired
agit. shake
aq. water
b. (i.) d. twice daily
cap. take; capsule
coch. a spoonful
d. give
dil. dilute or dissolve
Dx diagnosis
fldxt. fluid extract
ft. make
ft. mist. let a mixture be made
ft. pulv. let a powder be made
gr. a grain
gtt. drops
H. hour
haust. a draft
Hx history
in d. daily
lot. a lotion
µ micron
µµ micromicron
mod.praesc. in the manner prescribed
O.,o. a pint
ol. oil
oz. ounce
p.c. after meals
pil. pill(s)
p.r.n. as circumstances may require
pulv. powder
Px past history
q.(i.)d. four times daily
q.l. as much as you please
q.s. as much as will suffice
q.v. as much as you like
rep. let it be repeated
Rh+ positive blood factor
Rh- negative blood factor
S,Sig. write: used in prescriptions to
indicate the directions to be
placed on the label of the
medicine
sol. solution
s.o.s. if necessary
tab. tablet
t.(i.)d. three times daily
ut dict. as directed
w/v weight in volume
Symbols Used in Mathematics
+ plus; positive
- minus; negative
x multiplied by
÷ divided by
= equal to
± plus or minus
≡ identical with
≈ nearly equal to
> greater than
< less than
≥ greater than or equal to
≤ less than or equal to
: is to; the ratio of
└ right angle
┴ perpendicular
║ parallel
0 or O circle
O ellipse
√ square root
() parentheses
[] brackets
{} braces
(parentheses, brackets, braces -- indicate
that the quantities enclosed by them are
to be taken together)
Σ summation of
π pi (3.1416)
U union
∩ intersection
! factorial
ε is an element of
├ assertion sign
' minute
" second
° degree
% percent
Business and Monetary Symbols
A/C, a/c account; account current
A/O, a/o account of
B/D bank draft
B/E bill of exchange
B/L bill of lading
B/P bills payable
B/R bills receivable
B/V book value
C/D carried down; certificate of deposit
C/N circular note; credit note
C/O care of; carried over; cash order
d/d delivered
D/O delivery order
G/A general average
L/C, l/c letter of credit
M/D, m/d month's date
N/S, n/s not sufficient funds
o/c overcharge
O/S out of stock
P/A power of attorney
P/C, p/c prices current; petty cash
P/N promissory note
w/ with
W/B waybill
w/o without
@ at/per/priced at
# number
% percent/per hundred
¢ cent
$ dollar
DM deutsche mark
F franc
L lira
£ pound
R ruble
R rupee
Y yen
DIACRITICAL MARKS
' acute accent (as in café)
^ circumflex (as in château)
∙∙ diaeresis or umlaut (as in Köln)
` grave accent (as in à la carte)
─ macron (pronunciation symbol that indicates a
long vowel)
~ tilde
INTERNATIONAL RADIO ALPHABET AND MORSE CODE
A: Alpha . _ W: Whiskey . _ _
B: Bravo _ ... X: X-ray _ .. _
C: Charlie _ . _ . Y: Yankee _ . _ _
D: Delta _ .. Z: Zulu _ _ ..
E: Echo . 1: . _ _ _ _
F: Foxtrot .. _ . 2: .. _ _ _
G: Golf _ _ . 3: ... _ _
H: Hotel .... 4: .... _
I: India .. 5: .....
J: Juliet . _ _ _ 6: _ ....
K: Kilo _ . _ 7: _ _ ...
L: Lima (leema) . _ .. 8: _ _ _ ..
M: Mike _ _ 9: _ _ _ _ .
N: November _ . 10: _ _ _ _ _
O: Oscar _ _ _ period: . _ . _ . _
P: Papa . _ _ . comma: _ _ .. _ _
Q: Quebec question
(kaybec) _ _ . _ mark: .. _ _ ..
R: Romeo . _ . semicolon: _ . _ . _ .
S: Sierra ... colon: _ _ _ ...
T: Tango _ hyphen: _ .... _
U: Uniform .. _ apostrophe: ._ _ _ _ .
V: Victor ... _
ROMAN NUMERALS
1 I 400 CD
2 II 500 D
3 III 600 DC
4 IV 700 DCC
5 V 800 DCCC
6 VI 900 CM
7 VII 1,000 M
8 VIII 1,500 MD
9 IX 1,900 MCM
10 X or MDCCCC
15 XV 1,910 MCMX
20 XX 1,920 MCMXX
25 XXV 1,930 MCMXXX
30 XXX 1,940 MCMXL
40 XL 1,950 MCML
50 L 1,960 MCMLX
60 LX 1,970 MCMLXX
70 LXX 1,980 MCMLXXX
80 LXXX 1,990 MCMXC
90 XC 2,000 MM
100 C 3,000 MMM
SHIP'S BELL TIME SIGNALS
On most ships, a day consists of six 4-hour watches.
The watches change at 8 A.M., noon, 4 P.M., 8 P.M.,
midnight, and 4 A.M. A chime indicates each half-
hour. During a 4-hour watch, one bell chimes at the
first half hour, two bells at the second, and so on
up to eight, when the next watch begins and the
sequence starts over again.
1 bell 12:30 or 4:30 or 8:30 AM or PM
2 bells 1:00 5:00 9:00
3 bells 1:30 5:30 9:30
4 bells 2:00 6:00 10:00
5 bells 2:30 6:30 10:30
6 bells 3:00 7:00 11:00
7 bells 3:30 7:30 11:30
8 bells 4:00 8:00 12:00
On many vessels the ship's whistle is blown at noon.
On some ships a lightly struck 1 bell announces 15
minutes before the change of watch.
BIRTHSTONES AND FLOWERS
Month Birthstone Flower
----- ---------- ------
January garnet snowdrop
February amethyst primrose
March aquamarine or violet
bloodstone
April diamond daisy
May emerald hawthorn
June pearl, alexandrite rose
or mooonstone
July ruby water lily
August sardonyx or peridot poppy
September sapphire morning
glory
October opal or tourmaline hops
November topaz chrysanthemum
December turquoise or lapis holly
lazali
ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Adkins, Jan. "Symbols: A Silent Language." Walker
and Company, 1984.
Campbell, Joseph, and Abadie, M.J. "The Mythic
Language." Princeton University Press, 1981.
Cirlot, J.E. "A Dictionary of Symbols." Philosophy
Library, 1972.
Cooper, J.C. "An Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Traditional Symbols." Thames and Hudson, 1987.
Dreyfuss, Henry, ed. "Symbol Sourcebook: An
Authoritative Guide to International Graphic
Symbols." Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984.
Modley, Rudolph, and Meyers, William R. "Handbook
of Pictorial Symbols." Dover, 1976.
The Animal World
The Orders of Mammals (Animal World)
Scientists have divided the natural world into
three kingdoms: the animal kingdom, the mineral
kingdom, and the plant kingdom. Natural objects,
as opposed to man-made objects, all fall into one
of those kingdoms.
The animal kingdom is classified by zoologists
into groups of related animals. Each of the
largest groups is called a phylum. Each phylum
includes several classes. Each of these classes
is divided into orders, which themselves are
further divided into families, genera, and
species. There are more than 1 million different
species of animals in the world, including about
4,000 species of mammals.
Mammals are vertebrates, which means they have
backbones. They are warm-blooded and have hairy
skin. They are called mammals because they
nourish their young by giving milk from their
mammary glands.
There are 19 orders of mammals in the world. Ten
of these live in North America. Some orders
include a wide range of animals; for example,
shrews, lemurs, marmosets, monkeys, apes, and
humans are all primates. Other orders are made up
of only one sort of creature; Order Chiroptera,
for example, consists of several families of
bats.
The proper names of the orders of animals are
given in Latin, a convention that allows
scientists who speak different languages to
discuss them. The Latin names of the orders given
here are followed by their common names and the
families that make up each order. Examples of the
various types of animals included in each family
also are given.
Order Artiodactyla (even-toed hoofed animals)
Hoofed animals with an even number of toes include
those that ruminate, or digest their food in
four-chamber stomachs and chew cuds, and those
that do not ruminate. Those that ruminate are the
families Girrafidae (giraffes), Cervidae (deer,
moose, reindeer, elk), Antilocapridae (pronghorn
antelope), and Bovidae (cattle, bison, yaks,
waterbucks, wildebeest, gazelles, springboks,
sheep, musk oxen, goats). Nonruminators include
the families Suidae (pigs), Tayassuidae
(peccaries), Hippopotamidae (hippopotamuses), and
Camelidae (camels, llamas).
Order Carnivora (meat-eaters) (Animal World)
There are two suborders of these toe-footed
creatures. They include the Canidae (wolves,
dogs, jackals, foxes), Ursidae (bears, giant
pandas), Procyonidae (coatis, raccoons, lesser
pandas), and Mustelidae (martens, weasels,
skunks, otters), all part of one superfamily that
is characterized by long snouts and unretractable
claws; and Felidae (cats, lions, cheetahs,
leopards), Hyaenidae (hyenas), and Viverridae
(mongooses, civets), all of which have
retractable claws.
Order Cetacea (whales and porpoises) (Animal World)
Two suborders of Order Cetacea are the toothed
whales, which have regular conical teeth, and the
baleen, or whalebone, whales, which have
irregular whalebone surfaces instead of teeth.
Toothed whales include the families Physeteridae
(sperm whales), Monodontidae (narwhals, belugas),
Phocoenidae (porpoises), and Delphinidae
(dolphins, killer whales). Baleens are in the
Family Eschrichtiidae (gray whales), Balaenidae
(right whales), or Balaenoptridae (fin-backed
whales, hump-backed whales).
Order Chiroptera (bats) (Animal World)
These winged mammals fall into three families:
Phyllostomidae (leaf-nosed bat, hog-nosed bat),
Vespertilionidae (plain-nosed bats such as
long-eared myotises, big brown bats, big-eared
bats), and Molossidae (free-tailed bats, mastiff
bats).
Order Dermoptera (colugos or flying lemurs)
These gliding tree mammals from Asia do not fly
and are not lemurs, but they are known as flying
lemurs, or Family Cynocephalidae.
Order Edentata (toothless mammals) (Animal World)
Three families of mammals get by without teeth:
Dasypodidae (armadillos), Bradypodidae (sloths),
and Myrmecophagidae (hairy anteaters).
Order Hyracoidae (hyraxes, dassies) (Animal World)
Family Procaviidae consists of a group of small
hoofed mammals.
Order Insectivora (insect-eaters) (Animal World)
The three members are the families Talpidae
(moles), Soricidae (shrews), and Erinaceidae
(hedgehogs).
Order Lagomorpha (pikas, hares, and rabbits)
Two families make up this order: Ochotonidae
(pikas) and Leporidae (hares and rabbits of all
sorts).
Order Marsupialia (pouched mammals) (Animal World)
Included among these are the families
Caenolestidae (rat opossums), Diddeelphidae
(true opossums), Dasyuridae (native cats, native
mice), Notoryctidae (marsupial moles),
Myrmecobiidae (numbats), Peramelidae
(bandicoots), Phalangeridae (koalas),
Vombatidae (wombats), and Macropodidae (kangaroos
and wallabies).
Order Monotremata (egg-laying mammals) (Animal World)
These more primitive mammals make up the families
Tachyglossidae (echidnas, also called spiny
anteaters) and Ornithorhynchidae (platypuses).
Order Perissodactyla (odd-toed hoofed animals)
The two suborders, Hippomorpha and Ceratomorpha,
include creatures that have an odd number of
toes. Families in this order are the Equidae
(horses, donkeys, zebras), the Tapiridae
(tapirs), and the Rhinocerotidae (rhinoceroses).
Order Pholidata (Animal World)
Family Manidae (pangolins) is the sole family in
this order.
Order Pinnipedia (seals and walruses) (Animal World)
In the fin-footed order there are Otariidae
(eared seals, sea lions), Odobenidae (walruses),
and Phocidae (earless seals).
Order Primates (primates) (Animal World)
The order to which people belong is divided into
two suborders: the Prosimii, who have longer
snouts than their relatives, and the
Anthropoidea. The first group includes the
families Tupalidae (tree shrew), Lemuridae
(lemurs), Daubentonlidae (aye-ayes), Lorisidae
(lorises, pottos), and Tarsiidae (tarsiers). The
anthropoids include the families Callitrichidae
(marmosets), Cebidae (New World monkeys),
Cercopithecidae (baboons, Old World monkeys),
Hylobatidae (gibbons), Pongidae (gorillas,
chimpanzees, orangutans), and Hominidae (human
beings).
Order Proboscidea (elephants) (Animal World)
Large enough to have an order all to itself is
Family Elephantidae.
Order Rodentia (gnawing mammals) (Animal World)
The most prolific mammals, Order Rodentia
includes three suborders. It takes in the
families Aplodontidae (mountain beavers),
Sciuridae (chipmunks, squirrels, marmots),
Cricetidae (field mice, lemmings, muskrats,
hamsters, gerbils), Muridae (Old World mice,
rats), Heteromyidae (New World mice), Geomyidae
(gophers), and Dipodidae (jerboas).
Order Sirenia (dugongs and manatees) (Animal World)
The families Trichechidae (manatees) and
Dugongidae (dugongs and other sea cows) make up
the Order Sirenia.
Order Tubulidentata (aardvarks) (Animal World)
Another mammal in an order by itself is Family
Orycteropodidae.
Invertebrates
Any animal that is made up of more than one cell
but has no backbone is an invertebrate. This
group includes all animals that are not
amphibians, fish, mammals, birds, or reptiles.
Like these chordates, invertebrates are divided
into several major groups:
Annelid worms (Invertebrates) (Animal World)
Also called segmented worms, this group includes
earthworms, leeches, and marine worms. Annelid
worms have soft bodies, are symmetrical, and can
be anywhere from 1/32 of an inch (half a
millimeter) to 10 feet (3 meters) in length.
Arthropods (Invertebrates) (Animal World)
This is the largest group of invertebrates, as
well as the one comprising the most creatures;
80 percent of all animal species are arthropods.
Arthropods have segmented bodies covered by
external skeletons, called exoskeletons, which
are molted from time to time to allow for growth.
Their appendages ("arms" and "legs") are paired.
Among the animals in this group are spiders,
horseshoe crabs, crustaceans, insects, and
centipedes.
Coelenterates (Invertebrates) (Animal World)
Mostly marine invertebrates, coelenterates have
three-layered body walls, tentacles, primitive
nervous systems, and special stinger cells to
protect themselves. Animals in this group include
jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals.
Echinoderms (Invertebrates) (Animal World)
Another marine invertebrate, the echinoderm,
lives on the floor of the sea. Echinoderms have
no heads, tube feet, and external skeletons just
below the surface of the skin. They can
regenerate virtually any part of their bodies.
Starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars, and sea
cucumbers are some of the members of this phylum.
Flatworms (Invertebrates) (Animal World)
As their name implies, these organisms are
basically flat, soft-bodied, and symmetrical.
These very primitive creatures come in two
varieties: an aquatic group that includes
planarians and a parasitic one that counts flukes
and tapeworms among its members.
Mollusks (Invertebrates) (Animal World)
Most mollusks live inside shells and reside in
the water. They have soft, unsegmented bodies and
a powerful foot that enables them to move around.
Clams, oysters, scallops, bivalves, octopuses,
and squid are mollusks.
Roundworms (Invertebrates) (Animal World)
These wormlike animals have an outer coat made of
noncellular material and a fluid-filled chamber
that separates their body walls from their
insides. They live both in water and on land.
Among their number are rotifers, nematodes, and
horsehair worms.
Sponges (Invertebrates) (Animal World)
Classified as plants in the eighteenth century,
sponges live mostly in colonies in the water,
attached to rocks. They are basically sacs taking
in water through small holes; their skeletons are
formed from hard substances that become stuck in
their body walls.
Animal First Aid
Animals, like people, suffer medical problems.
Emergency and nonemergency ailments and traumas
require quick attention to prevent serious
situations from turning into life-threatening
ones.
Some problems - bleeding that cannot be stopped
or convulsions, for instance - require the
immediate attention of an expert in veterinary
medicine. Many other problems, however, can be
treated by the animal's owner.
The following are some common animal ailments and
injuries. The symptoms and treatments for each
are described. As with any medical condition, if
the symptoms persist or the animal's owner is
unsure about the nature of the problem,
professional assistance should be sought.
Broken Bones (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - Some bone breaks show obvious symptoms:
twisted or distorted limbs, or in the case of a
compound fracture, bone fragments sticking
through the skin. Less apparent breaks cause
great pain and discomfort. The animal will cry or
bite when the affected area is touched; will lie
around, often on the affected area; and will
usually not walk, although in some cases it will
despite the break, notably when the pelvis is
broken. The fracture will not bear weight.
Swelling of the affected area within 24 hours can
be expected from any sort of fracture.
Treatment - Treatment of compound fractures by a
veterinarian should be sought as soon as possible.
Other breaks should be treated by a veterinarian
within 24 hours. Apply an ice pack or cold wet
compress to the affected area; change regularly.
Protect the animal from further injury by
confining it to a small room. Apply a temporary
splint to broken limbs to avoid further
dislocation.
Burns (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - All burns are painful to the touch.
Electrical burns are the most serious and can
cause heart attacks and death. The burned area
will show seared flesh, reddened skin, lesions,
and blisters. The animal may suffer respiratory
distress; paleness or blueness, especially in
lip, gums, and eyelid linings; rigidity in limbs;
glassy stare; collapse; and shock. Thermal burns
cause a singed or charred area; the exposed skin
is reddened or inflamed; the wound is warm or hot
to the touch. Friction burns are similar in
appearance to thermal burns, but the skin is
chafed or scraped and has bare spots; bare skin
is rubbed raw, is reddish in color, and is
irritated or inflamed; the trauma causing the
burn may leave cuts, lacerations, or embedded
foreign matter.
Treatment - Depending on the type and extent of
the burn, it can often be treated at home.
Electrical burns can stop an animal's heart and
must be treated immediately by a veterinarian; if
shock occurs, keep the animal warm with heating
pads or hot water bottles and a blanket or heavy
coat and seek veterinary treatment immediately.
Thermal burns can be treated topically by
applying the jellylike substance from an aloe
plant, a solution made from Domeboro (available
at most pharmacies), or Vitamin E oil. Friction
burns can be treated in the same way as thermal
burns; however, if foreign matter is embedded, or
the burn does not respond to treatment, the
animal should be taken to a veterinarian.
Cat Diseases (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - Four major diseases affect the
well-being of cats. Cat distemper induces high
fever, lethargy, vomiting, and diarrhea; young
kittens can develop distemper very quickly and
will often die of it without exhibiting symptoms.
Rhinotracheitis causes fever, sneezing, loss of
appetite, and dehydration; additional symptoms
can include discharge from eyes and nose,
congestion, and swelling of membranes in the
respiratory tract. Calici virus is characterized
by sneezing and discharge from the eyes and nose;
it may cause fever, lethargy, loss of appetite,
dehydration, and ulcers on the tongue.
Pneumonitis usually causes labored breathing,
sneezing, coughing, snorting, wheezing, and
listlessness; it may induce a loss of body fluids
and very high temperatures.
Treatment - Three of these diseases - cat
distemper, rhinotracheitis, and calici virus -
can be prevented by annual vaccinations. All four
must be treated as quickly as possible by a
veterinarian if symptoms are present;
professional treatment will, in most cases,
effect a cure.
Constipation (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - The animal struggles or strains during
a bowel movement without passing a stool; avoids
food; becomes nervous or irritated.
Treatment - Feed the animal brans, cereal foods,
vegetables (peas, carrots, corn), kibble; use
infant-size glycerine suppositories or soap
suppositories; give an enema if the animal will
allow it; add a small amount of stool softener,
such as Metamucil, to food; give mineral oil or
milk of magnesia, but dosages should depend on
size and type of animal (consult a veterinarian).
Dental Disorders (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - Tartar, a brown crust, appears on
teeth, starting at the gum line; tooth enamel
erodes, especially on cats; bone fragments,
foreign matter, food particles, or hair
accumulate on teeth; bad breath is present. Throat
or mouth infections cause coughing and discharges
from mouth or nose. Gingivitis develops when tartar
or dirty teeth are untreated. Uremeia can cause
blackish tartar, bad breath, and extraordinary
thirst.
Treatment - Clean the animal's teeth monthly with
a mixture of one teaspoon salt or hydrogen
peroxide to half a cup of water; apply to teeth
with a cotton swab or soft toothbrush. Include
hard food, such as kibble, in the animal's diet;
provide hard things for the animal to chew on.
Infections, gingivitis, or uremia should be treated
by a veterinarian.
Diarrhea (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - The animal passes liquid stool during
bowel movement; there may be abnormal coloration
of stool.
Treatment - Remove grease, oils, and milk from
the animal's diet; avoid high-fiber foods,
kibble, and dry catmeal; feed the animal a mix of
one part cooked hamburger, drained of grease, and
one part rice. If diarrhea results from ingestion
of foreign matter (from teething or eating
plants, soap, or other household materials),
treat it with small doses of Pepto-Bismol or
Kaopectate. If symptoms persist for more than 24
hours, or if blood is present in stool, consult a
veterinarian.
Dog Diseases (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - A number of conditions affect only
dogs. Canine distemper causes severe diarrhea and
may cause high fever, discharge from eyes and
nose, thickening of foot pads, coughing, muscle
contractions, convulsions, and pneumonia.
Infectious canine hepatitis usually results in
fever, lethargy, and congestion of the mucous
membranes; it also can cause loss of appetite and
insatiable thirst. Leptospirosis is characterized
by high fever, lethargy, loss of appetite,
congestion in the whites of the eyes, and
possibly pain in walking, jaundice, vomiting, and
diarrhea. Infectious canine tracheobronchitis
(kennel cough) causes high fever and severe dry
coughing spasms.
Treatment - All four of these diseases can be
prevented by annual vaccinations. If a dog is not
vaccinated, early diagnosis of the symptoms of
each disease is imperative. None of these
diseases can be treated at home; bring the dog to
a veterinarian as soon as possible.
External Parasites (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - Fleas, ticks, lice, maggots, and mites
are common external parasites that prey on
animals. All cause animals to scratch
excessively, which can lead to hair loss. Fleas
are tiny brown insects that move through the
animal's coat. Ticks are small, round,
dark-colored insects with hard shells that attach
themselves to an animal's skin. Lice are small,
dark-gray insects that remain in one place on an
animal's body. Maggots look like small worms.
Mites, which are invisible to the unaided eye,
characteristically cause skin and ear
irritation.
Treatment - External parasites can be readily
eliminated and controlled with commercially
available powders, baths, sprays, and dips. Check
the labels of such treatments carefully to be
sure they are appropriate for use on your animal
and that they will control the parasite in
question. Fleas can be controlled with flea
collars, sprays, powders, baths, or dips; treat
animal and surrounding furniture and carpets to
eliminate infestations. Ticks can be pulled off
by hand; the animal should then be treated with
spray, powder, or bath to eliminate unseen ticks;
treat surrounding furniture and carpets to
eliminate infestations. Lice can be treated with
the same potions that work on fleas and ticks.
Maggots are an increasingly rare parasite that,
if present, should be treated by a veterinarian.
Mites can cause recurring mange in dogs, or other
recurring skin conditions in other animals; any
recurring condition should be treated by a
veterinarian.
Internal Parasites (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - All internal parasites drain an
animal's natural defenses, leaving it susceptible
to infections and diseases. All are likely to
cause loss of appetite and lethargy. Tapeworms
leave visible, light-colored segments that look
like rice kernels in stools, around sleeping
areas, under the animal's tail, or near its anus.
Roundworms look like spaghetti; they are light
yellow, 2 to four inches long, have slightly
pointed ends, and can be seen in stools or vomit.
Hookworms are almost invisible to the naked eye,
but can cause diarrhea (often with blood
present), cramps, pale gums and lips, a dry coat,
a slight cough, and noticeable weight loss.
Whipworms cause symptoms similar to those caused
by hookworms, as well as possible inflammation of
the colon. Heartworms block an animal's
arteries, causing tiredness, listlessness, a poor
coat, weight loss, and constant panting and
coughing. Coccidia, one-celled protozoa, cause
diarrhea, emaciation, and discharges from the
animal's eyes and nose. Toxoplasmosis is a
parasite that afflicts mostly cats; it frequently
presents no symptoms at all.
Treatment - An infestation of internal parasites
is a debilitating condition that should be dealt
with by a veterinarian.
Rabies (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - Fever, loss of appetite, inability to
swallow that results in drooling; can cause
encephalitis, convulsions, or paralysis. One type
of rabies causes animals to attack anything that
moves (cars, animals, people); another type
causes only the other symptoms.
Treatment - Prevention of rabies is possible
through regular vaccinations. Once contracted,
however, there is no effective treatment for
rabies and the animal will have to be destroyed.
Respiratory Infections (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - Sneezing, coughing, runny eyes,
swollen glands, difficulty swallowing, labored
breathing, fever.
Treatment - If symptoms such as sneezing,
coughing, and runny eyes are present but the
animal remains active and eats normally, the
condition is probably not serious and no
treatment is needed. A veterinarian should
examine the animal if symptoms continue for a
while; if the animal becomes lethargic and loses
appetite; if there are discharges of pus from its
nose; if congestion becomes heavy or labored
breathing is continued; or if fever of more than
102 degrees is present.
Shock (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - Weakness, collapse, pale or
muddy-colored gums, fast heartbeat, difficulty
breathing, no breathing, dilated pupils, low body
temperature.
Treatment - Keep the animal warm by applying
heating pads or hot water bottles and wrapping
the animal in heavy blankets or coats. Bring the
animal to a veterinarian at once.
Skin Problems (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - Localized skin conditions cause
inflammation or irritation and may cause bald
spots of red, raw, or discolored skin. More
serious disorders such as moist eczema, wet
dermatitis, or acute pruritis cause raw, oozing
bald spots that may be damp to the touch or
oozing pus. A lump on the animal's skin that does
not go away within a few days may be a tumor.
Other skin problems can cause dry, flaky skin, an
oily coat, and constant biting, licking, or
scratching. Symmetrical skin disorders affect
both sides of an animal's body equally; a
generalized condition affects the animal's whole
body.
Treatment - Bald patches of red or raw skin and
damp, oozing hot areas should be treated by a
veterinarian. Localized inflammation can be
treated with soothing topical sprays and lotions.
Dry skin or coat can be soaked several times a
day with water or a solution made from Domeboro
tablets (available at most pharmacies); small
quantities of oil added to the animal's food also
will help. Itchiness can be corrected with a
solution of one part Alpha-Keri (available from
most pharmacies) to 20 or 30 parts water applied
with a spray bottle; repeat as needed. A
well-balanced diet, with appropriate levels of
vitamins, can maintain healthy skin. Any skin
condition that does not go away, or which
reappears after treatment, should be treated by a
veterinarian.
Sprains (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - Sprains usually occur in the joints of
an animal's limbs, causing rapid swelling. The
affected area will be hot to the touch. The
animal will not walk normally, if it walks at
all.
Treatment - Apply cold compresses or ice packs
gently to the swollen area; keep the area cool
for a day or two, changing the compress or ice
when necessary. Wrap the affected area snugly with
cloth, gauze, or athletic bandages; secure the
wrapping to be sure the animal does not scratch or
bite it off. Keep the animal quiet; discourage
activity; avoid stairs. For sprains that heal and
reoccur, apply hot towels or compresses; keep the
injured area moist and warm for several days. If a
sprain does not heal, or pain and swelling continue
or are severe, see a veterinarian.
Wounds (Animal First Aid)
Symptoms - Cuts can be recognized by the presence
of smoothly separated tissue and possible
bleeding. Lacerations result in jaggedly torn
skin, bleeding, swelling, irritation, and black
or blue discoloration of the skin. Abrasions rub
or scrape away the outer layers of skin, causing
pain, swelling, redness, and heat. Bruises or
contusions leave black-and-blue tissue and
swelling.
Treatment - Any serious wound should be treated
by a veterinarian if the bleeding will not stop,
if blood is gushing out, or if shock is present.
Cuts that are bleeding can be dealt with by
applying a pressure bandage (clean gauze or cloth
wrapped around some padding) pressed firmly but
gently against the wound; an ice bag, pressed
firmly but gently on the area; or a tourniquet.
After the bleeding has been controlled, clean the
wound with hydrogen peroxide or Bactine, then dry
it; keep skin from wrinkling or bunching, then
apply an antiseptic or antibiotic to a gauze
square and wrap snugly in place; change the
dressing daily and keep the animal from removing
it. Lacerations can be treated in the same way as
cuts, but an ice bag must be used to reduce
swelling and prevent further inflammation.
Abrasions require the application of a soothing
cream, ointment, or lotion (Solarcaine,
Nupercainal, Unguentine ointment, or calamine
lotion); a bandage is not needed, but the animal
must be kept from licking the treated area.
Bruises and contusions are best treated with cold
compresses or ice packs.
Extinct Animals (Animal World)
Extinction has happened to species and subspecies
throughout the time creatures have lived on this
planet. The most well-known cases involved the
"great dying" of the dinosaurs some 50 to 75
millions years ago.
If creatures great and small have in fact been
dying off throughout the ages, why is there
suddenly concern about animals becoming extinct?
Isn't extinction part of the natural order of
things?
The answer is no, at least not on the scale it
has occurred in recent times. In the last 300
years, at least 300 vertebrate animals have
become extinct. More than 150 of those
extinctions have been of full species. By
comparison, it is estimated that dinosaur species
died off at the rate of about one per 1,000
years.
The cause of this rapid acceleration in the rate
of extinctions is human activity. With some
species, like the dodo, the extinction was
unintentional: people introduced predators to the
dodo's island home where previously there had
been none. Other creatures, such as the Eastern
buffalo, were purposefully killed off by human
beings who wanted to "make room" for themselves.
In the late twentieth century, extinctions are
more likely to be an indirect result of human
activity. Rural landfills take in urban garbage,
open land is blacktopped, factories produce
toxins as byproducts, and engineers alter
waterways. These activities all have a direct
impact on the ecosystems that support animal
life.
Increased awareness of the fragile links of
interdependence among all of Earth's creatures,
and of the impact human activities can have on
those creatures, have led some to hope that the
latest era of "great dying" may soon stop. It
remains to be seen, however, if the forces
already in motion can be stopped in time to save
the hundreds of species that teeter on the brink
of extinction.
The following lists comprise the number of
different animals thought to be extinct as of the
early 1980s and the popular names of those
animals. Exact figures are difficult to
determine, since endangered species often make
the transition to extinction quickly and without
notice. Occasionally populations of animals
thought to be extinct are discovered to be
extant.
Birds (Extinct Animals)
Akioloa (4)
Alauwahio (2)
Amazon (3)
Brown night heron
Chatham Island bellbird
Chatham Island fernbird
Conure (2)
Courser
Delalande's coucal
Dodo (2)
Duck (2)
Elephant bird
Emu (2)
Eskimo curlew
Finch (5)
Flycatcher (2)
Gadwall
Great amakihi
Great auk
Guadalupe flicker
Heath hen
Huia
Jamaican pauraque
Kioea
Laysan apapane
Laysan millerbird
Lord Howe Island blackbird
Lord Howe Island fantail
Macaw (4)
Mamo (2)
Moas
New Caledonian lorikeet
Norfolk Island kaka
Nukupuu (3)
O-O (3)
Oahu akepa
Omao (3)
Ostrich, Arabian
Owl (10)
Painted vulture
Parakeet (8)
Parrot (3)
Petrel
Pigeon (7)
Quail (2)
Rail (17)
Reunion fody
Ryukyu kingfisher
Sandpiper (2)
Sao Tome grosbeak
Serpent eagle
Solitaire (2)
Spectacled cormorant
Starling (6)
Thrush (2)
Ula-ai-hawane
White eye (2)
Wren (6)
Fish (Extinct Animals)
Ash Meadows killfish
Cisco (2)
Lake Titicaca orestias
Minnow (2)
New Zealand grayling
Pupfish (2)
Speckled dace
Spinedace (2)
Sucker (4)
Thicktail chub
Utah Lake sculpin
Mammals (Extinct Animals)
Agouti (2)
Arizona jaguar
Aurochs
Badlands bighorn sheep
Bali tiger
Bandicoot (4)
Bat (6)
Bear (3)
Blue buck
Buffalo (2)
Burchell's zebra
Caribbean monk seal
Caucasian wisent
Christmas Island musk shrew
Dawson's caribou
Elk (2)
Greenland tundra reindeer
Hartebeest (2)
Hispaniolan hexolobodon
Hutia (5)
Ibex (2)
Isolobodon (2)
Lion (2)
Nesophont (6)
Potoroo (3)
Puerto Rican caviomorph
Quagga
Quemi (2)
Rat (12)
Rufous gazelle
Schomburgk's deer
Sea mink
Shamanu
Steller's sea cow
Syrian onager
Tarpan
Wallaby (2)
Warrah
Wolf (10)
Reptiles (Extinct Animals)
Ameiva (2)
Galliwasp
Gecko (2)
Iguana (2)
Lizard (4)
Racer snake (2)
Skink (3)
Tortoise (11)
Tree snake (2)
Amphibians (Extinct Animals)
Palestine painted frog
Vegas Valley leopard frog
Major U.S. and Canadian Zoos (Animal World)
Zoos, or zoological gardens, are private or
public parks where animals of all sorts are
exhibited and studied. Zoos have existed in one
form or another for thousands of years, dating
back to ancient China, Egypt, and Rome.
Most major cities throughout the world have zoos.
The scale and type of zoo varies widely, from
petting zoos that allow contact between children
and animals to primate research centers to
amusement parks that put on shows with trained
porpoises.
The following list of major zoos is arranged by
state. The name and address of each zoo is given,
as well as the number of species and specimens
and, where available, the zoo's specialty. Zoos
of special note are marked with an asterisk (*).
Alabama (U.S.) (Zoos)
Birmingham Zoo
2630 Cahaba Road
Birmingham, AL 35223
263 species, 893 specimens
Arizona (U.S.) (Zoos)
Phoenix Zoo
60th Street & East Van Buren
P.O. Box 5155
Phoenix, AZ 85010
353 species, 1,277 specimens
Specialty: Arabian oryx
Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum
Tucson Mountain Park
P.O. Box 5607
Tucson, AZ 85703
194 species, 722 specimens
Specialty: Sonoran desert fauna and flora and
earth sciences
Arkansas (U.S.) (Zoos)
Little Rock Zoological Gardens
1 Jonesboro
Little Rock, AR 72205
76 species, 286 specimens
California (U.S.) (Zoos)
Roeding Park Zoo
894 West Belmont Avenue
Fresno, CA 93728
243 species, 728 specimens
T. Wayland Vaughan Aquarium-Museum
Scripps Institute of Oceanography
University of California
La Jolla, CA 92037
203 species, 1,402 specimens
Specialty: marine fish of Southern California
*The Los Angeles Zoo
5333 Zoo Drive
Los Angeles, CA 90027
763 species, 2,387 specimens
Oakland Baby Zoo
9777 Golf Links Road
Oakland, CA 94605
32 species, 116 specimens
Specialty: baby animals
Marine World/Africa USA
Marine World Parkway
Redwood City, CA 94065
115 species, 7,570 specimens
*San Diego Zoological Garden
Zoological Society of San Diego
Balboa Park
P.O. Box 551
San Diego, CA 92112
1,112 species, 3,988 specimens
Specialties: lemurs, tortoises, marsupials
*Sea World
1720 South Shores Road
Mission Bay
San Diego, CA 92109
594 species, 9,150 specimens
Specialties: trained marine mammals, waterfowl
San Francisco Zoological Gardens
Zoo Road and Skyline Boulevard
San Francisco, CA 94132
314 species, 1,050 specimens
Specialties: primates, bears, cats, waterfowl
Prentice Park Zoo
1700 East First Street
Santa Ana, CA 82703
98 species, 326 specimens
Specialty: children's petting zoo
Canal Zone
Summit Gardens and Zoo
P.O. Box 973
Balboa Heights
Panama Canal Zone
128 species, 232 specimens
Specialty: Panamanian animals
Colorado (U.S.) (Zoos)
Cheyenne Mountain Zoological Park
P.O. Box 158
Colorado Springs, CO 80901
220 species, 854 specimens
Specialties: giraffes, primates, felids
Denver Zoological Gardens
City Park
Denver, CO 80205
369 species, 1,482 specimens
Specialty: waterfowl
Connecticut (U.S.) (Zoos)
Beardsley Zoological Gardens
Bridgeport, CT 06610
56 species, 235 specimens
Specialty: fauna of North and South America
District of Columbia (U.S.) (Zoos)
*The National Aquarium
Commerce Building
Washington, DC 20230
380 species, 2,000+ specimens
*National Zoological Park
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, DC 20009
627 species, 2,618 specimens
Florida (U.S.) (Zoos)
Jacksonville Zoological Park
8605 Zoo Road
Jacksonville, FL 32218
268 species, 932 specimens
Crandon Park Zoo
4000 Crandon Boulevard
Key Biscayne
Miami, FL 33140
280 species, 988 specimens
Specialty: aardvarks
Marineland of Florida
RFD 1, Box 122
St. Augustine, FL 32084
106 species, 613 specimens
Specialty: performing dolphins
*Busch Gardens Zoological Park
P.O. Box 9158
Tampa, FL 33674
410 species, 2,736 specimens
Specialties: African hoofed mammals, parrots
Dreher Park Zoological Gardens
P.O. Box 6597
1301 Summit Boulevard
West Palm Beach, FL 33405
49 species, 105 specimens
Georgia (U.S.) (Zoos)
Atlanta Zoological Park
800 Cherokee Avenue, SE
Atlanta, GA 30315
401 species, 1,037 specimens
Specialties: amphibians and reptiles
Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center
Emory University
Atlanta, GA 30322
26 species, 1,310 specimens
Not open to the public
Hawaii (U.S.) (Zoos)
Honolulu Zoo
Waikiki Beach
Kapiolani Park
Honolulu, HI 96815
341 species, 1,568 specimens
Specialty: Galapagos tortoise
Idaho (U.S.) (Zoos)
Boise City Zoo
Julia Davis Park
Boise, ID 83706
81 species, 245 specimens
Illinois (U.S.) (Zoos)
*Chicago Zoological Park (Brookfield Zoo)
Brookfield, IL 60513
531 species, 2,100+ specimens
Specialty: dolphins
John G. Shedd Aquarium
1200 South Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605
477 species, 4,786 specimens
*Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens
100 West Webster Avenue
Chicago, IL 60614
593 species, 2,036 specimens
Specialties: great apes, felids, toothless
mammals
Indiana (U.S.) (Zoos)
Mesker Park Zoo
Bement Avenue
Evansville, IN 47712
192 species, 589 specimens
Specialty: large geographic exhibits
Fort Wayne Children's Zoological Gardens
3411 North Sherman Street
Fort Wayne, IN 46808
Indianapolis Zoological Park
3120 East 30th Street
Indianapolis, IN 46218
156 species, 404 specimens
Iowa (U.S.) (Zoos)
Upper Mississippi River Fishery Management
Station Iowa Conservation Commission
P.O. Box 250
Guttenberg, IA 52052
68 species, 260 specimens
Specialty: fish and reptiles of the Mississippi
River
Kansas (U.S.) (Zoos)
Topeka Zoological Park
635 Gage Boulevard
Topeka, KS 66606
217 species, 520 specimens
Kentucky (U.S.) (Zoos)
Louisville Zoological Garden
1100 Trevilian Way
Louisville, KY 40213
158 species, 498 specimens
Louisiana (U.S.) (Zoos)
Greater Baton Rouge Zoo
P.O. Box 458
Baton Rouge, LA 70821
136 species, 471 specimens
Audubon Park Zoo and Odenheimer Aquarium
P.O. Box 4327
New Orleans, LA 70118
216 species, 800+ specimens
Maryland (U.S.) (Zoos)
Baltimore Zoo
Druid Hill Park
Baltimore, MD 21217
336 species, 1,061 specimens
Massachusetts (U.S.) (Zoos)
Franklin Park Zoo and Children's Zoo
Dorchester, MA 02110
New England Aquarium
Central Wharf
Boston, MA 02110
464 species, 7,416 specimens
Specialty: fish of the Atlantic Ocean
Aquarium of the National Marine Fisheries Service
Albatross Street
Woods Hole
Falmouth, MA 02543
43 species, 228 specimens
Specialty: local fauna
Michigan (U.S.) (Zoos)
*Detroit Zoological Park and Belle Isle Aquarium
8450 West 10 Mile Road
P.O. Box 39
Royal Oak, MI 48068
543 species, 4,656 specimens
Potter Park Zoo
1301 South Pennsylvania Avenue
Lansing, MI 48933
103 species, 415 specimens
Saginaw Children's Zoo
1461 South Washington
Saginaw, MI 48605
85 species, 326 specimens
Minnesota (U.S.) (Zoos)
Duluth Zoo
7210 Fremont Street
Duluth, MN 55807
89 species, 285 specimens
St. Paul's Como Zoo
Midway Parkway and Kaufman Drive
St. Paul, MN 55103
134 species, 454 specimens
Specialties: felids, great apes
Mississippi (U.S.) (Zoos)
Jackson Zoological Park
2918 West Capitol Street
Jackson, MS 39209
181 species, 752 specimens
Missouri (U.S.) (Zoos)
Kansas City Zoological Gardens
Swope Park
Kansas City, MO 64132
174 species, 586 specimens
*St. Louis Zoological Park
Forest Park
St. Louis, MO 63139
731 species, 2,216 specimens
Montana (U.S.) (Zoos)
Red Lodge Zoo
Box 820
Red Lodge, MT 59068
77 species, 210 specimens
Nebraska (U.S.) (Zoos)
Lincoln Municipal Zoo
1300 South 27th Street
Lincoln, NE 68502
146 species, 464 specimens
Henry Doorly Zoological Gardens
Riverview Park
Omaha, NE 68107
136 species, 486 specimens
Specialties: rare hoofed mammals, great apes,
large cats
New Jersey (U.S.) (Zoos)
Turtle Back Zoo
560 Northfield Avenue
South Mountain Reservation, NJ 07052
256 species, 817 specimens
Specialty: turtles
New Mexico (U.S.) (Zoos)
Rio Grande Zoological Park
903 10th Street, SW
Albuquerque, NM 87102
184 species, 691 specimens
Specialty: hoofed mammals
New York (U.S.) (Zoos)
*New York Zoological Park (Bronx Zoo)
185th Street and Southern Boulevard
Bronx, NY 10460
675 species, 3,200+ specimens
Buffalo Zoological Gardens
Delaware Park
Buffalo, NY 14214
340 species, 877 specimens
Staten Island Zoo
614 Broadway
Staten Island, NY 10310
430 species, 960 specimens
Specialty: reptiles
North Dakota (U.S.) (Zoos)
Dakota Zoo
Dakota Zoological Society
P.O. Box 711
Bismarck, ND 58501
109 species, 430 specimens
Specialty: North American fauna
Ohio (U.S.) (Zoos)
*Zoological Society of Cincinnati
3400 Vine Street
Cincinnati, OH 45220
564 species, 1,627 specimens
Cleveland Aquarium
Gordon Park
601 East 72nd Street
Cleveland, OH 44109
Cleveland Zoological Park
Brookside Park
P.O. Box 09040
Cleveland, OH 44109
299 species, 1,010 specimens
Columbus Zoological Gardens and Arthur C. Johnson
Aquarium
9990 Riverside Drive
Powell, OH 43065
671 species, 3,399 specimens
Specialties: gorillas, reptiles, cichlids
Toledo Zoological Gardens
2700 Broadway
Toledo, OH 43609
477 species, 2,085 specimens
Oklahoma (U.S.) (Zoos)
Oklahoma City Zoo
Oklahoma City, OK 73112
510 species, 1,801 specimens
Tulsa Zoological Park
5701 East 36th Street North
Tulsa, OK 74115
238 species, 660 specimens
Oregon (U.S.) (Zoos)
Aquarium-Museum
Oregon State University Marine Science Center
Marine Science Drive
Newport, OR 97221
165 species, 2,500 specimens
Specialty: marine animals of Oregon
Portland Zoological Gardens
4001 SW Canyon Road
Portland, OR 97221
123 species, 368 specimens
Specialty: elephants
Pennsylvania (U.S.) (Zoos)
*Philadelphia Zoological Gardens
34th Street and Girard Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19104
536 species, 2,079 specimens
Specialties: waterfowl, great apes, reptiles
Pittsburgh Zoological Gardens
P.O. Box 5072
Pittsburgh, PA 15206
633 species, 2,817 specimens
Rhode Island (U.S.) (Zoos)
Roger Williams Park Zoo
Roger Williams Park
Providence, RI 02905
102 species, 237 specimens
South Carolina (U.S.) (Zoos)
Columbia Zoological Park
Riverbanks Park
P.O. Box 1143
Columbia, SC 29202
234 species, 922 specimens
Brookgreen Gardens
Murrells Inlet, SC 29576
23 species, 162 specimens
Specialty: fauna of southeastern United States
South Dakota (U.S.) (Zoos)
Great Plains Zoo
15th and Kiwanis
Sioux Falls, SD 57102
83 species, 230 specimens
Specialty: animals of the North American Great
Plains
Tennessee (U.S.) (Zoos)
Knoxville Zoological Park
915 Beaman Street at Chilhowee Park
Knoxville, TN 37914
128 species, 519 specimens
Overton Park Zoo and Aquarium
Memphis, TN 38112
425 species, 1,964 specimens
Specialties: aquatic animals, rare ruminants
Texas (U.S.) (Zoos)
Abilene Zoological Gardens
Box 60
Abilene, TX 79604
130 species, 438 specimens
Dallas Aquarium
Fair Park
First and Forest Avenue
Dallas, TX 75226
464 species, 5,859 specimens
*Dallas Zoo in Marsalis Park
621 East Clarendon Drive
Dallas, TX 75203
714 species, 2,168 specimens
Fort Worth Zoological Park and James R. Record
Aquarium
2727 Zoological Park Drive
Forest Park
Fort Worth, TX 76110
791 species, 3,894 specimens
Houston Zoological Gardens
Hermann Park
P.O. Box 1562
Houston, TX 77001
507 species, 1,605 specimens
*San Antonio Zoological Garden and Aquarium
3903 North St. Mary's
San Antonio, TX 78212
775 species, 7,457 specimens
Caldwell Children's Zoo
P.O. Box 428
Tyler, TX 75701
102 species, 361 specimens
Central Texas Zoological Park
Zoo Park Drive
Waco, TX 76708
115 species, 505 specimens
Utah (U.S.) (Zoos)
Hogle Zoological Gardens
2600 Sunnyside Avenue
P.O. Box 2337
Salt Lake City, UT 84110
333 species, 1,062 specimens
Virginia (U.S.) (Zoos)
Lafayette Zoological Park
3500 Granby Street
Norfolk, VA 23501
71 species, 195 specimens
Washington (U.S.) (Zoos)
Woodland Park Zoological Gardens
5500 Phinney Avenue, N
Seattle, WA 98103
278 species, 912 specimens
Wisconsin (U.S.) (Zoos)
Henry Vilas Park Zoo
500 South Randall
Madison, WI 53715
207 species, 834 specimens
*Milwaukee County Zoological Park
10001 West Bluemound Road
Milwaukee, WI 53226
636 species, 5,130 specimens
Racine Zoological Park
2131 North Main Street
Racine, WI 53402
143 species, 543 specimens
Alberta (Canadian Zoos)
Calgary Zoo and National History Park
St. George's Island
Calgary 21
Alberta T2G 3H4
356 species, 1,191 specimens
Alberta Game Farm
RR 4
Sherwood Park
Edmonton
Alberta T5E 5S7
180 species, 3,400 specimens
British Columbia (Canadian Zoos)
Stanley Park Zoo
Stanley Park
Vancouver 5
British Columbia V6E 1V3
117 species, 515 specimens
Specialties: North American mammals and birds
Vancouver Public Aquarium
Stanley Park
P.O. Box 3232
Vancouver 3
British Columbia V6B 3X8
492 species, 11,115 specimens
Specialty: marine life of the northeast Pacific
Manitoba (Canadian Zoos)
Assiniboine Park Zoo
2355 Corydon Avenue
Winnipeg
Manitoba R3P 0R5
296 species, 1,156 specimens
Specialty: Nearctic animals
Ontario (Canadian Zoos)
Metro Toronto Zoo
P.O. Box 280
West Hill
Toronto
Ontario M1E 4R5
444 species, 3,666 specimens
Quebec (Canadian Zoos)
Societe Zoologique de Granby
303 rue Bourget O
Casse Postale 514
Granby, PQ
Quebec J2G E8
140 species, 940 specimens
Montreal Aquarium
St. Helen's Island
Montreal, PQ H3C 1A0
Quebec
313 species, 2,244 specimens
Aquarium de Quebec
1675 Avenue du Parc
Quebec, PQ G1W 453
325 species, 2,324 specimens
Jardin Zoologique de Quebec
8191 avenue du Zoo
Orsainville, PQ G1G 4G4
Quebec
286 species, 1,081 specimens
Specialty: North American fauna
Additional Sources of Information (Animal World)
Allen, Thomas B. Vanishing Wildlife of North
America. National Geographic Society, 1974.
American Kennel Club Staff. The Complete Dog
Book, 17th ed. Howell, 1985.
Animal Medical Center Staff and Kay, William J.
Complete Book of Cat Health. Macmillan, 1985.
Carrington, Richard. Mermaids and Mastodons.
Rinehart, 1957.
Grzimek, Bernhard, ed. Grzimek's Animal Life
Encyclopedia. 13 vols. Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1972-75.
Hahn, Emily. Animal Gardens. Doubleday, 1967.
Kirchshofer, Rosl. The World of Zoos. Viking
Press, 1968.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of
Mammals. Facts on File, 1984.
McClung, Robert M. Lost Wild Worlds. William
Morrow, 1976.
The New International Wildlife Encyclopedia.
vols. 1-21. Purnell Reference Books, 1980.
Perrins, Christopher M., and Middleton, Alex
L.A., eds. The Encyclopedia of Birds. Facts on
File, 1985.
Scott, Peter, ed. The Amazing World of Animals.
Praeger, 1976.
Spaulding, C. E. A Veterinary Guide for Animal
Owners. Rodale Press, 1976.
West, Geoffrey, ed. Encyclopedia of Animal Care,
12th ed. Williams & Wilkins, 1977.
Whitfield, Philip. Macmillan Illustrated Animal
Encyclopedia. Macmillan, 1984.
Math and Science Basics
Decimal and Percent Equivalents of
Common Fractions
Fraction Decimal Percent(%)
-------- ------- ----------
1/32 0.03125 3.125
1/16 0.0625 6.25
3/32 0.09375 9.375
1/10 0.1 10
1/8 0.125 12.5
5/32 0.15625 15.625
3/16 0.1875 18.75
1/5 0.2 20
7/32 0.21875 21.875
1/4 0.25 25
9/32 0.28125 28.125
3/10 0.3 30
5/16 0.3125 31.25
1/3 0.3333+ 33.333+
11/32 0.34375 34.375
3/8 0.375 37.5
2/5 0.4 40
13/32 0.40625 40.625
7/16 0.4375 43.75
15/32 0.46875 46.875
1/2 0.5 50
17/32 0.53125 53.125
9/16 0.5625 56.25
19/32 0.59375 59.375
3/5 0.6 60
5/8 0.625 62.5
21/32 0.65625 65.625
2/3 0.6666+ 66.666+
11/16 0.6875 68.75
7/10 0.7 70
23/32 0.71875 71.87
3/4 0.75 75
25/32 0.78125 78.125
4/5 0.8 80
13/16 0.8125 81.25
27/32 0.84375 84.375
7/8 0.875 87.5
9/10 0.9 90
29/32 0.90625 90.625
15/16 0.9375 93.75
31/32 0.96875 96.875
Basic Rules of Mathematics and
Mathematical Formulas (Math and Science Basics)
Addition and subtraction of fractions:
(Start with a common denominator)
2/3 + 4/5 = 10/15 + 12/15 = 22/15 = 1 7/15
4/5 - 2/3 = 12/15 - 10/15 = 2/15
Multiplication of fractions:
2/5 x 7/4 = 14/20 = 7/10
Division of fractions:
(1/2) ÷ 2 = 1/2 x 1/2 = 1/4
Fractions to decimals:
3/10 = 0.3; 3/100 = 0.03; 3/100 = 0.003
Unknown multiplied by a number:
5x = 10; 5x/5 = 10/5; x = 2
Number added to an unknown:
y + 7 = 10; y + 7 - 7 = 10 - 7; y = 3
An unknown in a fraction:
a/5 = 3/8; a x 8 = 5 x 3; 8a = 15; a = 1 7/8
Area and Volume Problems
Area of a square:
Area = length x width, or length of one side
(x) squared
Area of a rectangle:
Area = length x width
Area of a triangle:
Area = 1/2 x base x perpendicular height
Area of a pentagon (5 sides):
Area = square of the length of one side x 1.720
Area of a hexagon (6 sides):
Area = square of the length of one side x
2.598
Area of an octagon (8 sides):
Area = square of the length of one side x
4.828
Area of a cube:
Area = square of the length of one side x 6
Area of a sphere:
Area = square of the diameter x pi (3.1416)
Area of a circle:
Area = square of the radius x pi (3.1416)
Area of an ellipse:
Area = long diameter x short diameter x
0.7854
Circumference of a circle:
Circumference = diameter x pi (3.1416)
Volume of a cube:
Volume = cube of the length (x) of one side
Volume of a pyramid:
Volume = area of the base x height x 1/3
Volume of a cylinder:
Volume = square of the radius of the base x
pi (3.1416) x height
Volume of a sphere:
Volume = cube of the radius x pi (3.1416) x
4/3
Volume of a cone:
Volume = square of the radius of the base x
pi (3.1416) x height x 1/3
Volume of a rectangular solid:
Volume = length x width x height
Basic Solutions to Triangles (Math and Science)
Pythagorean theorem:
The square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled
triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides.
A table of trigonometric functions is required for
the following formulas.
Law of Sines:
In any triangle, a/sin A = b/sin B = c/sin C.
Right triangles:
a = c sin A = b tan A
b = c cos A = a cot A
c = a cosec A = b sec A
Heating and Electrical Terms (Math and Science Basics)
ampere (amp or A) (Heating and Electrical Terms)
A unit of electrical current, or flow of electrons,
that is equal to a charge of 1 coulomb moving
through or across a conductor in 1 second. It is
named for André M. Ampère, French physicist
(1775-1836).
British thermal unit (Btu) (Heating and Electrical)
A unit of heat energy measured as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of
water from 60° to 61° F at a constant pressure of 1
standard atmosphere (the weight of the atmosphere at
mean sea level). One Btu is equal to 1054.5 joules
in the meter-kilogram-second system of measurements.
joule (J) (Heating and Electrical Terms)
A unit of energy or work equal to the force of 1
newton magnitude when the point at which the force
is applied is displaced 1 meter in the direction of
the force. Named for James P. Joule, English
physicist (1818-1889).
newton (N) (Heating and Electrical Terms)
A unit of force equal to the force that will cause
an acceleration of 1 meter per second squared to a
mass of 1 kilogram. Named for Sir Isaac Newton,
English mathematician (1642-1727).
ohm (Ω) (Heating and Electrical Terms)
A unit of electrical resistance through which a
current of 1 ampere will flow when there is a
potential difference of 1 volt across it. Named for
George S. Ohm, German physicist (1787-1854).
volt (V) (Heating and Electrical Terms)
A unit of electromotive force equal to the potential
difference between two points for which 1 coulomb of
electricity will do 1 joule of work in going from
one point to the other. Named for Count Alesandro
Volta (1745-1827).
watt (W) (Heating and Electrical Terms)
A unit of electrical power equal to 1 joule per
second. It is also measured as the product of the
amperes multiplied by the volts. Named for James
Watt, Scottish inventor (1736-1819).
Periodic Table of the Elements (Math and Science)
Atomic Atomic
Element* Symbol Valence number weight+
--------------------------------------------------
Actinium Ac 3 89 (227.0278)
Aluminum Al 3 13 26.98154
Americium Am 3,4,5,6 95 (243.0614)
Antimony Sb 3,5 51 121.75
Argon Ar 0 18 39.948
Arsenic As 3,5 33 74.9216
Astatine At 1,3,5,7 85 (209.987)
Barium Ba 2 56 137.34
Berkelium Bk 3,4 97 (247.0703)
Beryllium Be 2 4 9.01218
Bismuth Bi 3,5 83 208.9804
Boron B 3 5 10.81
Bromine Br 1,3,5,7 35 79.904
Cadmium Cd 2 48 112.40
Calcium Ca 2 20 40.08
Californium Cf 3 98 (251.0796)
Carbon C 2,4 6 12.011
Cerium Ce 3,4 58 140.12
Cesium Cs 1 55 132.9054
Chlorine Cl 1,3,5,7 17 35.453
Chromium Cr 2,3,6 24 51.996
Cobalt Co 2,3 27 58.9332
Columbium (see Niobium)
Copper Cu 1,2 29 63.546
Curium Cm 3 96 (247.0704)
Dysprosium Dy 3 66 162.50
Einsteinium Es 99 (254.0881)
Erbium Er 3 68 167.26
Europium Eu 2,3 63 151.96
Fermium Fm 100 (257.0951)
Fluorine F 1 9 18.9984
Francium Fr 1 87 (223.0198)
Gadolinium Gd 3 64 157.25
Gallium Ga 2,3 31 69.72
Germanium Ge 4 32 72.59
Glucinum (see Beryllium)
Gold Au 1,3 79 196.9665
Hafnium Hf 4 72 178.49
Helium He 0 2 4.0026
Holmium Ho 3 67 164.9304
Hydrogen H 1 1 1.0079
Indium In 3 49 114.82
Iodine I 1,3,5,7 53 126.9045
Iridium Ir 3,4 77 192.22
Iron Fe 2,3 26 55.847
Krypton Kr 0 36 83.30
Lanthanum La 3 57 138.9055
Lawrencium Lw 103 (256.0986)
Lead Pb 2,4 82 207.2
Lithium Li 1 3 6.941
Lutetium Lu 3 71 174.97
Magnesium Mg 2 12 24.305
Manganese Mn 2,3,4,6,7 25 54.938
Mendelevium Md 101 (257.0956)
Mercury Hg 1,2 80 200.59
Molybdenum Mo 3,4,6 42 95.94
Neodymium Nd 3 60 144.24
Neon Ne 0 10 20.179
Neptunium Np 4,5,6 93 237.0482
Nickel Ni 2,3 28 58.70
Niobium Nb 3,5 41 92.9064
Nitrogen N 3,5 7 14.0067
Nobelium No 102 (255.0933)
Osmium Os 2,3,4,8 76 190.2
Oxygen O 2 8 15.9994
Palladium Pd 2,4,6 46 106.4
Phosphorus P 3,5 15 30.98376
Platinum Pt 2,4 78 195.09
Plutonium Pu 3,4,5,6 94 (244.0642)
Polonium Po 2,4 84 (208.9824)
Potassium K 1 19 39.098
Praseodymium Pr 3 59 140.9077
Promethium Pm 3 61 (144.9128)
Protactinium Pa 91 (231.0359)
Radium Ra 2 88 (226.0254)
Radon Rn 0 86 (222.0176)
Rhenium Re 75 186.207
Rhodium Rh 3 45 102.9055
Rubidium Rb 1 37 85.4678
Ruthenium Ru 3,4,6,8 44 101.07
Samarium Sm 2,3 62 150.4
Scandium Sc 3 21 44.9559
Selenium Se 2,4,6 34 78.96
Silicon Si 4 14 28.086
Silver Ag 1 47 107.868
Sodium Na 1 11 22.98977
Strontium Sr 2 38 87.62
Sulfur S 2,4,6 16 32.06
Tantalum Ta 5 73 180.9479
Technetium Tc 6,7 43 96.9062
Tellurium Te 2,4,6 52 127.60
Terbium Tb 3 65 158.9254
Thallium Tl 1,3 81 204.37
Thorium Th 4 90 232.0381
Thulium Tm 3 69 168.9342
Tin Sn 2,4 50 118.69
Titanium Ti 3,4 22 47.90
Tungsten W 6 74 183.85
Uranium U 4,6 92 238.029
Vanadium V 3,5 23 50.9414
Xenon Xe 0 54 131.30
Ytterbium Yb 2,3 70 173.04
Yttrium Y 3 39 88.9059
Zinc Zn 2 30 65.38
Zirconium Zr 4 40 91.22
--------------------------------------------------
* The 103 chemical elements known at present are
included in this table. Some of those recently
discovered have been obtained only as unstable
isotopes.
+ Based on Carbon-12. Figures enclosed in
parentheses represent the mass number of the most
stable isotope.
Geological Time Chart (Math and Science Basics)
Age in Period or Important Animal
Years Epoch Physical Events Life
------ ------------- ------------------- -------
Pleistocene Repeated extensions human
of ice caps in arctic beings
and north temperate
areas. Continents
generally elevated,
mountains high,
deserts widespread
1.0
±.5 ------------- ------------------- --------
Pliocene Mountain building in gorillas
northwestern North
America. Deformation
of Tethys geosyncline.
13 Alps and Himalayas rise.
±1 ------------- ------------------- --------
Miocene Extensive erosion whales,
surfaces cut on sabertooths
Appalachians and
Rockies. Cool, dry
climates over much of
25 world.
±1 ------------- ------------------ --------
Oligocene Initiation of apes,
mountain building in bats
Tethys geosyncline.
River and floodplain
deposits begin on
36 Great Plains.
±2 ------------- ------------------ --------
Eocene Climates warm and alligators
uniform; widespread
jungles and forests.
58
±2 ------------- ------------------- --------
Paleocene Basins develop kangaroos,
between ranges along birds,
Pacific Coast and horses,
Rockies. camels,
monkeys,
65 elephants
±2 ------------- ------------------- --------
Cretaceous Mountain building in ancient
Rockies; seas invade birds,
much of western snakes,
North America and modern
cover Atlantic and fish
135 Gulf coastal plains.
± 5 ------------- ------------------- --------
Jurassic Widespread mild, flying
uniform climates. reptiles
Mountain building
along Pacific Coast
of North America.
Extensive marine
invasions of southern
180 and central Europe.
± 5 ------------- ------------------- --------
Triassic Fault basins in ichthyosaurs,
eastern North tyrannosaurs
America. Extensive
deserts and dead
seas develop in
North America and
230 Eurasia.
±10 ------------- ------------------- --------
Permian Continents generally ammonites,
elevated; Appalachian finbacked
and Ural mountains reptiles
complete their
development. Tethys
geosyncline from
280 Spain to India.
±10 ------------- ------------------- --------
Pennsylvanian Mountain building in dragonflies
southern Appalachians
and southwestern
United States. Ice age
in southern continents.
Coal swamps in many
310 parts of world.
±10 ------------- ------------------- --------
Mississippian Mountain building in amphibians,
southern North clams,
America and central lungfish
Europe. Extensive
seas over much of
345 interior North America.
±10 ------------- ------------------- --------
Devonian Catskill delta built starfish
from New England
mountains into New
York and Pennsylvania.
Mountain building in
northeastern North
America. Extensive
submergence of
geosynclines and
interior of North
405 America.
±10 ------------- ------------------- --------
Silurian Formation of sea
Caledonian mountains scorpions,
in northwestern corals,
Europe. Dead seas in sharks
Michigan, New York,
Ohio, southeastern
Canada. Deltas and
gravel beaches along
eastern edge of
425 Appalachian geosyncline.
±10 ------------- ------------------- --------
Ordovician Mountain building snails,
in northeastern jawless
North America. Over fish,
60 percent of North echinoids
American continent
500 covered by seas.
±10 ------------- ------------------- --------
Cambrian Climates generally protozoans,
mild and uniform. trilobites
Seas invade North
American continent.
Geosynclines develop
around edge of North
America.
?600 ------------- ------------------ --------
Precambrian Fault basins in jellyfish,
Lake Superior flagellates,
region. amoebas,
worms,
sponges
1,000 Deformation and
mountain building
through central
North America.
2,000 Geosynclines develop
throughout central
North America.
3,000 Extensive mountain
building in Lake
Superior region.
Oldest dated rocks.
4,500 Probable origin of
Earth from solar
dust cloud.
------ ------------- ------------------- --------
The Planets (Math and Science)
Mercury - Diameter, 3,100 miles; distance from
the sun, 36 million miles; orbits the sun every
88 days; rotates on its axis in 59 days.
Venus - Diameter, 7,700 miles; distance from the
sun, 67 million miles; orbits the sun every 225
days; rotates on its axis in 244 days.
Earth - Diameter, 7,920 miles; distance from the
sun, 93 million miles; orbits the sun every 365
days; rotates on its axis in 24 hours.
Mars - Diameter, 4,200 miles; distance from the
sun, 141 million miles; orbits the sun every 687
days; rotates on its axis in 24 hours 24 minutes.
Jupiter - Diameter, 88,640 miles; distance from
the sun, 483 million miles; orbits the sun every
11.9 years; rotates on its axis in 9 hours 50
minutes.
Saturn - Diameter, 74,500 miles (diameter of
rings, 165,000 miles); distance from the sun, 886
million miles; orbits the sun every 29.5 years;
rotates on its axis in 10 hours 39 minutes.
Uranus - Diameter, 32,000 miles; distance from
the sun, 1,782 million miles; orbits the sun
every 84 years; rotates on its axis in 23 hours.
Neptune - Diameter, 31,000 miles; distance from
the sun, 2,793 million miles; orbits the sun
every 165 years; rotates on its axis in 15 hours
48 minutes.
Pluto - Diameter, 1,500 miles; distance from the
sun, 3,670 million miles; orbits the sun every
248 years; rotates on its axis in 6 days 7 hours.
Brightest Stars (Math and Science)
Distance Location
Name Magnitude (light-years) (constellation)
Sirius -1.60 9 Canis Major
Canopus -0.73 650 Carina
Rigil -0.20 540 Centaurus
Arcturus -0.06 36 Bootes
Vega 0.04 27 Lyra
Capella 0.08 45 Auriga
Rigel 0.11 900 Orion
Procyon 0.50 11 Canis Minor
Achernar 0.48 118 Eridanus
Altair 0.77 16 Aquila
Betelgeuse 0.80 520 Orion
Aldebaran 0.85 68 Taurus
Spica 0.96 220 Virgo
Antares 1.00 520 Scorpio
Pollux 1.15 35 Gemini
Fomalhaut 1.16 23 Piscis Ausrinis
Deneb 1.25 1,600 Cygnus
(The brighter the star, the lower the magnitude.
Compared to Sirius, the sun's magnitude would be
-26.7.)
aberration (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
The apparent displacement of a star owing to the
orbital motion of Earth and the bending of light
rays from the star. As Earth travels around the
sun, the aberration causes the star to appear to
trace an ellipse about its true position.
albedo (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
The proportion of light reflected from a
celestial body. The moon reflects only about 7
percent of the sunlight falling on it, while the
albedo of Venus is more than 70 percent owing to
its heavy cloud cover, which reflects a greater
proportion of light.
big bang model (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
A theory that describes the beginning of our
universe as a titanic explosion. This explosion
did not occur at a particular point in space,
according to the theory, but rather was a
transition from enormous density and temperature
throughout all space to conditions of even lower
density and lower temperature as space itself
expanded. After the hypothetical explosion, the
universe was swamped with energy in the form of
radiant energy and various atomic particles. This
phase was followed by a cooling and thinning out
of the universe. It is believed that the universe
is still expanding at this time.
black hole (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
An ultimate state of gravitational collapse.
Stars with a mass greater than two solar masses
can expect to evolve into this condition, a
concentration of matter so dense that even
photons (light particles) cannot escape when the
pressure of thermonuclear reactions are unable to
counteract the force of self-gravitation. Black
holes are believed to be associated with certain
X-ray-emitting binary star systems, such as
Cygnus X-1.
corona (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
The outer envelope, or "atmosphere," of gas
surrounding the sun, possibly extending to the
orbit of Earth. During an eclipse of the sun, the
corona may be visible around the edges of the
moon. It has a density that is about
one-millionth that of the atmosphere of Earth.
cosmology (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
The study of the universe at large, of the
distribution and behavior of the matter and
energy in it, of the laws governing these
factors, and of its origin and evolution.
critical density (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
The mass density above which it is believed the
expansion of the universe will slow down and
reverse. Density in this case refers to all of
the matter and radiant energy distributed
throughout the universe.
curved space (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
A concept of Einstein's theory of general
relativity that space-time is "warped" by the
presence of massive bodies. A ray of light
passing near the sun will be deflected, or bent,
from a perfectly straight path. As applied to
cosmology, the current expansion of the universe
will proceed differently according to the type of
curvature. If the mass density of the universe is
above critical density, it is assumed that the
curvature of space is spherical; below critical
density, the curvature is considered to be
hyperbolic.
galaxy (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
A large system of stars, usually containing
between 1 million and 1 trillion stars, along
with clouds of gas and dust. Galaxies are
sometimes classified according to their shapes as
spiral, elliptical, or irregular.
gravitational collapse (Astronomy) (Math and Science)
The contraction of a star when the pressure of
thermonuclear reactions can no longer sustain the
force of self-gravitation. Collapse occurs at the
end of a star's life when its fuel of hydrogen
and other elements is depleted. Depending on its
original mass, the star may evolve into a white
dwarf, a neutron star, or a black hole, or it may
explode as a supernova.
Hubble flow (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
The mutual recession of celestial objects from
each other by virtue of the expansion of the
universe.
light-year (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
The distance light travels in one year,
approximately 6 trillion miles.
matter era (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
A period in the evolution of the universe
beginning about 100,000 years after the big bang
and continuing to the present time. During this
period, the temperature of the universe had
cooled to about 3,000 degrees making it possible
for electrons and protons to form neutral
hydrogen atoms in a process of recombination. The
atoms, in turn, accumulated in the clouds, stars,
and galaxies that we observe today.
Milky Way (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
The spiral galaxy in which our solar system is
located. It contains about 150 billion stars, has
a diameter of 500,000 light-years, and is about
12 billion years old.
neutron star (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
A tiny star, usually a shrunken remnant of a once
larger star, whose thermonuclear reactions could
no longer uphold the bulk of the star's mass
against the force of self-gravitation. A neutron
star is only a few kilometers in diameter, midway
between a white dwarf and a black hole.
perturbation (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
The influence of one celestial body on another.
pulsar (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
An object that emits radio waves in preferred
directions and in periodic bursts. First
discovered in 1967, pulsars are thought to be
rapidly spinning neutron stars.
quark (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
An elementary electrical particle that is
believed to be the "building block" from which
subatomic particles such as protons and neutrons
are constructed. It is believed that quarks
formed early in the creation of the universe,
when the temperature was around a thousand
billion degrees and physical forces were roughly
equivalent.
quasar (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
A contraction of the word quasistellar, used to
describe celestial objects with a starlike
appearance. Quasars are the most distant objects
known. They have large red shifts indicating
great recessional velocities and emit energy that
is more than a thousand times that of an average
galaxy.
radiation era (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
A period early in the age of the universe when
the temperature fell from about 10 billion
degrees to 3,000 degrees, allowing the formation
of simple nuclei, such as deuterium and helium.
The radiation era was followed by the matter era.
red shift (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
The shift of a spectrum of light toward long, red
wavelengths owing to the Doppler effect of
recession of a star. The faster an object recedes
from Earth, the greater the shift of its light
toward the red end of the spectrum. A quasar with
a large red shift is moving away from Earth at a
velocity of 91 percent the speed of light.
sidereal time (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
Time that is measured by the rotation of Earth
with respect to the stars, as distinguished from
solar time, which is based on the rotation of
Earth with respect to the sun.
supernova (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
A gigantic explosion in which a star undergoing
gravitational collapse ejects into space a large
portion of its mass. This is accompanied by an
immense outburst of light and charged particles.
white star (Astronomy Terms) (Math and Science)
A tiny star, about the size of Earth, which is
the shrunken remnant of a once larger star whose
thermonuclear reactions could no longer uphold
the bulk of the star's mass against the force of
self-gravitation. Further gravitational collapse
is prevented by a condition in which the atoms
are crushed very close together.
abaxial (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Facing away from the stem or central axis of a
plant or animal.
abiogenesis (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A theory that living things can develop from
nonliving material, as in spontaneous generation.
adaptation (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The modification of an organism or part of an
organism to adjust to new conditions or a new
environment, as in adjustment of the eyes to
bright light.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (Math and Science)
A chemical compound present in all living cells
that provides energy derived from food or
sunlight for processes that require activity,
such as contraction of a muscle or conduction of
a nerve impulse.
appendage (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A structure attached to a larger structure or
part of an organism, such as an arm or leg or
other projection of a body area.
bacteria (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Tiny, one-celled plant organisms that are
generally parasitic and lacking in chlorophyll.
They are commonly involved in processes of
fermentation and decay, and many species are the
cause of diseases in humans and animals.
bladder (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A saclike organ with a membranous wall that
serves to collect or hold a fluid or gas, such as
the urinary bladder or the air bladder of marine
animals.
blastula (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A stage in the development of an embryo after the
early phase of cell division when the cells form
a hollow ball. The wall of the sphere is a single
layer of cells, the blastoderm. The various
organs, such as the gut, nervous system, and
appendages, eventually evolve from cells of the
blastula.
bud (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
An undeveloped appendage of an organism. A plant
bud may develop into flowers or leaves while the
bud of an animal embryo may become an arm, leg,
or wing. Some bacteria and yeast cells reproduce
by issuing buds, each of which becomes a new
organism.
bug (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Any of a large number of creeping or flying
insects, mainly of the order Hemiptera. Examples
of "true bugs" include bed bugs, cinch bugs,
squash bugs, and giant water bugs.
calyx (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A cuplike portion of a plant or animal organ.
Examples include the sepals, or outermost parts
of a flower, and the funnel-shaped part of a
kidney that collects urine as it drains toward
the bladder.
carnivore (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Any meat-eating animal, particularly a member of
the order Carnivora, which includes wolves,
coyotes, bears, dogs, and cats.
cell (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The basic structural unit of living things. It
usually consists of a membranous wall containing
protoplasm, a souplike mixture of proteins,
enzymes, and other organic chemicals needed for
survival and reproduction. Most cells also
contain a nucleus that in turn holds the DNA
molecules, or genetic material, that control the
various cell functions.
chlorophyll (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Any of nearly a dozen kinds of green pigments
present in most plant cells. Chlorophylls are
able to convert the energy from sunlight into
carbohydrates, which plants form from carbon
dioxide and water present in the environment. The
carbohydrates in turn become a source of energy
for animals and humans after the plant material
is eaten.
chromosome (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A rod-shaped unit of DNA present in the nucleus
of a cell that is capable of reproducing itself.
It contains a portion of the genetic or
hereditary traits of the species it represents.
The number of chromosomes and their shapes and
sizes vary among different species and sexes
within a species. Human males, for example,
possess a Y-shaped chromosome that is not
normally present in female cells and that governs
masculine physical traits.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Math and Science)
A large molecule of nucleic acid found in the
nuclei, usually in the chromosomes, of living
cells. It controls such functions as the
production of protein molecules in the cell and
carries the template for reproduction of all the
inherited characteristics of its particular
species.
embryo (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The young of a species at a very early stage of
development, as the rudimentary plant that bursts
forth from a seed when it germinates or the bird
that has not yet hatched from its egg. In
mammals, the embryo stage occurs after the cells
of the blastula begin to specialize for the
development of the fetus.
endogenous (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Pertaining to factors influencing an organism
that originate within that organism, as
distinguished from exogenous factors, such as
environmental influences, that originate on the
outside.
evolution (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The process by which a species of plants or
animals gradually develops over a period of many
generations from a simpler to a more complex form
of organism. The traits of the simpler organism
are often continued into the more complex form of
the same organism, as can be observed in the
brain and other structures of the human body.
fauna (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The animal life of a region or period of history.
fermentation (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A process whereby complex carbohydrates or other
organic substances are converted to other
chemicals by the action of enzymes produced by
molds, yeasts, or bacteria. An example is the
conversion of sugars to alcohol.
fertilization (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The union of a male and a female reproductive
cell resulting in the formation of a new
organism. The term is also used to describe the
process or enrichment of the soil for growing
crops.
flora (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The plant life of a region or period of history.
genitalia (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The reproductive sex organs of a male or female
of the species, particularly structures on the
outside of the body.
genus (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A subdivision of a biological family. It is
composed of a group of related species, such as
the genus Canis, which includes various species
of dogs.
gonads (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The male and female reproductive organs.
haploid (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Half the number of chromosomes ordinarily present
in the nucleus of a cell. During reproduction,
the offspring receives a haploid number of
chromosomes from each parent, making a full, or
diploid, set.
herbaceous (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Herblike, usually used to describe a plant in
which persistent woody tissue does not develop.
herbivore (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
An animal that feeds entirely or mainly on plant
materials.
hormone (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A chemical secretion of a gland or other tissue
that triggers an action in another gland or
tissue in a different part of the body.
immunity (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A quality of being able to resist an infectious
disease.
inbreeding (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The mating of closely related individuals, as in
self-pollinating plants or animals that are
brothers and sisters.
joint (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
An area between two parts or segments of an
organism, such as the junction of two separate
bones of an animal or the node of a plant.
karyotype (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The general appearance of a set of chromosomes
of an individual. Karyotype may be used to
determine sex, genetic defects, and other
chromosome-related factors.
kernel (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The entire grain or seed of a cereal plant.
larva (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The young, immature form of an organism that
undergoes a change in structure to become an
adult, as a caterpillar or maggot.
leaf (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
An outgrowth of a stem of a plant, usually green,
in which many living functions, such as
photosynthesis, respiration, and food and water
storage, take place.
lipid (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Any of a group of fatty substances, including
oils and waxes, produced by plant or animal
tissues. Lipids generally are insoluble in water
but they can be dissolved in alcohol, benzene, or
similar organic solvents.
male (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The sex of an animal that produces spermatozoa or
of a plant that produces pollen.
mammal (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A warm-blooded, air-breathing vertebrate of the
class Mammalia, possessing hair and mammary
glands.
Mendel's laws (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A series of natural principles of heredity
discovered by Gregor Mendel (1822 - 1884). They
govern such factors as dominant and recessive
traits resulting from the interaction of genes
that are inherited in pairs.
metabolism (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The chemical and energy changes associated with
the consumption of food and oxygen, the
production of heat, and the calories used in
physical activity.
natural selection (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A principle proposed by Charles Darwin (1809 -
1882) to explain the ability of various species
to adapt to changes in the environment. Called
"survival of the fittest," the theory offered an
explanation for the survival of some species and
extinction of others.
neuron (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The structural and functional unit of a nerve,
including the cell body and its axon and dendrite
fibers.
nucleus (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A structure present in most plant and animal
cells. It contains the chromosomes and
ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules that direct the
cell's life functions.
osmosis (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The diffusion of water through a semipermeable
membrane from the side with a greater
concentration of a solution to the side with a
lesser concentration.
osseous (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Pertaining to bones, as something composed of
bone or resembling bone.
phenotype (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The physical features or appearance of an
individual, as distinguished from the genotype,
or genetic composition of his or her cells. Two
or more persons with the same physical appearance
may belong to the same phenotype.
pistil (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The female sex structure of a plant, usually
containing the ovary.
Protozoa (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A phylum, or large group, of one-celled animals.
receptor (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Any cell or group of cells that is the target of
a stimulus, such as the retina of the eye.
regeneration (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The ability of some plants and animals to restore
or replace lost tissues or structures, such as a
claw or feather.
stamen (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The pollen-producing structure of a plant. It
usually consists of an anther, the actual pollen
producer, on the tip of a flower filament.
stimulus (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
An environmental influence, such as a chemical or
physical irritant, that induces or brings about a
response in a cell or organism.
symbiosis (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A relationship in which two organisms live
together for the mutual benefit of each.
terrestrial (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Pertaining to plant or animal life on land rather
than in water.
tissue (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
A group of cells with similar structures and
functions.
tropism (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The involuntary response of an organism to a
stimulus, such as the response of a plant to
gravity or sunlight.
vacuole (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
Any of the spaces scattered about the protoplasm
of a cell, usually containing fluid.
zygote (Biology Terms) (Math and Science)
The fertilized egg cell of a plant or animal.
acid (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A substance that, in liquid form, will turn blue
litmus paper red, react with alkalis (bases) to
form salts, and dissolve metals to form salts.
On the pH scale of 0 to 14, acids register in
numbers less than 7.
alcohol (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
Any of a group of organic compounds that
contains a hydroxyl (OH) group. A common example
is ethyl alcohol.
alkali (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
Any compound that has chemical qualities of a
base, such as reacting with acids to form salts.
On the pH scale, alkalis register in numbers
larger than 7.
anion (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
An ion with a negative electrical charge.
base (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
An alkaline substance, either in molecular or
ionic form, that will accept or receive a proton
from another chemical unit. An example is a
hydroxyl ion.
benzene ring (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A common organic molecule structure consisting of
a ring of six carbon atoms with an equal number
of attached hydrogen atoms. Many organic
chemicals occur in a benzene ring format with
various atoms or radicals substituted for one or
more hydrogen atoms, as in toluene and xylene as
variations of benzene.
bond (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A strong electrical force that holds atoms
together in molecules, crystals, and other
combinations. A molecular bond may depend on the
attractive force of an electron whose orbit
spans the outer shells of two or more component
atoms. In double bonds, two pairs of electrons
may be shared equally by adjacent atoms.
catalyst (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A substance that accelerates a chemical reaction
without becoming a part of the end product of the
reaction. A catalyst can generally be recovered
in its original form following the reaction.
cation (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
An ion, atom, or group of atoms with a positive
electrical charge.
compound (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A substance formed by the combination of two or
more chemical elements that cannot be separated
from the combination by physical means. The
constituent atoms, however, can usually be
separated by means of chemical reactions.
electrolyte (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
Any chemical, such as a mineral, that when melted
or dissolved in water will show an electrical
attraction or conduct an electric current.
electron (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A negatively charged particle that moves in an
orbit about the nucleus of an atom.
element (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A substance composed of atoms with the same
atomic number or the same number of protons in
their nuclei. Examples include oxygen, hydrogen,
carbon, and gold.
hydrocarbon (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
Any of a large group of chemical compounds
consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen
atoms, usually associated with current or past
life processes.
hydroxyl (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
Pertaining to the negatively charged OH (oxygen
+ hydrogen) radical in an organic compound.
inorganic chemistry (Chemistry) (Math and Science)
A branch of chemical science that deals primarily
with elements and compounds that do not include
hydrocarbons.
isotope (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
One of two or more atoms having the same atomic
number but a different mass number. An example is
zinc, which has isotopes with five different mass
numbers ranging from 64 to 70. However, all of
the isotopes have equal nuclear charges, orbital
electrons, and chemical properties.
mass number (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
The atomic weight of an isotope, calculated from
the numbers of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus.
matter (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
Anything that has weight or fills space, such as
a solid, liquid, or gas.
organic chemistry (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A branch of chemistry that specializes in the
composition, properties, and reactions of
hydrocarbon compounds.
oxidation (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
Any chemical reaction that increases the number
of oxygen atoms in a compound, or in which the
positive valence is increased by a loss of
electrons.
pH (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A symbol for hydrogen ion activity of a substance
as an expression of the negative logarithm of the
concentration of hydrogen ions in moles per
liter. Values of pH range from 0 to 14, with a pH
of 7 representing acid-base neutrality. The
degree of acidity increases as the number
progresses toward zero, while alkalinity
increases as the pH number approaches 14.
polymer (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A huge molecule composed of repeating units of
the same molecule. An example is polyethylene,
formed by linking ethylene molecules into a giant
chain.
reduction (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A chemical reaction in which a substance gains
electrons or loses part of its positive valence.
Reduction generally occurs in a reaction that
also involves oxidation.
solute (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A substance that is dissolved in a solution.
solvent (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
The substance that represents the greatest
proportion of parts of a solution when two or
more substances, such as a solid and liquid, are
mixed.
valence (Chemistry Terms) (Math and Science)
A number that represents the combining power of
an element, ion, or radical. The valence of
hydrogen is +1, while the valence of oxygen is
-2.
acceleration (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The rate of change of velocity with respect to
time. It is calculated by subtracting the initial
or starting velocity from the final velocity and
dividing the difference by the time required to
reach that velocity.
achromatic (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
An optical system that will transmit light
without breaking it down into its component
colors.
acoustics (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The science of the production, transmission, and
effect of sound waves.
adiabatic (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
Pertaining to any activity that is not
accompanied by a gain or loss of heat.
anode (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The positive terminal of an electrical current
flow. In a vacuum tube, electrons flow from a
cathode toward the anode.
Bohr theory (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
A commonly accepted concept of the atom
introduced by Niels Bohr in 1913. It holds that
each atom consists of a small, dense, positively
charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged
electrons that move in fixed, defined orbits
about the nucleus, the total number of electrons
normally balancing the total positive charge of
particles in the nucleus.
Boyle's law (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The principle that the volume of a gas times its
pressure is constant at a fixed temperature.
cathode (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The negative terminal of an electric current
system. In a vacuum tube, the filament serves as
the cathode or source of electrons that are
emitted.
conduction (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The transfer of heat by molecular motion from a
source of high temperature to a region of lower
temperature, tending toward a result of equalized
temperatures.
convection (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The mechanical transfer of heated molecules of a
gas or liquid from a source to another area, as
when a room is warmed by the movement of air
molecules heated by a radiator.
Coulomb's law (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The principle that an electrostatic force of
attraction or repulsion between electrical
charges is directly proportional to the product
of the electrical charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
electromotive force (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The force that causes the movement of electrons
through an electrical circuit.
energy (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The ability to perform work. Energy may be
changed from one form to another, as from heat
into light, but it normally cannot be created or
destroyed.
force (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The influence on a body that causes it to
accelerate, as expressed by the formula F = ma.
heat (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
A form of energy that results from the disordered
motion of molecules. As the motion becomes more
rapid and disordered, the amount of heat is
increased.
kinetic energy (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
Energy that is associated with the motion of an
object.
mechanics (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
A branch of physics that deals with the motion of
objects.
momentum (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The mathematical product of the mass of a moving
object and its velocity, as expressed by the
formula p = mv.
potential energy (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
Energy that is stored because of position or
configuration, such as the gravitational energy
of a weight that is positioned on the roof of a
building.
power (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The rate at which work is performed, as expressed
by the formula P = W/t.
velocity (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The speed with which an object travels over a
specified distance during a measured amount of
time. It may be expressed by the formula v = d/t.
weight (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The force on a body produced by the downward pull
of gravity on it. It may be expressed by the
formula Wt = mg, where m represents the mass of
the object and g represents the effect of
gravity.
work (Physics Terms) (Math and Science)
The force applied to an object times the distance
over which it is applied, as expressed by the
formula W = Fd. Work may be independent of the
energy expended.
absorbing dynamometer (Engineering) (Math and Science)
A device that absorbs and dissipates the power it
measures. An example is the common rope brake.
abutment (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
Any point or surface designed to withstand
thrust, as the end supports of an arch or bridge.
aggregate (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
The sand, broken stone, and similar materials
that are added to cement and water to form
concrete.
apomecometer (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A surveying instrument used to calculate the
height of structures by coincident light
reflected from the top and bottom of the
structure when the location of the instrument is
the same distance from the base of the structure
as its height.
balance crane (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A crane with two arms, one arranged to balance
the load on the other.
bearing pile (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
In civil engineering, a column that is sunk into
the ground to support a vertical load. It
transmits the load to a firmer foundation at a
lower depth, or it may consolidate the soil to
increase its ability to bear the load.
block gauge (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A block of hardened steel with opposite faces
ground flat and parallel and separated by a
specific distance. It is used to check the
accuracy of other gauges.
cable way (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A system of suspending cables between two towers
so that a skip suspended from the cables can be
raised, lowered, or otherwise maneuvered to any
position along the cables.
caisson (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A watertight compartment built to surround a
structure, such as a bridge foundation, that
would otherwise be beneath the surface of the
water.
camber (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
An upwardly convex curvature applied to a
structure or part of a structure for a specific
purpose. Examples include the camber added to
girders to allow for deflection caused by loading
or to the surface of a road to facilitate
drainage.
cantilever (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A beam or girder that is firmly attached at one
end but free at the other. A bridge may be
started as two cantilevered, or self-supporting,
projecting arms, built inward from piers and
eventually connected at the center of the span.
differential motion (Engineering) (Math and Science)
A mechanical movement in which the speed of a
driven part is equal to the difference in the
speeds of the parts connected to it.
dog (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
Any of a variety of gripping devices, such as a
steel securing piece used to fasten a pair of
timbers used for shoring.
electromechanical brake (Engineering) (Science)
A braking device in which the force is obtained
partly by the attraction of two magnetized
surfaces and partly by mechanical means. It is
controlled by a solenoid.
engine (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
Any machine in which power is applied to perform
work. Examples include devices that convert
thermal, or heat, energy into mechanical work,
such as a locomotive.
engineer's chain (Engineering) (Math and Science)
A surveying device consisting of a chain that is
100 feet in length with each link 1 foot long.
expansion joint (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A joint designed between two parts of a structure
so the two parts can expand when the temperature
increases, as on a hot summer day, without
causing distortion or damage to the structure.
Examples include joints between lengths of rail
in a railroad line and sliding socket joints in
pipelines.
gasket (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A flat sheet of asbestos, cotton rope impregnated
with graphite, or similar material, used to form
a gas-tight joint between parts of engines,
pumps, or other devices.
girder (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A beam, usually made of steel, used to bridge an
open space.
grid (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
In electrical engineering, a network of
electrical power lines connecting various
generating stations.
helical gears (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
Gear wheels in which the teeth are set at an
angle to the axis rather than parallel to the
wheel axis.
impeller (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
The rotating part of a centrifugal pump. It
imparts kinetic energy to the fluid being moved.
mechanical advantage (Engineering) (Math and Science)
The ratio of the resistance or load to the
applied force or effort of a machine.
skip (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A bucket, box, or similar device used to
transport building materials, spoils, or mining
products to or from a work site. It usually is
suspended from a crane or cable way.
theodolite (Engineering Terms) (Math and Science)
A surveying instrument used for measuring
horizontal and vertical angles.
abyssal zone (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
A region of greatest ocean depth, generally
greater than 1,000 meters, including the deep-sea
trenches. Biological activity is rare in the
abyssal zone; light does not penetrate the water,
as the depth and pressure are tremendous. The
region represents about 250 million square
kilometers of Earth's surface.
age (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
An interval of geological time that indicates
when a body of rock was formed in the surface of
Earth. A group of ages forms an epoch.
alluvium (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
The sediment carried by rivers, including
deposits from estuaries, lakes, and other
freshwater bodies draining into a river. The
particles of sediment are generally smaller than
0.02 millimeter, depending on such factors as
valleyside slopes in the watershed, the distance
carried downstream, and progressive wear on the
particles as they move downstream.
anthropomorphic soil (Geology/Geography) (Science)
Soil that is distinctive in composition and
contour from the surrounding environment as a
result of human activity. An example is soil that
has been used for farming.
barrier beach (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
An accumulation of sand, rock, and other material
lying parallel to the coast but separated from it
by a channel; it measures from a few meters to a
few kilometers in width. Large barrier beaches
may be identified as barrier islands. They are
formed by the action of waves but are usually
vulnerable to overwashing or breaching during
severe storms.
bathyal zone (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
A zone of ocean water ranging from about 200
meters to 1,000 meters in depth, generally
located along continental slopes. Unlike the
abyssal zone, light reaches the upper layer of
the bathyal zone and there is abundant biological
activity in the water. The bathyal zone of the
world covers a total of about 40 million square
kilometers.
bed (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
The smallest division of stratified sedimentary
rock, usually occurring as a relatively thin
sheet of sedimentary material separating
distinctively different layers above and below
it. A bed often marks a particular event in
geologic history, such as a volcanic eruption,
and it may contain fossils that help identify its
age.
Cambrian (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
The earliest period of the Paleozoic Era, about
600 million years ago. Rocks formed at this
period contain the earliest fossil remains of
invertebrate animals.
chronostratigraphy (Geology/Geography) (Science)
A system of classifying the major divisions of
geologic time. According to the system, the
smallest segment is a chron; groups of chrons
form an age; a group of ages forms an epoch;
epochs form periods; periods form eras; and eras
form eons. There is no uniform time scale applied
to the divisions. For example, the Miocene Epoch
spans 17 million years but the following Pliocene
Epoch lasted only 3.7 million years.
continental drift (Geology/Geography) (Science)
The shifting of continental land masses from one
location to another on the face of Earth owing to
sea-floor spreading. Evidence supporting the
concept is based on comparison of flora, fauna,
rock types, and geologic formations. It indicates
that until about 250 million years ago, there
were just two continents - Pangaea and
Gondwanaland - from which the present continents
were formed.
Coriolis effect (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
A force produced on objects moving on a north -
south line on the surface of Earth because of the
angular velocity of Earth as it rotates from west
to east. Thus, a projectile fired directly
southward from the North Pole would be deviated
to the west. The Coriolis force affects mainly
the flow of air in the atmosphere.
creep (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
The slow movement of rocks and soil down slopes
of hills owing to the pull of gravity. It is
believed the movement involves a sliding of the
entire Earth mantle over the underlying bedrock
rather than changes within the mantle itself. The
effect can be observed in the tendency of
telephone poles and other objects to alter
positions on gentle slopes over a period of
years.
diagenesis (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
The process whereby sedimentary rock is formed
from sediment because of compaction, reduced pore
space between particles, and chemical reactions
between molecules of the compressed particles and
dissolved substances in moisture between the
particles.
doldrums (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
A region between the equator and the trade wind
zones where winds are light and variable, storms
are frequent and severe, and navigation is
difficult.
equinox (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
A date that occurs twice each year when the sun
is overhead at local solar time at the equator
and day and night are both 12 hours long. It
occurs on or about March 21 and September 21.
era (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
An interval of geological time composed of a
group of periods. An example is the Paleozoic
Era, which spans a series of six periods of
geological time.
estuary (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
The portion of a river that is affected by ocean
tides above the mouth, with a resulting mixture
of salt water and fresh water. Most estuaries are
former valleys that were flooded by rising ocean
levels after the last glacial event. The Hudson
River is an example of an estuary.
fjord (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
A narrow sea inlet between mountain slopes. Most
fjords were once glaciated valleys that became
flooded by rising sea water after the last ice
age. In some cases, the bottom of the fjord may
be lower than the bottom of the sea at its
opening into the fjord.
floodplain (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
A relatively level area alongside a river that is
subject to flooding periodically. It usually is
composed of sediment that has been deposited over
the surface of an original rock-cut valley.
frost hollow (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
An area where cold air, which has a greater
density than warm air, tends to collect because
there is no free air outlet from the low-lying
hollow. As a result, the area is more likely than
the surrounding landscape to experience frost on
cold days.
geology (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
The science of the structure and composition of
Earth.
glacier (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
An accumulation of ice formed in turn by
compaction of accumulated snow moving downslope
from a source area because of the force of
gravity. A glacier is usually confined within
the limited space of a valley or basin. It may be
gaining ice at the source while losing ice at a
point where it melts while moving into warmer
temperatures or a body of water.
induration (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
The hardening of porous rocks or soils owing to
weather conditions and the chemical actions of
dissolved minerals, which form a cement. The
concretelike rock formed by induration usually
consists of combinations of calcium, silicon, or
iron with carbon and oxygen.
leaching (Geology/Geography) (Math and Science)
The action of water draining through soil layers
carrying dissolved minerals or organic matter
from the upper layers. Because leaching tends to
remove alkaline substances, the soils eventually
become acidic.
Mercator projection (Geology/Geography) (Science)
A map in which the spherical Earth is projected
as a cylinder onto a flat surface. It results in
straight-line bearings that are correct and is
most commonly used for navigation charts,
although the projection distorts the areas toward
the North and South poles.
address (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A location in the computer memory where a
particular unit of data is stored. The address
may be in the form of an identifying label, name,
or number.
ALGOL (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
An algorithmic computer programming language,
used mainly by mathematicians and scientists.
algorithm (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A defined set of instructions or procedural steps
that will lead to a logical conclusion for a
specific problem.
analog computer (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A computer that measures a function or behavior
involving continuously variable signals, such as
signals representing current, voltage, or other
factors. An analog computer is also able to
respond immediately to changes in input. The
output may be presented in the form of a tracing
on a graph or a design on a TV picture tube.
analog-to-digital computer (Computer Terms) (Science)
A device that is able to convert continuous
analog signals into digital data, or discrete
numbers.
architecture (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The design of a computer so that hardware and
software interface effectively.
arithmetic/logic unit (Computer Terms) (Science)
The part of a computer that performs calculations
and comparisons.
array (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
An arrangement of data in which each item may be
identified by a key or subscript so that a
computer program can be designed to examine and
extract specific data. An example is a calendar
array in which a particular day of the year can
be identified.
ASCII (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Acronym for American Standard Code for
Information Interchange, a uniform character code
used by many computer systems so that data can be
exchanged directly between various types of
central and remote units and peripheral devices.
Each alphabetic and numeric character requires a
full byte.
assembler (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A computer program designed to assemble machine
code from symbolic code or source language.
assembly language (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A machine-oriented computer programming language
that can be translated directly into machine
instructions.
BASIC (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Acronym for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code, a program that is a standard
language for most personal computers. It is
designed for developing programs in a
"conversational mode" for on-line use.
batch (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A group of records or collection of transactions
that may be processed together.
baud rate (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The rate at which information is transmitted
serially from a computer. It is expressed in
terms of bits per second.
binary (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A numbering system based on twos (2's) rather
than decimals (10's). Each element has a digit
value of either zero (0) or one (1) and is known
as a bit.
binary coded decimal (BCD) (Computer Terms) (Science)
A method of encoding four bits of binary computer
code to represent the 10 decimal digits. For
example, 0 = 0000; 1 = 0001; 2 = 0010; and so on
through 9 = 1001.
bit (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
An acronym constructed from the words binary
digit. It refers to a single digit of a binary
number.
bootstrap (boot) (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The process of initializing or loading the basic
operating instructions into a computer.
buffer (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A temporary storage area for data that helps
compensate for differences in the speed of
operations of two or more parts of a computer
system, such as the central processing unit and a
printer.
bug (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Any error or malfunction in a computer operation
or program.
byte (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A set or unit of binary digits, usually eight
bits, such as a division of a word.
cathode ray tube (CRT) (Computer Terms) (Science)
An electronic tube, similar to a television
picture tube, on which a computer output is
displayed (also called a visual display
terminal).
central processing unit (CPU) (Computer Terms)
The part of the computer circuitry that actually
handles the data processing and controls the
storage, movement, and other basic computer
functions.
channel (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A path through which computer data flow.
character (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Any digit, letter, punctuation, or symbol,
usually represented by a single byte of eight
bits.
clock (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
An electronic device that monitors, measures, or
synchronizes various functions of a computer
system.
COBOL (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
An acronym formed from the words COmmon Business
Oriented Language.
command (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A part of a computer code that gives input/output
instructions to the computer.
compiler (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A set of programs that compiles or converts a
program into the machine language instructions
used by a particular computer.
console (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The part of the central processing unit from
which the computer operator manually directs
activities of the system, as through a keyboard.
control data (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Computer information that helps organize data in
key categories, such as sorting sequences.
control unit (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The part of the central processing unit that
manipulates the sequences of operations according
to the program instructions.
cursor (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A character, such as a movable line or block of
light, used to indicate a position on a cathode
ray tube screen.
data acquisition system (Computer Terms) (Science)
A system in which data from computers in remote
locations can be transmitted to a central
computer unit. The flow of data is usually
governed by a program control that buffers signal
inputs from the various peripheral units.
database (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A large file of organized information that may be
updated and manipulated as needed.
data management system (Computer Terms) (Science)
A set of commands used to search and retrieve
content, update, and reference information from a
database.
diagnostic routine (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A program designed to trace the source of program
errors or the cause of a computer malfunction.
digital computer (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A computer in which discrete numbers are used to
express data and instructions.
digitalization rate (Computer Terms) (Science)
The speed with which digitalization occurs in an
analog-to-digital converter.
disk (diskette) (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A circular plate coated with magnetic material
that can be used to store computer data.
disk drive (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A device that is able to "read" data stored in
magnetic material on a disk or to "write" data
onto such a disk.
down time (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A period of time during which a computer system
is out of operation.
dynamic range (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The range of voltage or input signals that
results in a digital output in an
analog-to-digital converter.
error message (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A message output by the computer, triggered by a
program, indicating failure to follow a correct
input/output routine, a hardware malfunction, or
another problem that may cause the operation to
discontinue.
execute (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Performance of an operation specified by a
program routine or instruction.
file (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A collection of related data or information that
is stored as a unit.
FORTRAN (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
An acronym formed from the words FORmula
TRANslator. It is a programming language used for
mathematical and scientific operations.
garbage (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A popular term for meaningless data, usually the
result of erroneous input/output operations or
the result of data left in the computer memory
from a previous unrelated project.
generation (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Pertaining to a group of computers developed
within the same time period based on the model of
an earlier product.
generator (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A routine designed to produce a program that will
perform a specific version of a general
operation, usually by filling in certain details
within a predetermined framework.
hard copy (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A copy of the output of a computer that has been
produced on paper, as distinguished from the
electronic copy of the same data on disk or tape.
hardware (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The physical equipment or devices, such as the
central processing unit, of a computer system.
See also software.
hexadecimal (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A system of whole numbers with a base of 16 used
in certain computer operations. Hexadecimal
coding uses numerals 0 to 16 with the first 10
digits represented by 0 through 9 and the next
six digits represented by the letters A through
F.
high-level language (Computer Terms) (Science)
Any computer language in which each instruction
corresponds to a group of machine code
instructions. Examples include BASIC and COBOL.
housekeeping (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Standard computer routines, such as deleting
garbage or preliminary input/output functions,
that are not directly related to a particular
job.
hybrid computer (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A computer that is able to perform both analog
and digital computing functions.
input (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The information a computer receives from a
keyboard, tape, or disk.
input/output (I/O) terminal (Computer Terms) (Science)
A computer device that is capable of both
receiving and retrieving data.
instruction (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A part of a program that directs a computer to
perform a single specific function as part of a
sequence of functions.
interface (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A device that serves as a link or common surface
boundary between two different parts of a
computer system.
interrupt (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A temporary suspension of processing by a
computer, caused by input or other activity by
another part of the system.
joystick (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A lever that is connected to a computer for use
in moving the cursor from one point to another on
a video display terminal.
K (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
An abbreviation for kilo and a symbol for 1,000
(actually 210, or 1,024); it is commonly used to
indicate the storage capacity of a computer
memory. For example, a 64K memory has a
theoretical capacity of 64 x 1,024, or 65,536,
bytes or data storage locations.
keyboard (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A device that encodes characters for a computer
function by depressing keys. Pressing the keys
may punch holes in punched cards or provide a
direct input of data to the computer.
label (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A group of computer characters used to identify a
file, record, or memory storage area.
language (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A set of characters that can be used to form a
meaningful set of words and symbols in writing
instructions for a computer. Examples include
ALGOL, BASIC, COBOL, and FORTRAN.
light pen (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A photoelectric device connected to the cathode
ray tube of a display unit. It can be used by the
operator to activate the computer to change or
modify an image displayed by touching the pen to
the screen.
machine language (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A language composed of a set of numbers and
symbols that can direct computer operations
without the need for translation.
magnetic memory (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A memory device that uses magnetic fields for
storing data.
mainframe computer (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A large professional computer system used by a
major industry or government agency, as
distinguished from a smaller minicomputer or
microcomputer.
memory (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The ability of a computer to store and retrieve
data.
message (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A combination of characters or symbols used to
communicate information between points of a
computer system. See also error message.
microcomputer (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A small personal computer or word processor.
microprocessor (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A single large-scale integrated circuit on a
fingernail-sized silicon chip. It contains
thousands of individual circuit elements and is
the heart of the central processing unit.
minicomputer (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A computer that is larger in capacity,
flexibility, and cost than a microcomputer. It
may commonly be used to control industrial
processes.
MODEM (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
An acronym formed from the words MOdulator
DEModulator. It is an electronic device that
allows computer data to be carried over telephone
lines.
mouse (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A movable device attached to a computer that
permits the operator to reposition the cursor on
the video display terminal. Manipulating the
device moves the cursor vertically or
horizontally on the screen.
multiprogramming (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The performance of two or more different computer
functions at the same time.
off-line (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Pertaining to computer functions that are not
under the direct control of a central processing
unit or computer operator. The term is sometimes
applied to hard copy or stored data.
on-line (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Computer operations that are under the direct
control of the central processing unit or
operator.
operating system (OS) (Computer Terms) (Science)
A program that enables one to use a computer and
its peripheral devices.
optical scanner (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
An electronic device that scans direct or
reflected light from a surface, such as a printed
page, and converts the signals to
machine-readable inputs.
output (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The results of a computer operation, which may
appear in the form of a printout or visual
display.
peripheral (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Any device that is separate from but connected to
the computer for the purpose of supplying input
or output functions, such as a modem or printer.
primary memory (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The part of the computer used as the main storage
area for data or programs.
random access (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The direct retrieval of data from a location in
the computer memory without the need for sorting
through sequential information.
random access memory (RAM) (Computer Terms) (Science)
A computer storage device that permits direct
access to data independent of its location in the
computer memory.
read only memory (ROM) (Computer Terms) (Science)
A type of computer memory that can be used to
retrieve data for output only; new data cannot be
written into it.
real time (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
Computer operations that permit rapid analyses of
data so that decisions can be made immediately.
register (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A part of the computer's central processing unit
that stores information for future use. It may
have specific uses, such as arithmetic functions
or word processing. A computer may contain
several different registers.
response time (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The amount of time between the input of
information into a computer and its output, or
response to the input.
serial processing (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A type of computer function in which two or more
programs are run in sequence rather than
simultaneously.
software (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The programs or instructions used to operate a
computer system, as distinguished from the
hardware.
storage capacity (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The amount of data that can be stored in a
computer memory. See also K.
streaming mode (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A removable magnetic-tape backup system for hard
disk drives. It permits copying data from the
hard disk so that it can be preserved in the
event of a hard drive failure.
terminal (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
An input/output device that allows an operator to
control a computer. It may consist of a keyboard
and video display screen.
time sharing (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A computer function of handling two or more tasks
simultaneously, as when a mainframe computer is
used to process operations of several remote
terminals at the same time. Such a system depends
on buffering and switching inputs and outputs for
each terminal. This is done at such a high rate
of speed that operators of individual terminals
are unaware that others are sharing the same
central processing unit.
track (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A segment of a disk or other magnetic storage
device that stores a fixed amount of data in a
designated address for rapid retrieval.
Winchester disk drive (Computer Terms) (Science)
A type of hard disk drive capable of transferring
data, detecting errors, and making corrections at
a high rate of speed.
word (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
A fixed number of bits processed by a computer as
a single basic unit.
write (Computer Terms) (Math and Science)
The process of recording data in a computer
memory.
write-protected disk (Computer Terms) (Science)
A computer disk designed to prevent altering the
data stored on it.
X-Y digitizer
An electronic device that allows a cursor or
light pen to produce the X and Y coordinates of a
graph on a video display terminal.
Additional Sources of Information (Math and Science)
Organizations and Services
Academy of Natural Sciences
19th and the Parkway
Philadelphia, PA 19103
American Association for the Advancement of
Science
1333 H Street, NW
Washington, DC 20005
American Astronomical Society
211 FitzRandolph Road
Princeton, NH 08540
American Geological Institute
5205 Leesburg Pike
Falls Church, VA 22041
American Institute of Physics
335 East 45th Street
New York, NY 10017
American Museum of Natural History
Central Park West and 79th Street
New York, NY 10024
Hale Observatories
813 Santa Barbara Street
Pasadena, CA 91101
Institute for Scientific Information
325 Chestnut Street
Philadelpha, PA 19106
National Academy of Sciences
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20418
National Bureau of Standards
Gaithersburg, MD 20899
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Department of Commerce
Washington, DC 20230
National Science Foundation
1800 G Street, NW
Washington, DC 20550
National Technical Information Service
Department of Commerce
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
New York Academy of Sciences
2 East 63rd Street
New York, NY 10021
Scientists Institute for Public Information
355 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10017
Smithsonian Institution
1000 Jefferson Drive, SW
Washington, DC 20560
Books
Asimov, Isaac. Asimov's New Guide to Science.
Basic Books, 1984.
Brown, Stanley. The Realm of Science. 21 vols.
Touchstone, 1972.
Bunch, Bryan, and Hellemans, Alexander.
Timetables of Science: A Chronology of the Most
Important People and Events in the History of
Science. Simon & Schuster, 1988.
Considine, Douglas. Van Nostrand's Scientific
Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1982.
Dean, John A. Lange's Handbook of Chemistry, 13th
ed. McGraw-Hill, 1985.
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Engineering.
McGraw-Hill, 1983.
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology, 5th ed. 5 vols. McGraw-Hill, 1982.
Runcorn, S. K. Earth Science. 3 vols. Elsevier
Science, 1971.
Weast, Robert. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,
69th ed. CRC Press, 1988.
Inventions and Scientific Discoveries
Significant Inventions and Technological Advances
Year Invention/Achievement Inventor/Origin
B.C.c.6500 Potter's wheel Asia Minor
c.5000 Woven cloth Mesopotamia
c.4500 Copper working Rudna Glava,
Yugoslavia
c.3500 Wheeled vehicles Sumer and Syria
Gold mining Mesopotamia
c.3150 Irrigation Nile River,
Upper Egypt
c.2640 Silk production Si-ling Chi
c.2500 Ox-drawn plow Egypt
Cotton production India
c.1300 Musical notation Ugarit, Syria
c.570 Geographical and star Anaximander
charts of Miletus
c.221 Gunpowder Chin dynasty
(China)
c.200 Archimedean screw Archimedes
(lifting device)
c.100 Stone bridge Roman engineers
(Tiber River,
Rome)
Wheel bearings On a wagon found
at Dejbjerg,
Jutland
c.85 Seed-planting machine China
c.40 Rotary winnowing China
machine
A.D.c.100 Paper making Ts'ai Lun
c.180 Rotary fan China
c.230 Wheelbarrow China
c.550 Watermill Belisarius
580 Iron-chain suspension China
bridge
640 Windmill Persia
c.700 Porcelain T'ang dynasty
(China)
c.900 Moldboard plow China
980 Canal locks Ciao Wei-yo
1100 Rocket China
1150 Paper mill Xativa, Spain
1250 Magnifying glass Roger Bacon
1260 Gun/cannon Konstantin
Anklitzen
1269 360 degree compass Petrus Peregrinus
de Maricourt
1280 Belt-driven spinning Hans Speyer
wheel
1285 Eyeglasses Alessandro de
Spina
1326 Metal cannon Rinaldo di
Villamagna
1335 Automatic striking Palace Chapel of
clock the Visconti,
Milan, Italy
1360 Mechanical clock Henri de Vick of
Wurttemburg for
King Charles V of
France
1410 Wire Rodolph of
Nuremberg
1437 Perspective views Leon Battista
(pinholes) Alberti
1451 Printing press Johannes Gutenberg
1455 Cast-iron pipe Castle of
Dillenburgh,
Germany
1510 Pocket watch Peter Henlein
1520 Spirally grooved rifle August Kotter
barrel
1525 Portable shotgun Marquis of
(harquebus) Pescara
1540 Artificial limbs Ambroise Pare
Pistol Camillo Vettelli
1550 Screwdriver Gunsmiths and
armorers (location
unknown)
Wrench Unknown
1557 Enamel Bernard Palissy
1561 Dredger Pieter Breughel
1565 Graphite pencil Konrad Gesner
1569 Screw-cutting machine Jacques Besson
and ornamental turning
lathe
1585 Time bomb Dutch siege of
Antwerp
1589 Hosiery-knitting Rev. William Lee
machine
Flush toilet Sir John Harington
1590 Compound microscope Zacharias Jansen
1592 Wind-powered sawmill Cornelius
Corneliszoon
1599 Silk-knitting machine Rev. William Lee
1600 Wind-driven land Simon Stevin
vehicle
1603 Pantograph Christopher
Scheiner
1606 Surveying chain Edmund Gunter
1609 Astronomical telescope Galileo Galilei
1611 Double convex Johannes Kepler
microscope
1615 Solar-powered motor Salomon de Caux
1616 Medical thermometer Santorio Santorio
1620 Submarine Cornelis Jocobzoon
Drebbel
1621 Rectilinear slide rule William Oughtred
1623 Calculating machine Wilhelm Schickard
1630 Circular slide rule Richard Delamain
1638 Micrometer William Gascoigne
1643 Barometer Evangelista
(Torricellian tube) Torricelli and
Vincenzo Viviani
1648 Hydraulic press Blaise Pascal
1654 Air vacuum pump Otto von Guericke
1657 Pendulum clock Christiaan Huygens
1658 Clock balance spring Robert Hooke
1664 Hygrometer Francesco Folli
1667 Wind gauge Christian Forner
1668 Reflecting telescope Isaac Newton
1671 Silk spinning machine Edmund Blood
1674 Tourniquet Morel, France
1675 Calibrated foot ruler Unknown
1676 Artificial water William Woolcott
filtration
1680 Pressure cooker Denis Papin
1690 Steam engine Denis Papin
1695 Epsom salts Nehemiah Grew
1699 Portable fire pump Daumier Duperrier
1701 Machine seed drill Jethro Tull
1702 Tidal pump George Sorocold
1709 Anemometer Wolfius
1711 Tuning fork John Shore
1712 Steam piston engine Thomas Newcomen
and John Calley
1716 True porcelain Johann Friedrich
(Meissen) Bottger
1719 Full-color printing Jakob Christof
process Le Blon
1718 Machine gun James Puckle
1731 Octant (Hadley's John Hadley
quadrant)
1732 Copper-zinc alloy Christopher
Pinchbeck
Threshing machine Michael Menzies
1733 Arsenic George Brandt
Flint-glass lens Chester Moor Hall
Flying shuttle John Kay
1742 Crucible steel Benjamin Huntsman
production
1743 Wool carding machine David Bourne
Compound lever John Wyatt
1746 Leyden jar (prototype Pieter van
of electrical Musschenbroeck and
condenser) Dean E. G. von
Kleist
1748 Sea quadrant B. Cole
1750 Dynamometer Gaspard de Prony
1752 Lightning conductor Benjamin Franklin
1755 Iron-girder bridge M. Garvin
1757 Sextant John Campbell
1758 Achromatic lens (for John Dolland
eyeglasses)
Refracting telescope John Dolland
1760 Screw manufacturing Job and William
machine Wyatt
Cast-iron cog wheel Carron Iron Works,
Scotland
1761 Mass production of Robert Hinchliffe
steel scissors
1762 Fire extinguisher Dr. Godfrey
Sandwich Fourth Earl of
Sandwich
1764 Spinning jenny James Hargreaves
1765 Steam engine condenser James Watt
1768 Areometer Antoine Baume
1770 Electric battery John Cuthbertson
1775 Chain-driven machine Crane (England)
1776 Submersible David Bushnell
1777 Circular saw Samuel Miller
Iron boat Yorkshire, England
1778 Mortise tumbler lock Robert Barron
Copying machine James Watt
1783 Hot-air balloon Joseph-Michel and
Jacques-Etienne
Montgolfier
Hydrogen balloon Jacques Alexandre
Charles
Tungsten Don Fausto and
Juan Jose
d'Elhuyar
1784 Bifocal lenses Benjamin Franklin
Model helicopter Launoy (France)
Rope-spinning machine Robert March
1785 Automatic grist mill Oliver Evans
1787 Roller bearings John Garnett
Power loom Edmund Cartwright
1790 Cotton spinning and William Pollard
weaving machine (first
U.S. patent)
Sewing machine Thomas Saint
1794 Ball bearings Philip Vaughan
Cotton gin Eli Whitney
1796 Lithography Alois Sennefelder
1797 Parachute Andre Jacques
Garnerin
1798 Mass production Eli Whitney
1800 Submarine (metal clad) Robert Fulton
1802 Commercial steamboat William Symington
1803 Spray gun (aerosol Alan de Vilbiss
medication)
1804 Fishnet-making machine Joseph Marie
Charles Jacquard
Steam locomotive Richard Trevithick
1805 Mechanical silk loom Joseph Marie
Jacquard
Amphibious vehicle Oliver Evans
1806 Beaufort wind scale Francis Beaufort
Carbon paper Ralph Wedgwood
1807 Patent for gas-driven Isaac de Rivez
automobile
Long-distance Robert Fulton
steamboat
1810 Metronome Dietrich Nikolaus
Winkel
Mowing machine Peter Gaillard
1812 Canned food Bryan Doukin
1813 Gun cartridge Samuel Pauly
Gas meter Samuel Clegg
Mine safety lamp Humphrey Davy and
George Stephenson
1816 Electric telegraph Home Riggs Popham
Stethoscope Rene Theophile
Hyacinthe Lauennec
1817 Dental plate Anthony A.
Plankston
1819 Dental amalgam Charles Bell
Dioptric system (for Augustin Jean
lighthouses) Fresnel
1821 Heliotrope Carl Friedrich
Gauss
1822 Thermocouple Thomas Johann
Seebeck
1824 Galvanometer Andre-Marie Ampere
1825 Binocular telescope J. P. Lemiere
1826 Gas stove James Sharp
Friction match John Walken
1827 Astigmatic lens George Biddell
Airy
Microphone Charles Wheatstone
Trifocal lens John Isaac Hawkins
Water turbine Benoit Fourneyron
1828 Differential gear Onesiphore
Pecqueur
Stethoscope with Pierre Adolphe
earpiece Poirry
1830 Thermostat Andre Ure
Phosphorous matches Charles Sauria
Lawn mower Edwin Beard
Budding
Paraffin Karl, Baron von
Reichenbach
1831 Electric bell Joseph Henry
Reaping machine Cyrus McCormick
1832 Hydraulic-powered E. Egbers and
factory Timothy Bail
1833 Differential Charles Babbage
calculating machine
1835 Automatic revolver Samuel Colt
1836 Steam shovel William Smith Otis
Color printing George Baxter
Stroboscope Joseph Antoine
Ferdinand Plateau
Combine harvester H. Hoare and J.
Hascall
1837 Braille reading system Louis Braille
Daguerreotype Louis Jacques
Mande Daguerre
Electric telegraph William Fothergill
Cooke and Charles
Wheatstone
Electric motor Thomas Davenport
1838 Morse code Samuel F. B. Morse
Stereoscope Charles Wheatstone
1840 Chronoscope Charles Wheatstone
Electroplating John Wright
Vulcanization Charles Goodyear
1842 Carbon electrode Robert Wilhelm
battery Bunsen
Underwater telegraph Samuel F. B. Morse
cable
1845 Rotary printing press Richard M. Hoe
Giant telescope William Parsons
1846 Sewing machine Elias Howe
1849 Schrapnel shell Edward Boxer
1850 Refrigerator James Harrison and
Alexander Catlin
Twining
1851 Odometer William Grayson
Ophthalmoscope Herman von
Helmholtz
Flash photography Henry F. Talbot
1852 Steam-powered airship Henri Giffard
Piloted glider George Cayley
Microfilm John Benjamin
Dancer
1853 Gas engine Eugenio Barsanti
and Felice
Matteucci
Hypodermic syringe Charles Gabriel
Pravaz
1855 Bunsen burner Robert Wilhelm
Eberhard von
Bunsen
Stopwatch Edward Daniel
Johnson
Safety match Johan Edvard
Lundstrom
1857 Passenger elevator Elisha G. Otis
1860 Linoleum Frederick Walton
Snap button John Newnham
1861 Pneumatic drill Germain Sommelier
1862 Machine gun Richard Jordan
Gatling
Ironclad ship Jon Ericsson
1863 Phonograph (machine Fenby, U.S.
that wrote down what
was played on a piano)
Subway train (steam George Pearson
railway)
TNT J. Wilbrand
1865 Electric arc welding Henry Wilde
Reinforced concrete W. B. Wilkinson
Yale cylinder lock Linus Yale, Jr.
Offset printing (web William Bullock
press)
Nitroglycerine Alfred Nobel
1866 Transatlantic cable Cyrus West Field,
Samuel Canning,
and Daniel Gooch
Lip reading Alexander Melville
Bell
1867 Dynamite Alfred Nobel
Barbed wire Lucien Smith
1868 Margarine Hippolyte
Mege-Mouries
Stapler Charles Henry
Gould
Plywood John K. Mayo
Pocket calculator Charles Henry Webb
1869 Color photography Charles Cros and
Louise Ducos du
Hauron
Celluloid John Wesley Hyatt
and Isaiah Smith
Hyatt
Rayon Paul
Schutzenberger
Vacuum cleaner Ives W. McGaffey
1872 Hydroplane Rev. Charles Meade
Ramus
Solar water Charles Wilson
distillation
1873 Direct current Zenobe Theophile
electric motor Gramme
Typewriter Christopher Latham
Sholes
1875 Mimeograph Thomas Alva Edison
1876 Articulating telephone Alexander Graham
Bell
Dewey decimal system Melvil Dewey
Carburetor (surface Gottlieb Daimler
type)
1877 Differential gear James Starley
Switchboard Edwin T. Holmes
1878 Cathode ray tube William Crookes
Phonograph Thomas Alva Edison
Milking machine L. O. Colvin
Electric alternator Zenobe Theophile
Gramme and
Hippolyte Fontaine
1879 Arc lighting system Edwin James
Houston and Elihu
Thomson
Carbon filament light Joseph Wilson Swan
bulb and Thomas Alva
Edison
Cash register James J. Ritty
Saccharin Constantine
Fahlberg and Ira
Remsen
1880 Hearing aid R. G. Rhodes
1881 Interferometer Albert A.
Michelson
Rechargeable battery Camille Faure
Telephotography Shelford Bidwell
1882 Induction coil Lucien Gaulard and
John Gibbs
Commercial electric Schuyler Skaats
fan Wheeler
Skyscraper William Le Baron
Jenny
1883 Long-span suspension John Augustus
bridge (Brooklyn Roebline
Bridge)
1884 Fountain pen Lewis Edson
Waterman
Carburetor (float-feed Edward Butler
spray)
1885 Gas-engine automobile Gottlieb Daimler,
Wilhelm Maybach,
and Karl Friedrich
Benz
Gas-engine motorcycle Gottlieb Daimler
and Wilhelm
Maybach
1886 Coca-Cola John Pemberton
Railway car brake (air George
brake) Westinghouse
Comptometer Dorr Eugene Felt
Linotype machine Ottmar
Mergenthaler
1887 Mach supersonic scale Ernst Mach
Contact lens Eugen A. Frick
Electrocardiogram Augustus Desire
Waller
1888 Alternating current Nikola Tesla and
(AC) motor Galileo Ferraris
Cellulose camera film John Carbutt
Monorail Charles Lartigue
Monotype Tolbert Lanston
1889 Gas engine farm Charter Engine
tractor Co., Chicago
Cotton picker Angus Campbell
1890 Motion pictures William
Friese-Greene
Electric subway train London, England
1891 Electric motor car William Morrison
Silicon carbide Edward Goodrich
Acheson
Flashlight Bristol Electric
Lamp Co., England
Aluminum boat Escher Wyss & Co.,
Switzerland
Zipper Whitcombe L.
Judson
1892 Diesel engine Rudolf Diesel
Vacuum flash (early Sir James Dewar
thermos)
1893 Electric toaster Crompton & Co.,
England
1894 Escalator Jesse W. Reno
Wireless telegraphy Guglielmo Marconi
1895 Electric hand drill Wilhelm Fein
Photographic William
typesetting Friese-Greene
1896 Modern manual Herman L. Wagner
typewriter
1897 Plasticine William Harbutt
Worm gear Frederick W.
Lanchester
1898 Loudspeaker Horace Short
1900 Paper clip Johann Vaaler
Alkaline battery Thomas Alva Edison
1901 Electric typewriter Thaddeus Cahill
1902 Air conditioning Willis H. Carrier
Disc brakes Frederick W.
Lanchester
1903 Airplane Orville and Wilbur
Wright
1904 Electronic vacuum tube John Ambrose
Fleming
1905 Chemical foam fire Alexander Laurent
extinguisher
Hydraulic centrifugal Hermann Fottinger
clutch
1906 Crystal radio H. H. C. Dunwoody
apparatus and G. W. Pickard
Animated cartoon film James S. Blackton
and Walter Booth
Motion picture sound Eugen Augustin
Lauset
1907 Detergents (household) Henkel et Cie,
Germany
Gas engine helicopter Paul Cornu and
Louis Breguet
Monoplane Louis Bleriot
Upright vacuum cleaner J. Murray Spangler
(attached dust bag)
1908 Bakelite Leo Henrik
Baekeland
Cellophane Jacques E.
Brandenberger
1909 IUD (intrauterine R. Richter
device)
1910 Neon lighting Georges Claude
1911 Binet intelligence Alfred Binet
test
Calculating machine Jay R. Munroe
(full automatic
multiplication and
division)
1912 Diesel locomotive North British
Locomotive Co.,
England
Cabin biplane Igor Sikorsky
(jetliner forerunner)
Stainless steel Harry Brearley,
Elwood Hanes,
Edward Maurer,
and Benno Strauss
1913 Isotope labeling Georg von Hevesy
and Friedrich A.
Paneth
1914 Brassiere Mary Phelps Jacob
Leica 35mm camera Oskar Barnack
Tear gas Dr. von Tappen
1915 Amplitude modulation Hendrick Johannes
(AM) radio van der Bijl and
Raymond A. Heising
1917 VHF Guglielmo Marconi
electromagnetic waves
1918 Electric food mixer Universal Co.,
U.S.
Domestic refrigerator Nathaniel Wales
and E. J. Copeland
1920 Commercial radio Station KDKA,
broadcasts Pittsburgh, PA
1921 Hydraulic four-wheel Duesenberg Motor
brakes Co., U.S.
Lie detector John Larsen
Wirephoto Western Union
Cables, U.S.
1922 Three-dimensional Perfect Pictures,
movies U.S.
1923 Frozen food Clarence Birdseye
1924 Wash/spin dry machine Savage Arms Corp.,
U.S.
1925 Hi-fi radio C. W. Rice and
loudspeaker E. W. Kellogg
1926 Aerosol can Erik Rotheim
Synthetic rubber I. G. Farben,
Germany
Liquid-fueled rocket Robert H. Goddard
Television John Logie Baird,
C. F. Jenkins, and
D. Mihaly
1927 Iron lung Philip Drinker and
Louis Shaw
Pop-up toaster Charles Strite
1928 Color television John Logie Baird
Geiger counter Hans Geiger
Teletype Edward Ernst
Kleinschmidt
PVC Carbide Corp.,
(polyvinylchloride) Carbon Chemical
Corp., and Du
Pont,
U.S.
1929 Electron microscope Max Knoll and
Ernst Ruska
Coaxial cable Bell Telephone
Laboratories, U.S.
1930 Cyclotron Ernest O. Lawrence
and N. E.
Edlesfsen
Polystyrene I. G. Farben,
Germany
1931 Photographic exposure J. Thomas
meter Rhamstine
Fiberglass Owens Illinois
Glass Co., U.S.
Radio astronomy Karl Guthe Jansky
Blood bank Sergei Sergeivitch
TWX (teletypewriter Bell Telephone
exchange) & Telegraph, U.S.
Electric razor Jacob Schick
1932 Defibrillator William Bennett
Kouwenhoven
Wind tunnel Ford Motor Co.,
U.S.
1933 Frequency modulation Edwin H. Armstrong
(FM)
Polyethylene Reginald Gibson
and E. W. Fawcett
1935 Electronic hearing aid Edwin A. Steven
Richter earthquake Charles Francis
scale Richter
1936 Jet engine Frank Whittle and
Hans von Ohain
Helicopter Henrich Focke
(contra-rotating
rotors)
Plexiglas I. G. Farben,
Germany
1937 Radio telescope Grote Reber
Nylon Du Pont, U.S.
1938 Pressurized airplane
cabin Transcontinental
Airways, Boeing
307 Stratoliner
Ballpoint pen Ladislao J. and
Georg Biro
Fluorescent lighting Arthur H. Compton
and George Inman
Photocopy machine Chester Carlson
1939 Jet aircraft Hans von Ohain
Binary calculator John Atanasoff and
George R. Stibitz
DDT Paul Hermann
Muller
Microfilm camera Elgin G. Fassel
1940 Radar Robert M. Page
(word coined by
S. M. Tucker)
Automatic transmission General Motors,
U.S.
1941 Microwave radar U.S. Radiation
Laboratory
Dacron John R. Whinfield
1942 Manmade atomic Enrico Fermi
reaction (Manhattan and team
Project)
1943 Teflon Du Pont, U.S.
1944 Pyrex telescope lens Corning Glass
Works and George
E. Hale for the
Mount Palomar
Observatory
1945 Artificial kidney Willem J. Kolff
Atomic bomb J. R. Oppenheimer,
Arthur H. Compton,
Enrico Fermi, and
Leo Szilard
Tupperware Earl W. Tupper
Vinyl floor covering Du Pont, U.S.
1946 Electronic vacuum tube John W. Mauchly
computer (ENIAC) and J. Presper
Eckert
1947 Holography Dennis Gabor
Supersonic aircraft Bell XS-I, U.S.
1948 Transistor William Shockley,
John Bardeen, and
Walter H. Brattain
Atomic clock William F. Libby
Cybernetics Norbert Wiener
Long-playing Peter Goldmark
phonograph record
(microgroove record)
Solid electric guitar Leo (Clarence)
Fender, "Doc"
Kauffman, and
George Fullerton
Velcro Georges de Mestral
1949 Jet airliner R. E. Bishop and
team
1950 Xerographic copying Haloid Co., U.S.
machine (for office)
1952 Artificial heart valve Charles A.
Hufnagel
Hydrogen bomb Edward Teller and
Igor Kurchatov
Experimental videotape John Mullin and
Wayne Johnson
1953 Heart-lung machine John H. Gibbon
1954 Regular broadcast of National
color television Television System
Committee, U.S.
Transistor radio Regency
Electronics, U.S.
1955 Felt-tip pen Esterbrook,
England
Stereo tape recording EMI Stereosonic
Tapes
Hovercraft Christopher S.
Cockerell
1956 Plastic contact lens Norman Bier
1957 Sputnik (artificial U.S.S.R.
satellite)
FORTRAN computer John Backus and
language team for IBM, U.S.
Intercontinental U.S.S.R.
ballistic missile
1958 Laser Charles A. Townes
Communications SCORE, U.S.
satellite
ALGOL computer Switzerland
language
Hula hoop Richard P. Knerr
and Arthur K.
"Spud" Melvin
1959 COBOL computer U.S. Conference
language on Data Systems
Languages
Ion engine Alvin T. Forrester
Tunnel diode Sony, Japan, based
on work by Leo
Esaki
Integrated circuit Jack S. Kilby,
Texas Instruments,
U.S.
Microwave radio system Pacific Great
Eastern Railway
between Vancouver
and Dawson
Creek-Fort St.
John, British
Columbia, Canada
1960 Nuclear-powered ships USS Enterprise
Argon ion laser D. R. Herriott,
A.
Javan, and W. R.
Bennett, Bell
Laboratories, U.S.
Vertical takeoff and
lift aircraft Frank Taylor and
team at Short
Brothers &
Harland,
Northern Ireland
Weather satellite NASA, U.S.
1961 Manned spaceflight Vostok I, U.S.S.R.
Stereophonic radio
broadcast Zenith and General
Electric Companies,
U.S.
1962 Minicomputer Digital Corp.,
U.S.
Robotics Rand Corp. and
IBM, U.S.
X-ray sources in the Riccardo Giacconi
constellations
1963 Cassette tapes Philips Co., The
Netherlands
1964 BASIC computer Thomas E. Kurtz
language and John G. Kemeny
Acrylic paint Reeves Ltd.,
England
Carbon fiber RAF Farnborough,
England
Home-use transistor Sony, Japan
videotape recorder
1965 Word processor IBM, U.S.
1966 Integrated radio Sony, Japan
circuit
Noise reduction Ray M. Dolby
system
1967 Bubble memory A. H. Bobeck and
prototype team at Bell
Telephone
Laboratories, U.S.
1968 Pulsars Jocelyn Bell
Holographic storage Bell Telephone
technique Laboratories, U.S.
1969 Moon landing U.S.
PASCAL computer Niklaus Wirth
language
Videotape cassette Sony, Japan
Jumbo jet airliner Joe Sutherland and
team at Boeing,
U.S.
1970 Bar code system Monarch Marking,
U.S., and Plessey
Telecommunications,
England
Computer floppy disk IBM, U.S.
Remote-controlled U.S.S.R.
lunar vehicle
1971 Earth-orbiting space U.S.S.R.
station
Liquid crystal Hoffmann-LaRoche,
display (LCD) Switzerland
Quartz digital watch George Theiss and
Willy Crabtree
1972 Video disk Philips Co., The
Netherlands
Video game Noland Bushnel
1973 Computerized
tomography (CAT scan) Allan Macleod
Cormack and
Godfrey N.
Hounsfield
Earth-orbiting space U.S.
station
Microcomputer Trong Truong
1974 Nonimpact printing Honeywell, U.S.
1975 Monoclonal antibodies Cesar Milstein
Betamax videotaping Sony, Japan
system
Video home system Matsushita/JVC,
(VHS) Japan
1976 Mars space probes NASA's Viking I
and Viking II
1977 Neutron bomb U.S. military
Space shuttle NASA, U.S.
Alkyd paint Winsor & Newton
Ltd., England
1978 Test-tube baby Patrick C. Steptoe
and Robert G.
Edwards
1979 Rubik's cube Erno Rubik
1980 Solar-powered Paul Macready
aircraft
1981 Silicon 32-bit chip Hewlett-Packard,
U.S.
Nuclear magnetic Thorn-EMI
resonance (NMR) Research
scanner Laboratories and
Nottingham
University,
England
1982 Artificial heart Robert Jarvik
Airborne observatory NASA, U.S.
1983 Biopol (biodegradable ICI Agricultural
plastic) Division, England
Biosensors Cambridge Life
Sciences, England
Carbon-fiber aircraft
wing Great Britain
512K dynamic access IBM, U.S.
memory chip
1984 Compact disk player Sony and Fujitsu
Companies, Japan,
and Philips Co.,
The Netherlands
Megabit computer chip IBM, U.S.
1985 CD-ROM (compact-disk Hitachi, Japan
read-only memory)
Image digitizer Optronics, England
Polymer electric Terje Skotheim and
conducter team, Brookhaven
National
Laboratory, U.S.
Soft bifocal contact Sofsite Contact
lens Lens Laboratory,
U.S.
1986 Uranus moons National
photographs Aeronautics and
Space
Administration,
U.S.
Synthetic skin G. Gregory
Gallico, III
1988 Patented animal life Philip Leder,
Timothy Stewart
Significant Scientific Discoveries
Year Discovery Discoverer/Origin
B.C.c.12,000 Fire Unknown
c.10,000 Zero Hindu priests
c.1300 32-letter alphabet Ugarit, Syria
c.1100 Phoenician alphabet
(22 letters)
A.D.c.80 Magnetism China
200 Blood circulation Galen
220 Ellipse and hyperbola Appollonius
520 Decimal number system Aryabhata and
Varamihara
1287 Nitric acid Raymond Lully
1538 Optic nerve Constanzo Vardio
1550 Ligature Ambrose Pare
1581 Pendulum motion Galileo Galilei
1611 Coke Simon Sturtevant
Rainbow theory Johannes Kepler
1614 Logarithms John Napier
1615 Surveying by Willebrord Snell
triangulation van Roigen
1622 Lacteals Gaspare Asellio
1631 Vernier scale Pierre Vernier
1647 Map of moon and star
catalog Hevelius
(Johannes
Hewelcke)
1648 Hydrochloric acid Johann Rudolph
Glauber
1650 Lymph glands Olvas Rudbek and
Thomas Bartholin
1658 Red blood cells Jan Swammerdam
1661 Wood (methyl) alcohol Robert Boyle
1662 Boyle's law/gas Robert Boyle
pressure laws
1666 Principles of Isaac Newton
integral calculus
1667 Blood transfusion Jean-Baptiste
lamb to boy) Denys, France
1669 Phosphorus Hennig Brand
1682 Halley's comet Edmund Halley
1684 Theory of gravity Isaac Newton
1687 Statistical Sir William Petty
mathematics
1690 Speed of light Ole Romer
1694 Plant pollen Rudolph Jakob
Cammerarius
1695 Epsom salts Nehemiah Grew
1702 Boron/borax Guillaume Homberg
1703 Binary number system Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibnitz
1709 Coke smelting (iron) Abraham Derby
1715 Fahrenheit temperature Gabriel Daniel
scale Fahrenheit
1729 Aberration of light Rev. James Bradley
1735 Platinum Don Antonio de
Ulloa de la Torre
1737 Plant classification Carl Linne
system
1740 Curare (drug) Charles Marie de
Lacondamine
1742 Celsius temperature Anders Celsius
scale
1747 Scurvy cure James Lind
1751 Nickel Axel Frederik
Cronstedt
1756 Carbon dioxide Joseph Black
1761 Medical percussion Joseph Leopold
method (diagnostic Avenbrugger
technique)
1766 Hydrogen Henry Cavendish
1770 Sulfur dioxide Joseph Priestley
1771 Fluorine Karl Wilhelm
Scheele
1772 Nitrogen Daniel Rutherford
Oxygen Karl Wilhelm
Scheele and Joseph
Priestley
1774 Ammonia Joseph Priestley
Barium Karl Wilhelm
Scheele
Chlorine Karl Wilhelm
Scheele
Manganese Karl Wilhelm
Scheele
1775 Digitalis (as drug) William Withering
1778 Molybdenum Karl Wilhelm
Scheele
1779 Glycerine Karl Wilhelm
Scheele
1780 Artificial Lazzaro
insemination Spallanzani
1781 Uranus Frederick William
Herschel
1782 Tellurium Franz Joseph
Muller
1785 Methane and ethylene Claude Louis
Berthollet
1789 Uranium Martin Heinrich
Klaproth
Zirconium Martin Heinrich
Klaproth
1793 Astigmatism Thomas Young
Strontium Thomas Charles
Hope
Daltonism John Dalton
(colorblindness)
1796 Smallpox vaccine Edward Jenner
1797 Chromium Louis Nicolas
Vaquelin
1799 Metric system French Academy of
Sciences
1800 Infrared light William Herschel
1801 Asteroids Giuseppe Piazzi
Niobium Charles Hatchett
Wave theory of light Thomas Young
Ultraviolet light Johann Wilhelm
Ritter and William
Hyde Wollaston
(England)
1803 Atomic theory John Dalton
Iridium Smithson Tennant
1805 Morphine Friedrich Wilhelm
Adam Serturner
1807 Potassium Humphrey Davy
Sodium Humphrey Davy
Sensory-motor nerve Charles Bell
system
1810 Homeopathy Samuel Hahnemann
Ammonia-soda reaction Augustin Jean
Fresnel
1811 Avogadro's law Amedeo de
Quaregnae di
Ceretto
Iodine Bernard Courteois
1817 Parkinson's disease James Parkinson
Lithium John August
Arfwedson
1818 Cadmium Friedrich
Strohmeyer
Blood transfusion Thomas Blundell
(early attempt)
Selenium Johan Jakob
Berzelius
Hydrogen peroxide Baron
Louis-Jacques
Thenard
Strychnine Pierre-Joseph
Pelletier and
Joseph Bienaime
Caventou
Geothermal energy F. de Larderel
experiment
1819 Magnetic field Hans Cristian
Oersted
1820 Diphtheria Pierre Fidele
Bretonneau
Quinine Pierre Joseph
Pelletier
1821 Caffeine Pierre Joseph
Pelletier
1824 Electromagnetism William Sturgeon
Magnetic pull Francois Dominique
Arago
1827 Aluminum Friedrich Wohler
Electrical resistance George Simon Ohm
1828 Cocoa Conrad van Houten
Beryllium Friedrich Wohler
Thorium Johan Jakob
Berzelius
1830 Vanadium Nils Gabriel
Sefstrom
1831 Electromagnetic Michael Faraday
induction
Electromagnetic Antoine Cesar
balance Becquerel
Magnetic north pole James Clark Ross
1833 Creosote Karl, Baron von
Reichenbach
Nervous reflex Marshall Hall
1834 Galvanic cells James Bowman
(continuous electric Lindsay
light)
1836 Acetylene Edmund Davy
1838 Plant cells Matthias Jakob
Schleiden
1839 Animal cells Theodore Schwann
Protoplasm Jan Evangelista
Purkinje
1840 Ozone Christian
Friedrich
Schonbein
1842 Ether anesthesia Crawford
Williamson
1844 Nitrous oxide Horace Wells and
anesthesia Gardner Q. Colton
1846 Neptune Johann Gottfield
Galle and Heinrich
Ludwig d'Arrest
1847 Nitroglycerine Ascanio Sobrero
Chloroform anesthesia Jacob Bell and
James Young
Simpson
1850 Foucault's pendulum Jean Bernard
(proving Earth's Leon Foucault
rotation)
1851 Doppler principle Christian Doppler
1852 Fluorescence George Gabriel
Stokes
1854 Paleozoic fossils Adam Sedgwick
1855 Spinal anesthesia J. L. Corning,
U.S.
1858 Cell replication Rudolf Virchow
theory
Mobius band August Mobius
Atomic and molecular Stanislao
weights Cannizzaro
1859 Cathode rays Julius Plucker
Evolution theory Charles Darwin
1860 Cesium Robert Wilhelm
Bunsen and Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff
1861 Speech center of brain Pierre Paul Broca
Sodium carbonate Ernest Solvay
process
1864 Electromagnetic wave Mahlon Loomis
transmission
Pasteurization Louis Pasteur
1865 Genetics Gregor Johann
Mendel
1867 Formaldehyde August Wilhelm
von Hofmann
1868 Helium (in sun's Edward Frankland
chromosphere) and Joseph Norman
Lockyer
1869 Periodic law Dmitri Ivanovitch
Mendeleyev
1873 Electromagnetic James Clerk
radiation Maxwell
1877 Liquid oxygen Louis-Paul
Cailletet and
Raoul-Pierre
Pictet
1880 Inoculation Louis Pasteur
1882 Tuberculosis germ Robert Koch
1884 Local anesthesia K. Koller
(cocaine)
Gram bacteria test Hans Christian
Joachim Gram
1885 Ammonium picrate Eugene Turpin
(explosive)
1886 Aluminum electrolysis Paul Louis
process Toussaint Heroult
and Charles Martin
Hall
1889 Active molecules Svante August
Arrhenius
Cordite James Dewar and
Frederick Augustus
Abel
Lysine (amino acid) Edmund Drechsel
1890 Diphtheria antitoxin Emil Adolf von
Behring and
Shibasaburo
Kitasato
1891 Silicon carbide Eduard Goodrich
Acheson
1892 Cholera vaccine Waldemar Mordecai
Wolff Haffkine
Phagocytes Ilya Mechnikov
Viruses Dmitri Iosifovich
Ivanovsky
1893 Photoelectric cell Julius Elster and
Hans F. Geitel
1894 Argon gas John William
Strutt and William
Ramsay
Helium William Ramsay
1895 X rays Wilhelm Konrad von
Roentgen
1896 Electron Joseph John
Thomson
Histidine (amino acid) Albrecht Kossel
and Sven A. Hedin
1897 Digestion physiology Ivan Petrovic
Pavlov
1898 Antineuritic vitamin B Christiaan
Eijkman
Krypton William Ramsay and
Morris William
Travers
Neon WillIam Ramsay and
Morris William
Travers
Xenon William Ramsay and
Morris William
Travers
1899 Aspirin Felix Hoffman
1900 Quantum theory Max Karl Ernst
Planck
Radon Friedrich Ernst
Dorn
Tryptophan (amino Frederick Gowland
acid) Hopkins
1901 Blood groups Karl Landsteiner
Valine and proline
(amino acids) Emil Hermann
Fischer
1902 Hormones William Maddock
Bayliss and Ernest
H. Starling
Ionosphere Arthur Edwin
Kennelly and
Oliver Heaviside
Radium Pierre and Marie
Curie
1903 Barbiturates Emil Hermann
Fischer and Emil
Adolf Behring
1905 Theory of relativity Albert Einstein
Silicones Frederic S.
Kipping
1909 Synthetic ammonia Fritz Haber
Typhus fever body Charles Jules
louse Henri Nicolle
1910 Tumor virus Francis Peyton
Rous
1911 Cosmic rays Victor Franz Hess
Theory of atomic Ernest Rutherford
structure
1912 Diffraction of X rays Max Theodor Felix
Thiamine (vitamin B1) von Laue Casimir
Funk
1913 Vitamin A Thomas B. Osborne,
Lafayette B.
Mendel, Elmer V.
McCollum, and M.
Davis
1918 Vitamin D Edward Mellanby
Insulin Frederick G.
Banting and
Charles H. Best
1922 Vitamin E Herbert McLean
Evans
1925 Quantum mechanics Max Born and
Werner Karl
Heisenberg
Masurium and rhenium Ida Eva Noddack
1927 Sex hormones Bernhard Zondek
and Selmar Ascheim
1928 Penicillin Alexander Fleming
Vitamin C Albert von
Nagyrapolt
Szent-Gyorgyi
Tomography Andre Bocage
1930 Pluto Clyde Tombaugh
Pepsin John Howard
Northrup
1931 Neutrino Wolfgang Pauli
1932 Neutron James Chadwick
Proton bombardment John Douglas
(lithium disinte- Cockcroft and
gration) Ernest Thomas
Sinton Walton
Positron Carl David
Anderson and
Patrick M. Stuart
Blackett
1933 Riboflavin (vitamin B2)Richard Kuhn
Pantothenic acid Roger J. Williams
1934 Cerenkov effect Pavel Alekseevich
Cerenkov
Vitamin K Carl Peter Henrik
Dam
Progesterone Adolf Friedrich
Johann Butenandt
1935 Meson Hideki Yukawa
1936 Vitamin B6 T. W. Birch and
Albert von
Nagyrapolt
Szent-Gyorgyi
1937 Citric acid cycle Hans Adolf Krebs
Niacin Conrad A. Elvehjem
1938 Cortisone Edward C. Kendall,
Philip S. Hench,
and Tadeus
Reichstein
Folic acid P. L. Day
1939 Betatron Donald W. Kerst
1940 Plutonium Glenn Theodore
Seaborg and Edwin
Mattison McMillan
Vitamin H (biotin) Vincent du
Vigneaud
1943 LSD Arthur Stoll
Streptomycin Selman A. Waksman
1944 Americium Glenn T. Seaborg
and Albert Ghiorso
Curium Glenn T. Seaborg
and Albert Ghiorso
1947 Coenzyme A Fritz A. Lipmann
Vitamin B12 as cure
for pernicious anemia Karl A. Folkers
Radiocarbon dating Willard Frank
Libby
1949 Berkelium Glenn T. Seaborg
and Stanley G.
Thompson
1950 Chlorpromazine
(tranquilizer) Paul Charpentier
Radioimmunoassay Rosalyn Sussman
Yalow
1951 Oral contraceptive
pill Gregory Goodwin
Pincus, Min Chuch
Chang, John Rock,
Carl Djerassi
1953 DNA Francis H. Compton
Crick and James
D. Watson
Fermium Albert Ghiorso and
Stanley G.
Thompson
Measles vaccine John F. Enders and
Thomas Peebles
Reperine
(antidepressant drug) Nathan S. Kline
1955 Fiber optics Narinder S. Kapany
Mendelevium Albert Ghiorso
RNA synthesis Severo Ochoa
Ultrasound (to
observe heart) Leskell, U.S.
1956 Amniocentesis St. Mary's
Hospital, England
Human growth hormone Choh Hao Li
1957 BCS theory
(superconductivity) John Bardeen, Leon
N. Cooper, and J.
Robert Schrieffer
Interferon (protein) Alick Isaacs and
Jean Lindeman
Mossbauer effect
(gamma radiation) Rudolph Ludwig
Mossbauer
Polio vaccine Albert B. Sabin
1958 Nobelium Albert Ghiorso
Van Allen radiation
belts James A. Van Allen
1961 Kenyapithecus Wickeri
(upper jawbone) Louis S. B. Leakey
Valium Hoffmann-LaRoche
Laboratories,
Switzerland
1962 Muon neutrino Leon Max Lederman
1963 Anti-xi-zero
(atomic particle) Unknown
Quarks Murray Gell-Mann
Quasars Marten Schmidt
1964 Laser eye surgery H. Vernon Ingram
1965 Rubella vaccine Paul D. Parkman
and Harry M.
Meyer, Jr.
1968 Hemoglobin molecule
structure (complete) Max Ferdinand
Perutz
1969 Antibody chemical and
molecular structure Rodney Robert
Porter
1972 Enkephalin (brain
chemical) John Hughes
Antimatter particles Yuri Dmitriyevich
Prokoshkin
Black holes Robert L. F. Boyd
1974 Psi atomic particle Burton Richter and
Samuel Chao Chung
Ting
1975 Hybrid cells Jack Lucy and Ted
Cocking
1976 Charm subatomic
particle Stanford Linear
Accelerator
Center, U.S.
1978 Cyclosporin A Tony Allison and
Roy Calne
Human insulin Genetech, San
Francisco
Charon (Pluto's moon) James Walter
Christy
1979 Single-cell protein
process ICI Agricultural
Division, England
1981 Anti-interferon Medical Research
Council's
Molecular Biology
Laboratory,
England
1982 Abnormal cancer-
causing genes Robert Weinberg
and Mariano
Barbacid
1984 Gene cloning National
Institutes of
Health, U.S.;
Transgene, France;
and Otago
University, New
Zealand
Genetically engineered
blood-clotting factor Genetech, San
Francisco, and
Genetics
Institute, Boston
Top quark (subatomic
particle) Carlo Rubbia
1985 Cloned leprosy genes
(for vaccines) Ron Davis
Anxiety chemical
(human brain) Alessandro
Guidotti and
Erminio Costa
1986 DNA fingerprinting Alec Jeffreys
Diminished ozone
shield Susan Solomon,
National Oceanic
and Atmospheric
Administration,
U.S.
1987 Alzheimer's disease
gene National
Institutes of
Health, U.S.;
University of
Cologne, Germany
Gene-altered bacteria Advanced Genetic
Sciences, U.S.
Superconductivity
confirmed Paul Wu, IBM, U.S.
Additional Information (Scientific Discoveries)
Asimov, Isaac, ed. Biographical Encyclopedia of
Science and Technology, 2nd ed. Doubleday, 1982.
Boorstin, Daniel J. The Discoverers. Random House,
1985.
Bronowski, Jacob. The Ascent of Man. Little, Brown,
1974.
Clark, Ronald W. Works of Man. Viking, 1985.
Cooke, David Coxe. Inventions That Made History.
G. P. Putnam, 1968.
De Bono, Edward. Eureka!: An Illustrated History
of Inventions from the Wheel to the Computer. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1974.
Gies, Joseph. The Ingenious Yankees. Crowell, 1976.
Giscard d'Estaing, Valerie-Anne. The Second World
Almanac Book of Inventions. World Almanac, 1986.
Mount, Ellis, and List, Barbara A. Milestones in
Science and Technology: The Ready Reference Guide
to Discoveries, Inventions and Facts. Oryx Press,
1987.
The Smithsonian Book of Inventions. Smithsonian
Exposition Books, 1978.
Strandh, Sigvard. A History of the Machine. A & W
Publisher, 1979.
Williams, Trevor. History of Invention: From Stone
Axes to Silicon Chips. Facts on File, 1986.
The Arts
Major Composers
American
Barber, Samuel (American) (Major Composers)
(1910 - 81), b. Pennsylvania. Winner, Pulitzer
Prize, for the opera Vanessa (1957) and Piano
Concerto (1963). His works also include two
symphonies, the overture to The School for
Scandal, Dover Beach, and the popular Adagio for
Strings.
Bernstein, Leonard (American) (Major Composers)
(1918 - ), b. Massachusetts. Conductor and music
director of the New York Philharmonic 1958 - 69.
He has composed symphonies, songs, ballets, and
musicals, including West Side Story (1957).
Blitzstein, Marc (American) (Major Composers)
(1905 - 64), b. Pennsylvania. Pianist, composer,
librettist. Among his most important works are
orchestral variations; a piano concerto; operas,
including the choral opera The Condemned; ballets;
and film music.
Bloch, Ernest (American) (Major Composers)
(1880 -1959), b. Switzerland. Director of the
Cleveland Institute of Music 1920 - 25 and the
San Francisco Conservatory 1925 - 30. He composed
symphonies, including Hivers-Printemps, Israel,
Trois poemes juifs, America, Voice in the
Wilderness, and Evocations; chamber music; choral
works; a piano sonata; songs; and the opera
Macbeth.
Cage, John (American) (Major Composers)
(1912 - ), b. California. Originator of
controversial and experimental theories,
performances, and compositions, including the
Music of Changes, derived from the ideas of I
Ching, 4'33", and Imaginary Landscape No. 4 for
radios tuned randomly. Cage has collaborated
Merce Cunningham, artist Marcel Duchamp, and
other.
Copland, Aaron (American) (Major Composers)
(1900 - ), b. New York State. Composer of three
symphonies, a piano concerto, other orchestral
works, chamber music, and ballets. The developer
of a distinctly American music, Copland received
the Pulitzer Prize in 1945.
Cowell, Henry Dixon (American) (Major Composers)
(1897 - 1965), b. California. Pianist; composer
of symphonies, an opera, and a piano concerto.
Cowell founded the New Musical Society (1927); he
invented (with Leon Thoremin) the "rhythmicon,"
an electronic instrument, and a method of playing
the piano with forearm, elbow, and fist. His
books on music include New Musical Resources
(1931) and Charles Ives and His Music (1955).
Dello Joio, Norman (American) (Major Composers)
(1913 - ), b. New York State. Concert pianist,
organist, and award-winning composer. His works
include three piano sonatas, chamber music,
chamber concertos, orchestral and choral pieces,
and ballets.
Gershwin, George (American) (Major Composers)
(1898 - 1937), b. New York State. Composer of
music in a distinct blend of classical, popular,
and jazz styles. Gershwin's works include
numerous popular songs and musical comedies and
more ambitious concert pieces Rhapsody in Blue
(1924), An American in Paris (1928), and the jazz
opera Porgy and Bess (1935).
Hanson, Howard (American) (Major Composers)
(1896 - 1981), b. Nebraska. Conductor and
composer of Romantic works, including symphonies,
piano music, and the opera Merry Mount (1933). He
served as director of the Eastman School of Music
(1924-64) in Rochester, New York.
Ives, Charles (American) (Major Composers)
(1874 - 1954), b. Connecticut. Composer of
advanced and innovative works and winner of the
Pulitzer Prize in 1947. Ives wrote four
symphonies, chamber and choral music, songs, and
piano works.
MacDowell, Edward (American) (Major Composers)
(1860 - 1908), b. New York State. Best known as a
composer of piano works. MacDowell also wrote
orchestral works, symphonic poems, and a suite
that appropriates melodies of the North American
Indians. He was the first head of the Department
of Music, Columbia University (1896 - 1904).
Menotti, Gian Carlo (American) (Major Composers)
(1911 - ), b. Italy. Composer of ballets, a piano
concerto, and the operas Amelia Goes to the Ball,
The Island God, The Medium, Amahl and the Night
Visitors (1951), and The Saint of Bleecker Street
(1954). He founded the Festival of Two Worlds in
Spoleto, Italy.
Moore, Douglas (American) (Major Composers)
(1893 - 1969), b. New York State. Composer of
works noted for their use of the American
vernacular, including the opera The Devil and
Daniel Webster, the children's opera The Headless
Horseman, and Moby Dick, for orchestra. He was
the author of Listening to Music (1931) and From
Madrigal to Modern Music (1942).
Piston, Walter (American) (Major Composers)
(1894 - 1976), b. Maine. Professor at Harvard and
neoclassical composer of orchestral works, string
quartets, sonatas, chamber music, and the ballet
The Incredible Flautist. Piston wrote studies of
harmony and counterpoint.
Schoenberg, Arnold (American) (Major Composers)
(1874 - 1951), b. Austria. Originator of the
revolutionary 12-tone system. The theory is
exemplified in his works of 1921 - 33, including
the Five Pieces for piano, the Serenade for seven
instruments and bass baritone, and the Variations
for orchestra.
Schuman, William (American) (Major Composers)
(1910 - ), b. New York State. President of the
Juilliard School of Music 1945 - 61 and Lincoln
Center 1962 - 69. Schuman composed ballets,
concertos, and chamber, orchestral, and choral
works. He was the winner of the first Pulitzer
Prize for music, 1943.
Sessions, Roger (American) (Major Composers)
(1896 - 1985), b. New York State. Composer of
eight symphonies, a violin concerto, piano works,
organ pieces, and songs. His several books on
music include Reflections on Musical Life in
America.
Thomson, Virgil (American) (Major Composers)
(1896 - 1989), b. Missouri. Music critic and
composer. His works include two operas (with
librettos by Gertrude Stein), a ballet, choral
and chamber music, pieces for theater and film
(among them The River, 1937), keyboard music, and
songs. He is the author of The State of Music
(1939), The Musical Scene (1945), and The Art of
Judging Music (1948).
Varese, Edgar (American) (Major Composers)
(1883 - 1965), b. France. Founder and conductor
of the New Symphony Orchestra, New York (1919)
and founder of the International Composers Guild
(1921). Varese composed nontraditional works for
orchestra with electronic music.
Austrian
Berg, Alban (Austrian) (Major Composers)
(1885 - 1935). Composer in Arnold Schoenberg's
12-tone system. Principal works are the operas
Wozzeck (1922) and Lulu (1934), orchestral
pieces, concertos, string quartets, Lyric Suite,
and a piano sonata.
Bruckner, Anton (Austrian) (Major Composers)
(1824 - 96). Organist and composer of Romantic
music. Much revised by his friends, his original
compositions were published in 1929. Principal
works include nine symphonies, choral works, and
chamber music for string quintet.
Czerny, Karl (Austrian) (Major Composers)
(1791 - 1857). Virtuoso pianist and composer of
many works for piano. Best known for his
technical studies, Czerny was a pupil of
Beethoven and a teacher of Liszt.
Haydn, Franz Joseph (Austrian) (Major Composers)
(1732 - 1809). Consummate artist of the classical
style in music. Among his works are more than 100
symphonies, numerous concertos, 20 operas (five
are lost), marionette operas, oratorios, church
music, string quartets, piano trios, keyboard
sonatas and variations, songs, and 377
arrangements of Scottish and Welsh airs.
Haydn, Johann Michael (Austrian) (Major Composers)
(1737 - 1806). Brother of Franz Joseph Haydn;
composer of oratorios and church music,
symphonies, concertos, divertimenti, quintets,
and other instrumental works.
Mahler, Gustav (Austrian) (Major Composers)
(1860 - 1911). Conductor of the Hamburg and
Vienna operas and the Metropolitan Opera in New
York. He composed nine symphonies, as well as
songs, in a late Romantic style, including the
Resurrection Symphony (1894) and Symphony of a
Thousand (1907). His orchestral works display
powerful intensity and depth.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus (Austrian) (Major Composers)
(1756 - 91). Master of the classical style in all
its forms of his time. Mozart began to compose
and perform at the age of six; at 11 he had
composed three symphonies and 30 other works and
arranged some piano concertos of J. S. Bach. His
principal works include the operas Le Nozze di
Figaro (1786), Don Giovanni (1787), and The Magic
Flute (1791); chamber music; piano sonatas and
fantasias; symphonies; and church music,
including the Requiem (1791). Mozart's works are
noted for lyrical charm.
Schubert, Franz Seraph Peter (Austrian Composer)
(1797 - 1828). Composer of numerous symphonies,
masses, quartets, and sonatas, but most notably
of songs in the spirit of early Romantic poetry.
His works after 1823 consummate his lyrical,
melodic style, as in the No. 9 C Major Symphony
("The Great") (1825), the piano sonatas, the A
Minor (1824) and G Major Quartets (1826), and the
Trios in B-flat (1826) and E-flat (1827).
Strauss, (Austrian) (Major Composers)
family of Viennese musicians. Johann I (1804 -
49) was the composer of waltzes famous throughout
Europe. He was the father of Johann II (1825 -
99), who became his rival, composer of over
400 waltzes, including The Blue Danube (1866) and
Tales from the Vienna Woods (1868), as well as
operettas. His brothers, Josef (1827 - 70) and
Eduard I (1835 - 1916), were also successful
composers and conductors.
Webern, Anton von (Austrian) (Major Composers)
(1883 - 1945). Editor, conductor, and composer in
the 12-tone system of Arnold Schoenberg. Webern
wrote a symphony for small orchestra, three
cantatas, a string quartet, a concerto for nine
instruments, songs, and other works.
British
Britten, (Edward) Benjamin (British Major Composers)
(1913 - 76). Major twentieth-century composer.
His operas include Peter Grimes, The Rape
of Lucretia, Billy Budd, and The Turn of the
Screw. Among his most popular works are A
Ceremony of Carols (1942), A Young Person's Guide
to the Orchestra (1945), and the War Requiem
(1962).
Byrd, William (British) (Major Composers)
(1543 - 1623). Organist and composer. A master of
sixteenth-century polyphony, Byrd excelled in
composition of church music.
Delius, Frederick (British) (Major Composers)
(1862 - 1934). Composer of orchestral works,
including Paris (1899), Appalachia (1896), and
Brigg Fair (1907); choral works, including Sea
Drift; and the operas A Village Romeo and Juliet
(1901) and Fennimore and Gerda (1910).
Dowland, John (British) (Major Composers)
(c. 1563 - 1626). Lutenist and composer of the
most important English collection of songs for
lute. His most famous work is Lachrimae (1604).
Elgar, Sir Edward (British) (Major Composers)
(1857 - 1934). Composer in a distinctly personal
style. His works include The Light of Life
(1896), Scenes from the Bavarian Highlands
(1896), and King Olaf (1896), for chorus;
orchestral works, including Froissart (1890),
Serenade for Strings (1893), two symphonies, and
concertos; and music for brass band, chamber
music, organ sonatas, and songs.
Gibbons, Orlando (British) (Major Composers)
(1583 - 1625). Organist and composer of anthems,
madrigals, chamber music, and keyboard pieces.
Holst, Gustav (British) (Major Composers)
(1874 - 1934). Composer who combined an interest
in folk music with a knowledge of Hindu scales
and Sanskrit literature. His later music
experimented with harmony and polytonality.
Principal works include the operas Savitri, The
Perfect Fool, and At the Boar's Head; for
orchestra, Somerset Rhapsody and The Planets; and
for chorus, Hymns from the Rig-Veda, The Cloud
Messenger, and Ode to Death.
Morley, Thomas (British) (Major Composers)
(1557 - 1602). Composer, theorist, and organist
at St. Paul's Cathedral. Morley was granted a
monopoly on music printing (1598). He introduced
the ballet into England and wrote the first
comprehensive treatise on composition in English
(1597).
Purcell, Henry (British) (Major Composers)
(c. 1659 - 95). Organist at Westminster Abbey and
composer of music for more than 40 plays,
including The Fairy Queen (1692) and The Tempest
(1695); and odes, songs, cantatas, church music,
chamber music, and keyboard works.
Sullivan, Sir Arthur (British) (Major Composers)
(1842 - 1900). Conductor, organist, and composer.
His works include the grand opera Ivanhoe (1891);
ballads; oratorios; cantatas, including The
Golden Legend; church music; a symphony; songs;
and works for piano. He is best known for his
light operas to librettos by W. S. Gilbert.
Tallis, Thomas (British) (Major Composers)
(c. 1505 - 85). Organist and composer. He was
granted a monopoly in music printing with William
Byrd (1575). Tallis's works include church music
and secular pieces for vocals and keyboard.
Vaughan Williams, Ralph (British) (Major Composers)
(1872 - 1958). Composer noted for his adaptations
of folk music. Principal compositions include A
London Symphony (1913), Norfolk Rhapsodies
(1906), and The Lark Ascending (1914), all for
orchestra; A Sea Symphony (1911) and Five
Mystical Songs (1911) for chorus; the operas Hugh
the Drover (1914), Riders to the Sea (1932), and
The Pilgrim's Progress (1951); and works for
stage, chamber music, and songs.
Walton, William (British) (Major Composers)
(1902 - 83). Composer best known for the opera
Troilus and Cressida (1954); a setting for poems
by Edith Sitwell, Facade; and the choral
Belshazzar's Feast. Walton also wrote coronation
marches, two symphonies, and chamber music.
French
Berlioz, Hector (French) (Major Composers)
(1803 - 69). Conductor and composer of Romantic
works. Berlioz is best known for the Symphonie
fantastique (1830). He also wrote the symphonic
work Harold in Italy, the opera Damnation of
Faust, and the oratorio Childhood of Christ (1850
- 54).
Bizet, Georges (French) (Major Composers)
(1838 - 75). Composer best known for the operas
The Pearlfishers (1836), The Young Maid of Perth
(1867), Djmileh (1872), and Carmen (1875). His
Symphony in C Major (1868) is highly regarded.
Boulez, Pierre (French) (Major Composers)
(1925 - ). Composer of works using the serial
technique, including Pli selon pli (1962) and
Memoriales (1975). He served as music director of
the New York Philharmonic 1971-77.
Couperin, Francois (French) (Major Composers)
(1668 - 1733). Member of a family of
distinguished organists. Organist to the king at
Versailles, he composed music for organ and
harpsichord, instrumental ensembles, secular
songs, and church music.
Debussy, Claude (French) (Major Composers)
(1862 - 1918). Composer noted for his
Impressionist style. Orchestral works include La
Mer (1905) and Nocturnes (1899); piano works
include Clair de lune, preludes, etudes,
arabesques, and The Children's Corner. Debussy
also wrote choral works, an opera, and the
well-known tone poem Prelude to the Afternoon of
a Faun (1894).
Delibes, (Clement Philibert) Leo (French Composer)
(1836 - 91). Composer of operas, including Le Roi
l'a dit (1873) and Lakme (1883), and ballets,
including Coppelia (1870) and Sylvia (1876).
Dukas, Paul (French) (Major Composers)
(1865 - 1935). Composer best known for his
orchestral scherzo Sorcerer's Apprentice (1897),
the opera Ariane et barbe-Bleue (1907), and the
ballet La Peri.
Faure, Gabriel (French) (Major Composers)
(1845 - 1924). Organist and composer who excelled
in song writing. He wrote the operas Promethee
(1900) and Penelope (1913), orchestral music,
chamber works, and piano and church music. Faure
was the teacher of Maurice Ravel.
Franck, Cesar (French) (Major Composers)
(1822 - 90). A teacher who influenced an entire
generation of composers. Distinctive compositions
include Symphony in D Minor (1886-88), the
Symphonic Variations for piano and orchestra, the
oratorios Ruth (1846) and Babel (1865), and the
operas Hulda (1895) and Ghiselle (1896).
Gounod, Charles (French) (Major Composers)
(1818 - 93). Composer of the operas Faust (1859)
and Romeo and Juliet (1867). Gounod also wrote
church music, symphonies, and cantatas.
Honegger, Arthur (French) (Major Composers)
(1892 - 1955). Founding member of the Parisian
group "The Six" in 1916 with Erik Satie, Darius
Milhaud, and Jean Cocteau. Honneger is best known
for the oratorio King David (1921) and Pacific
231 for orchestra.
Ibert, Jacques Francois Antoine (French Composers)
(1890 - 1962). Ibert's colorful works include a
suite for orchestra, Escales (1922);
Divertissement (1930); music for theater and
film; chamber music; and works for piano and
organ. He served as director of the Academie de
France in Rome (1937) and the Paris Opera (1955).
Lully, Jean-Baptiste (French) (Major Composers)
(orig. Lulli, Giambattista) (1632 - 87). Lully
composed for the comedy ballets of Moliere and
was the founder of the French opera (tragedie
lyrique). He also composed court ballets,
divertissements, church music, and two
instrumental suites.
Massenet, Jules Emile Frederic (French Composers)
(1842 - 1912). Best known for his pop operas Le
Roi de Lahore (1877), Manon (1884), Werther
(1892), and Le Jongleur de Notre-Dame (1902).
Massenet also wrote oratorios, orchestral works,
concertos, and songs.
Massiaen, Oliver Eugene Prosper Charles (Composers)
(1908 - ). Organist and composer of symphonic
poems and works for piano, organ, and vocals.
Massiaen formed Le Jeune France with Yves
Baudrier, Daniel Lesur, and Andre Jolivet in 1936
and wrote a treatise on composition.
Milhaud, Darius (French) (Major Composers)
(1892 - 1974). A member of the Parisian group
"The Six." Milhaud composed works that combine
jazz, polytonality, and Brazilian elements. He is
well known for his operas Le Pauvre Matelot (with
libretto by Jean Cocteau, 1927) and for ballets,
including the Creation of the World (1923).
Offenbach, Jacques (French) (Major Composers)
(1819 - 80). Composer of 90 operettas, including
the popular Orpheus in the Underworld (1858), La
Belle Helene (1864), and La Vie Parisienne
(1866). His best work is thought to be The Tales
of Hoffmann (1881).
Poulenc, Francis (French) (Major Composers)
(1899 - 1963). Member of the Parisian circle "The
Six." Poulenc composed ballets, including Les
Biches (1924); chamber music; a concerto for two
pianos; songs; choral works; a cantata; and
operas, among them Dialogues of the Carmelites
(1957).
Rameau, Jean-Philippe (French) (Major Composers)
(1683 - 1764). Theorist and important composer of
French opera. His works include the operas Castor
et Pollux (1737) and Dardamus (1739), the
opera-ballets Les Indes galantes (1735) and Les
Fetes d'Hebe (1739), and the ballet-bouffon
Platee (1745). His treatises laid the foundation
for the modern theory of harmony.
Ravel, Maurice, (French) (Major Composers)
(1875 - 1937). Leading exponent of Impressionism.
Ravel's principal works include Rhapsodie
espagnole (1908) and Bolero (1928), for
orchestra, and Valse Nobles et Sentimentales
(1911) and Le Tombeau de Couperin (1917), for
piano.
Saint-Saens, Charles Camille (French Composer)
(1835 - 1921). Pianist and composer. Saint-Saens
began performing at the age of 10 and later
composed symphonic poems under the influence of
Franz Liszt; operas, including Samson et Dalila
(1877); and concertos.
Satie, Erik (French) (Major Composers)
(1866 - 1925). Composer noted for his ironic,
humorous style. Satie composed three ballets,
including Parade, produced by Satie, Jean
Cocteau, and Pablo Picasso (1917); operettas; a
symphonic drama; songs; and piano pieces.
German
Bach, Johann Sebastian (German) (Major Composers)
(1695 - 1750). Baroque organist and composer, and
one of the greatest creators of Western music. In
his early years as an organist, Bach wrote mostly
keyboard music, such as his two- and three-part
inventions, The Well-Tempered Clavier, and his
many fugues and suites. Later he composed
instrumental works, including the Brandenburg
concertos, and superb religious works, such as
The St. Matthew Passion. He had 20 children, 10
of whom survived, including Wilhelm Friedemann
(1710 - 84), organist and composer; Johann
Christoph Friedrich (1732 - 94), composer; and
Johann Christian (1735 - 82), composer of 11
operas, church music, symphonies, piano
concertos, chamber music, and songs.
Beethoven, Ludwig van (German) (Major Composers)
(1770 - 1827). Composer of instrumental works,
particularly symphonies. Beethoven was a student
of Mozart and Haydn, whose influence permeates
his early works. By 1824 he had lost his hearing,
but he continued to compose under the sponsorship
of aristocratic patrons. His works include
Fidelio, an opera; a violin concerto and five
piano concertos; the Egmont overture; 32 piano
sonatas, including the Apassionata; 16 string
quartets; the Mass in D (Missa Solemnis); and
nine symphonies, the best known of which are the
Third (Eroica), the Fifth (Victory), the Sixth
(Pastoral), and the Ninth (Choral). The Ninth,
completed in 1823, is considered the greatest of
his works.
Brahms, Johannes (German) (Major Composers)
(1833 - 97). Developer of a Romantic style, both
lyrical and classical. His principal works
include the Tragic Overture, two piano concertos,
and serenades, for orchestra; Renaldo and Song of
Destiny, for chorus; chamber music; piano solos,
including variations on themes by Paganini and
George Frideric Handel; rhapsodies; ballades; piano
duets; waltzes; Hungarian dances; songs; folk song
arrangements; and 11 choral preludes for organ.
Bruch, Max (German) (Major Composers)
(1838 - 1920). Famous for his setting of the Hebrew
melody Kol Nidre (1881), for cello and orchestra.
His works also include three symphonies, three
operas, an operetta, choral works, and chamber
music.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald von (German Composer)
(1714 - 87). Composer of more than 100 operas,
among them Orfeo ed Euridice (1762) and Alceste
(1767), which established a new style of Italian
opera; 11 symphonies; instrumental trios; seven
odes by Friedrich Klopstock for solo voice and
keyboard; and a flute concerto.
Handel, George Frideric (German) (Major Composers)
(1685 - 1759). Baroque composer most famous for
the oratorio Messiah (1742). Trained in law and
music in Germany, Handel produced his operas in
Italy and London, incorporating German, Italian,
and English styles. Among his works are many
operas, including Almira (1705), Flavio (1723),
and Orlando (1733); Music for the Royal Fireworks
(1749) and the Water Music (1717); suites for
harpsichord; chamber music; and many Italian
cantatas.
Hindemith, Paul (German) (Major Composers)
(1895 - 1963). Composer, teacher, theorist,
performer, and conductor. Early works, such as
the opera Murder, Hope of Women (1921), reflect
the Expressionism of the period. Later works,
including Ludus Tonalis (1942), exemplify his new
theory of tonality expounded in The Craft of Musical
Composition. Hindemith was banned by the Nazis for
his modernity. His best-known work is a symphony
from his opera Mathis the Painter (1938).
Humperdinck, Engelbert (German) (Major Composers)
(1854 - 1921). Composer of six operas, including
the popular Hansel and Gretel (1893); incidental
music; vocal works; and songs.
Mendelssohn, Felix (German) (Major Composers)
(1809 - 47). Composer of orchestral works,
including five symphonies and the overture A
Midsummer Night's Dream (1826); choral works,
including the oratorios St. Paul (1836) and Elija
(1846); operas, including Son and Stranger
(1829); incidental music; piano works; and songs.
Meyerbeer, Giacomo (German) (Major Composers)
(1791 - 1864). Composer of operas in a
spectacular style that influenced Richard Wagner.
His works include Robert le Diable (1831), Les
Huguenots (1836), and Le Prophete (1849).
Orff, Carl (German) (Major Composers)
(1895 - 1982). Composer of stage works, including
the cantata Carmina Burana (1936); the opera Der
Mond (1938); and musical plays, such as Die
Bernauerin (1947). Orff developed a widely used
system for teaching music to children.
Schumann, Clara Josephine nee Wieck (German Composer)
(1819 - 96). Pianist and composer of piano works
and songs. She was a renowned interpreter of
music, particularly the works of her husband,
Robert Schumann.
Schumann, Robert (German) (Major Composers)
(1810 - 56). Composer of piano music, including
sonatas and impromptus, and of orchestral works.
His piano compositions include Scenes from
Childhood, Album for the Young, and Piano
Concerto in A Minor (1845). The Rhemish Symphony
(1850) combined classical and Romantic elements.
Strauss, Richard (German) (Major Composers)
(1864 - 1949). Composer of numerous operas, many
with librettos by Hugo von Hoffmansthal,
including the famous Der Rosenkavalier (1909);
two ballets; tone poems for orchestra; concertos;
Metamorphosen for 23 solo strings; chamber music;
songs; and piano works.
Wagner, Richard (German) (Major Composers)
(1813 - 83). Composer of operas and architect of
a theory of the "total" work of art, in which
drama, spectacle, and music are fused. Principal
works include Der Ring des Nibelungen (1853 -
74), which was made up of four operas - Das
Rheingold, Die Walkure, Siegfried, and
Gotterdammerung; Tristan und Isolde (1859); and
Parsifal (1882). Exiled for his role in the
revolution of 1848, Wagner resettled in Bavaria
in 1864, where he constructed his theater at
Bayreuth.
Weber, Carl Maria von (German) (Major Composers)
(1786 - 1826). Composer, conductor, pianist,
critic, and virtual creator of Romantic German
opera. Principal works include the operas Der
Freischutz (1821) and Oberon (1826), choral and
orchestral pieces, piano sonatas, concertos,
dances, and songs.
Italian
Bellini, Vincenzo (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1801 - 35). Composer of operas, including La
Straniera (1829), La Sonnambula (1831), Norma
(1831), and I Puritani (1835).
Boccherini, Luigi (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1743 - 1805). Cellist and composer. His
principal compositions are for chamber music.
Boccherini also wrote symphonies, concertos, and
vocal music.
Boito, Arrigo (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1842 - 1918). Poet and composer of operas,
including Mefistofele (1868) and Nerone (1918).
Boito is known chiefly for his librettos, notably
for Otello and Falstaff by Giuseppe Verdi.
Cherubini, Maria Luigi (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1760 - 1842). Composer of 24 operas, among them
the classic "rescue" opera The Water Carrier;
church music; string quartets; and piano sonatas.
He served as director of the Paris Conservatory
(1822).
Clementi, Muzio (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1752 - 1832). Pianist and composer of
symphonies, piano sonatas, and piano studies,
including Gradus ad Parnassum.
Corelli, Arcangelo (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1653 - 1713). Violinist and composer. His trio
sonatas, solo violin sonatas, and concerti grossi
established a style of composition for the
violin.
Dallapiccola, Luigi (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1904 - 75). Composer of atonal music. He is most
noted for his operas The Prisoner (1944) and
Odysseus (1968), the oratorio Job (1950), and the
Christmas Concerto (1956).
Donizetti, Gaetano (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1797 - 1848). Prolific composer of operas. His
best-known works included Lucrezia Borgia (1833),
La Favorite (1840), and the comic operas L'Elisir
d'amore (1832) and Don Pasquale (1843).
Leoncavallo, Ruggiero (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1857 - 1919). Composer of operas. His most
successful was Pagliacci (1892). He wrote his own
librettos, a ballet, and a symphonic poem.
Mascagni, Pietro (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1863 - 1945). Opera composer and conductor. His
most famous work is Cavalleria Rusticana (1890).
Monteverdi, Claudio (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1567 - 1643). Ordained priest and composer of
church music, including Masses, vespers,
madrigals, magnificats, and motets. He also wrote
secular vocal music, at least 12 operas, and
ballets.
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da (Italian Composer)
(c.1525 - 94). Organist, choirmaster, and
composer of church music, including Masses,
motets, and lamentations. He also wrote both
sacred and secular madrigals.
Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista (Italian Composer)
(1710 - 36). Composer of operas and comic
intermezzos that became the prototype of the
opera buffa; church music, including his renowned
Stabat Mater; and sonatas, which contributed to
the development of the form.
Puccini, Giacomo (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1858 - 1924). Composer of many operas. Best
known are La Boheme (1896), Tosca (1899), and
Madame Butterfly (1904). Turandot was completed
after his death by Franco Alfano.
Respighi, Ottorino (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1879 - 1936). Composer of operas, tone poems,
and other orchestral works, chamber music,
concertos, and songs. Among his most popular
works are The Fountains of Rome (1917) and The
Pines of Rome (1924), both symphonic poems.
Rossini, Gioacchino (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1792 - 1868). Composer of operas. The best known
are William Tell and The Barber of Seville.
Rossini also wrote cantatas, songs, piano pieces,
and woodwind quintets.
Scarlatti, Alessandro (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1660-1725). Conductor and the most prolific
composer of Italian operas of his time. Besides
115 operas, he wrote 20 oratorios, some 600
cantatas, 10 Masses, a Passion, motets, and other
church music, chamber pieces, concertos, and
works for harpsichord.
Scarlatti, (Giuseppe) Domenico (Italian Composers)
(1685 - 1757). Son of Alessandro Scarlatti and
greatest Italian composer for harpsichord of his
time. He wrote 550 pieces, now called sonatas, as
well as concertos, operas, cantatas, Masses, a
Stabat Mater, and two Salve Reginas.
Tartini, Giuseppe (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1692 - 1770). Violinist, teacher, composer, and
theorist. He composed over 100 violin concertos
and symphonies, solo sonatas, trio sonatas, and
church music; published treatises on violin
playing and acoustics; and established a violin
school in Padua (1728).
Verdi, Giuseppe (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1813 - 1901). Foremost composer of operas. They
include Rigoletto (1851), La Traviata (1853), and
the supreme Otello (1887) and Falstaff (1893).
Verdi also composed church music, including the
Requiem (1874), Ave Maria (1889), Stabat Mater
(1898), and Te Deum (1898).
Vivaldi, Antonio (Italian) (Major Composers)
(1678 - 1741). Violinist, composer, and ordained
priest. Master of the Italian Baroque, Vivaldi is
best known for his instrumental music and the
concertos The Four Seasons. He also wrote church
music, an oratorio, and operas.
Russian
Borodin, Aleksandr (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1833 - 87). Composer and scientist. His works
include three symphonies; In the Steppes of
Central Asia for orchestra; string quartets; and
the opera Prince Igor, completed after his death
by Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Aleksandr
Glazunov.
Glinka, Mikhail (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1804 - 57). Composer of two operas and other
works. A Life for the Czar (1836) and Russian and
Ludmilla (1842) established a Russian style
against the conventions of Italian opera. Glinka
introduced folk song into instrumental
composition in the orchestral fantasia
Kamarinskaya.
Khachaturian, Aram (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1903 - 78). Armenian composer whose works are
distinguished for their incorporation of oriental
folk elements. He is best known for the ballet
Gayane (1942) and its popular Sabre Dance.
Moussorgsky, Modest (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1839 - 81). Composer of operas and orchestral
works. Moussorgsky is best known for his
outstanding operas Boris Gudunov (1868) and
Khovanschina (1886), as well as for Pictures at
an Exhibition (1874) for piano and Night on Bald
Mountain (1860 - 66) for orchestra.
Prokofiev, Sergei (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1891 - 1953). Composer, pianist, and conductor.
His principal compositions are the operas Love
for Three Oranges (1921) and War and Peace
(1942); Peter and the Wolf (1936), for orchestra
and narrator; and seven symphonies, piano
concertos, ballets, and piano sonatas.
Rachmaninoff, Sergei (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1873 - 1943). Composer, pianist, and conductor.
Rachmaninoff emigrated to the United States at
age 17. His compositions include three operas;
orchestral works, including the tone poem Isle of
the Dead (1907); four concertos; choral works;
chamber music; and songs.
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nicolai (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1844 - 1908). Composer of operas and orchestral
works. His greatest works are the operas Mlada
(1890), Christmas Eve (1895), Sadko (1896), and
The Golden Cockerel (1907). His orchestration
influenced the work of Igor Stravinsky and
others.
Rubinstein, Anton (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1829 - 94). Pianist and composer; founder of the
Conservatory in St. Petersburg (1862). A
representative of traditional Western ideas
against the current of nationalism, his works
include Musical Portraits (Faust, Ivan the
Terrible, Don Quixote) for orchestra, 20 operas,
six symphonies (including The Ocean), chamber
music, and other works.
Scriabin, Aleksandr (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1872 - 1915). Composer and pianist. Scriabin
experimented with esoteric harmonies related to
theosophical ideas in The Divine Poem (1904) and
Poem of Ecstasy (1909-10) for orchestra; he
wrote sonatas, preludes, and Prometheus, which
includes the use of a "color organ" for slide
projection.
Shostakovich, Dmitri (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1906 - 75). Composer of chamber and symphonic
works. Shostakovich alternated between political
and satirical composition, later trying to bring
his work closer to official prescriptions. His
works include 11 symphonies, among them May the
First (1930) and the outstanding Ninth Symphony
(1940); operas; the ballet The Golden Age (1930);
piano works; sonatas; and string quartets.
Stravinsky, Igor (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1882 - 1971). Composer of the epochal ballet
Rite of Spring. Later works, such as The
Soldier's Tale, for narrator and instruments, and
the ballet suite Apollon Musagete, are more
austere and neoclassical. Stravinsky settled in
the United States in 1941, where he experimented
with 12-tone composition, as in the Cantata
(1952).
Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilyich (Russian) (Major Composers)
(1840 - 93). One of the most important Russian
composers. Tchaikovsky is best known for his
ballet music, including Swan Lake (1876) and The
Sleeping Beauty (1889), and his operas Eugene
Onegin (1878) and Queen of Spades (1890). He also
wrote symphonies, including the popular Fifth
Symphony (1888), chamber music, and choral works,
and published books on harmony, autobiographical
essays, and translations.
Other
Albeniz, Isaac (Other) (Major Composers)
(1860 - 1909). Spanish composer and pianist.
Albeniz is known for his later piano works,
notably Iberia (1906 - 09); he also wrote operas,
including The Magic Opal (1893).
Bartok, Bela (Other) (Major Composers)
(1881 - 1945). Hungarian pianist and composer who
studied and collected Hungarian folk music. His
principal works include orchestral pieces; the
opera Duke Bluebeard's Castle; the ballet The
Wooden Prince; the pantomime The Miraculous
Mandarin; chamber music; piano works, including
the Mikrokosmos; and arrangements of folk songs.
He emigrated to the United States in 1940.
Chavez, Carlos (Other) (Major Composers)
(1899 - 1978). Mexican composer of works using
the idioms of Indian folk music, including
Xochipilli Macuilxochitl (1940). Well-known works
are the ballet symphony H.P. (1926) and Sinfonia
Antigona (1933).
Chopin, Frederic Francois (Other) (Major Composers)
(1810 - 49). Polish composer and pianist. Called
"the poet of the piano," he composed hundreds of
pieces for that instrument, most notably two
piano concertos.
Dvorak, Antonin (Other) (Major Composers)
(1841 - 1904). Czech composer of works in a
nationalist spirit, including the Symphonic
Variations, Slavonic Rhapsodies, and the opera
The Peasant Rogue (1877). His best-known work,
the symphony From the New World (1893), contains
elements of both Czech and American music.
Falla, Manuel de (Other) (Major Composers)
(1876 - 1946). Spanish composer and pianist. He
published little but was the outstanding Spanish
composer of his time. Principal works are the
operas La Vida Breve (1905) and El Retablo de
Maese Pedro (1923), the ballets El Amor Brujo
(1915) and The Three-Cornered Hat (1919), and the
Fantasia Beticu (1919) for piano.
Grainger, Percy Aldridge (Other) (Major Composers)
(1882 - 1961). Australian pianist and composer
who settled in the United States in 1914. He was
head of the Music Department at New York
University and was known for his arrangements of
traditional tunes from a variety of sources.
Granados, Enrique (Other) (Major Composers)
(1867 - 1916). Spanish pianist and composer, born
in Cuba. Granados founded and directed the
Academia Granados (1901) and composed seven
operas, orchestral works, chamber music, a
collection of tonadillas, and Goyescas (1915),
based on the paintings of Goya. He died at sea in
a torpedoed ship during World War I.
Grieg, Edvard (Other) (Major Composers)
(1843 - 1907). Norwegian composer, conductor, and
pianist. Principal works include the overture I
Host (1866), two suites from Peer Gynt (1888,
1891), At a Southern Convent Gate (1871) for
chorus, and Lyric Pieces for piano.
Janacek, Leos (Other) (Major Composers)
(1854 - 1928). Czech composer. Janacek wrote 10
operas, including Jenufa (1904); orchestral,
choral, and piano works; chamber music; and
songs. He published collections of Moravian folk
music and a treatise on harmony.
Kodaly, Zoltan (Other) (Major Composers)
(1882 - 1967). Hungarian composer whose works are
distinguished by the influence of native folk
music. His best-known works are the opera Hary
Janos (1926) and Psalmus Hungaricus (1923).
Kodaly developed a widely used method of teaching
music.
Lasso, Orlando di (Roland de Lassus) (Composer)
(1532 - 94). Belgian composer. Among his many
works are Masses, motets, magnificats, and other
church music. The complete edition of his works
comprises 60 volumes of nearly 2,000 works.
Liszt, Franz (Other) (Major Composers)
(1811 - 86). Hungarian composer who spent time in
Paris and Rome. He was an unsurpassed virtuoso
pianist and a composer of symphonies, including
Faust (1853); symphonic poems; piano concertos,
etudes, and 19 Hungarian Rhapsodies; choral
pieces; fantasia and fugues for organ; and songs.
Nielsen, Carl (Other) (Major Composers)
(1865 - 1931). Danish composer of operas,
symphonies, string quartets, piano pieces, and
songs. Nielsen served as director of the
Copenhagen Conservatory (1915 - 27).
Paderewski, Ignace (Other) (Major Composers)
(1860 - 1941). Polish pianist and composer. One
of the most renowned pianists of modern times, in
1919 Paderewski was prime minister of Poland. He
composed many piano works, an opera, a symphony,
a concerto, and songs.
Sibelius, Jean (Other) (Major Composers)
(1865 - 1957). Finnish composer. Sibelius
attempted a national music, as in En Saga (1892)
and The Return of Lemminkainen (1895), based on
the Finnish epic the Kalevala. Notable works
include the symphonic poems Pohjola's Daughter
(1906),Night Ride and Sunrise (1907), and The
Oceanides (1914).
Smetana, Bedrich (Other) (Major Composers)
(1824 - 84). Czech composer. Among his operas on
national subjects, the best known is The Bartered
Bride (1866). Smetana wrote his best instrumental
works despite deafness, especially My Country
(1879) and the string quartets From My Life (1876).
Villa-Lobos, Heitor (Other) (Major Composers)
(1887 - 1959). Brazilian composer. His works show
the influence of Indian music and Brazilian folk
songs; they include five operas, six symphonies,
symphonic poems, serenades, choral music, piano
solos, and songs.
Wieniawski, Henri (Other) (Major Composers)
(1835 - 80). Polish violinist and composer.
Wieniawski's compositions include two concertos
and popular pieces.
Terms Used in Music
a cappella (Music Terms)
Choral music without accompaniment (literally,
"in the church style").
accelerando (Music Terms)
A direction to increase the speed gradually.
accent (Music Terms)
The stress given to one tone over another. In
symmetrical music, the accent falls at regular
intervals. Irregular accents fall on normally
unstressed beats.
accidental (Music Terms)
Term for a sharp, double sharp, flat, double
flat, or natural prefixed to single notes.
accompaniment (Music Terms)
Secondary instrument or background vocal added to
the principal instrument or soloist.
acoustics (Music Terms)
The science of sound, which deals with intensity,
quality, resonance, pitch, tone, etc.
adagietto (Music Terms)
A direction to play slightly faster than adagio.
adagio (Music Terms)
A direction to play slowly.
adagissimo (Music Terms)
A direction to play very slowly.
ad libitum (Music Terms)
A direction to interpret, improvise, or omit,
according to the player's preference.
affettuoso (Music Terms)
A direction to play affectionately, with warmth.
agitato (Music Terms)
A direction to play in an "agitated," restless,
hurried manner.
air (Music Terms)
A tune or melody. The French eighteenth-century
term for song; also, an instrumental piece whose
melodic style is similar to that of a solo song.
alla breve (Music Terms)
A direction to play twice as fast as the notation
signifies.
allargando (Music Terms)
A direction to play slower, louder.
allegretto (Music Terms)
A direction to play with moderately quick
movement, slower than allegro but quicker than
largo.
allegro (Music Terms)
A direction to play quickly, briskly.
allemande (Music Terms)
A moderately slow dance of German origin.
allentando (Music Terms)
A direction to slow down.
alto (Music Terms)
The highest adult male voice, or lowest female
voice; also, a tenor violin or viola.
andante (Music Terms)
A direction to play in moderate tempo, inclining
to slowness, flowing with ease.
andantino (Music Terms)
A direction to play in a tempo slightly quicker
than andante.
animato (Music Terms)
A direction to play with animation.
answer (Music Terms)
In a fugue, the transposition of a subject.
anthem (Music Terms)
A choral piece for use in church services.
a poco (Music Terms)
A direction signifying gradualness.
a poco a poco (Music Terms)
A direction signifying little by little.
appassionato (Music Terms)
A direction to play passionately.
appogiatura (Music Terms)
An inharmonious note preceding a principal note,
marked with a diagonal line through it, of short
or long duration.
arabesque (Music Terms)
A lyrical piece in a fanciful style; a term first
used by Schumann and later by Debussy.
aria (Music Terms)
An extended vocal solo in an opera or oratorio.
arioso (Music Terms)
A piece of recitative song, but more songlike.
arpeggio (Music Terms)
The technique of playing the notes of a chord
successively rather than simultaneously.
assai (Music Terms)
A direction to play very quickly.
a tempo (Music Terms)
A direction to play in time, following a
deviation from the regular tempo.
aubade (Music Terms)
Morning music, in contrast to serenade, or
evening music.
augmentation (Music Terms)
Presentation of a theme in notes of doubled
value. It is the opposite of diminution.
auxiliary note (Music Terms)
Usually, a grace note one degree above or below a
principal note.
ballad (Music Terms)
A narrative song, originally accompanied by
dancing; also, an instrumental piece in ballad
style.
bar (Music Terms)
A line drawn vertically across the staff to
divide into measures.
baritone (Music Terms)
A high bass voice; also, any musical instrument
intermediary between bass and tenor.
bass (Music Terms)
The lowest male voice, or lowest part in a
musical composition; also, short for the double
bass or bass tuba.
beat (Music Terms)
A unit of measurement indicated by the
conductor's gesture; each unit of a measure with
respect to accent.
berceuse (Music Terms)
A cradle song.
bolero (Music Terms)
A Spanish dance accompanied by castanets.
bowing (Music Terms)
A method of playing notes or passages indicated
by signs for down bow (__) or up bow (__).
brace (Music Terms)
A vertical line used to join two or more staves.
buffa (Music Terms)
In the comic style.
buffo (Music Terms)
The singer of a comic part.
cadence (Music Terms)
A progression that seems to arrive at a
conclusion. Perfect c: full close, progression
from dominant to tonic. Imperfect c: half close,
progression from tonic to dominant. Plagal c:
progression from subdominant to tonic. Authentic
c: perfect cadence in which the final tonic chord
is preceded by dominant. Interrupted c:
progression from dominant to a chord other than
the tonic. Deceptive c: progression in which
dominant is followed not by the expected tonic
but by the sixth tone.
cadenza (Music Terms)
An ornamental passage near the end of a
composition.
canceling sign (Music Terms)
The natural sign (__) used to reverse the effect
of a previous sharp or flat sign.
canon (Music Terms)
A contrapuntal composition in which one part is
imitated by one or more other parts, so that the
successive statements overlap.
cantata (Music Terms)
A piece that is sung, in contrast to a sonata,
which is played. The term now refers to secular
or sacred choral works accompanied by orchestra,
similar to the oratorio but shorter.
canto (Music Terms)
The part of a choral work that carries the
melody.
canzona (Music Terms)
A form of Italian lyric poetry corresponding to
the ode, set to music, in a style similar to a
madrigal, though simpler; also, an instrumental
piece in the style of a song.
capo (Music Terms)
The beginning.
capriccio (Music Terms)
A short composition in free form.
catch (Music Terms)
A round for three or more voices.
chaconne (Music Terms)
Originally, a Spanish dance; an instrumental
composition with variations on a ground bass or
stereotyped harmonic progression.
chamber music (Music Terms)
Music suitable for a small hall; instrumental
music in the sonata form.
chanson (Music Terms)
A song for solo voice or vocal ensemble; also, an
instrumental piece of vocal character.
chant (Music Terms)
A sacred song, used in accordance with prescribed
ritual. It is the oldest form of choral music.
chorale. (Music Terms)
A psalm or hymn tune sung in church; also, a
harmonization of a chorale melody.
chord (Music Terms)
The combination of three or more tones played at
once. Diatonic c. uses only notes proper to the
key. A triad is a chord of three notes in which
the lowest is combined with the third and fifth
above it. Common c. is a triad in root position.
Dominant c. is founded on the dominant of the
key. An inverted c. uses a tone other than the
root as its lowest tone. Harmony is the study of
chords and their relations.
chromatic (Music Terms)
Progression by semitones. It refers to music that
contains tones outside the diatonic scale. A c.
chord contains one or more notes foreign to the
key. A c. scale consists of successive semitones.
clef (Music Terms)
A character that indicates the pitch of a
particular line on a staff.
coda (Music Terms)
A passage at the end of a piece or movement that
brings it to a conclusion.
coll' arco (Music Terms)
With the bow.
colla voce (Music Terms)
A direction indicating that the accompaniment
should follow the voice for tempo.
comma (Music Terms)
The smallest difference in pitch recognizable by
the ear, 1/9 of a whole step.
common time (Music Terms)
Four-four (4/4) time-that is, four quarter notes
to a measure.
compound interval (Music Terms)
An interval that extends beyond an octave.
compound time (Music Terms)
Time in which each beat of the bar is divisible
into three, in contrast to simple time, in which
each beat is divisible into two.
con bravura (Music Terms)
A direction to play with boldness.
concert master (Music Terms)
The leader of the first violins, next in rank to
the conductor.
concerto (Music Terms)
A composition for solo instrument, usually with
orchestral accompaniment.
concerto grosso. (Music Terms)
A composition for orchestra with passages for a
group of solo instruments.
con fuoco (Music Terms)
A direction to play "with fire," or with great
animation.
consecutive interval (Music Terms)
The progression of two like intervals between two
parts.
console (Music Terms)
The part of the organ from which the player
controls the instrument - the keyboard, pedals,
etc., as distinguished from the pipes.
consort (Music Terms)
A chamber ensemble; also, music written for such
a group.
con spirito (Music Terms)
A direction to play in a lively manner.
continuo (Music Terms)
The bass, or lowest, line of a composition.
contralto (Music Terms)
The range of a low female voice; alto.
contrapuntal (Music Terms)
In counterpoint.
counterpoint (Music Terms)
The combination of two or more parts, melodically
and rhythmically independent.
countersubject (Music Terms)
The contrasting part to the subject of a fugue.
countertenor (Music Terms)
The highest male voice.
courante (Music Terms)
A lively dance in triple time; also, the second
part of a suite.
crescendo (Music Terms)
A direction to increase the volume.
da capo (Music Terms)
A direction to repeat from the beginning.
decrescendo (Music Terms)
A direction to decrease the volume.
descant (Music Terms)
A contrasted melody to be sung simultaneously
with an existing melodic line. It is the earliest
form of polyphony, with contrasting motions
between the parts.
development (Music Terms)
The extension of a theme through contrapuntal
elaboration, modulation, rhythmical variation,
etc.
diatonic (Music Terms)
Notes proper to a key. D. harmony is formed by
the tones of a single minor or major scale; a d.
interval is formed by two tones of the major or
minor scale.
diminished chord (Music Terms)
A chord in which the highest and lowest tones
form a diminished interval.
diminished interval (Music Terms)
A perfect or minor interval reduced by a
semitone.
diminuendo (Music Terms)
Diminishing; getting softer.
diminution (Music Terms)
The presentation of a theme in notes of smaller
time value.
discord, dissonance (Music Terms)
A combination of tones that are unresolved,
jarring.
divertimento (Music Terms)
Originally, a suite of movements for chamber
ensemble, designed for entertainment; a
diminutive symphony.
divertissement (Music Terms)
A fantasia on well-known tunes.
divisi (Music Terms)
An indication in orchestral music that a group of
players who play the same parts are to play two
or more separate parts.
do (Music Terms)
The note C.
dolce (Music Terms)
A direction to play softly, sweetly.
dolcissimo (Music Terms)
A direction to play very sweetly.
dolente, doloroso (Music Terms)
Sorrowful.
dominant (Music Terms)
The fifth tone of the major or minor scale. A D.
chord or triad has the dominant as its root.
doppio movimento (Music Terms)
Twice as fast.
Dorian mode (Music Terms)
A church mode represented on the white keys of a
keyboard instrument by an ascending scale from D
to D.
dot (Music Terms)
Written after a note, an indication of the
prolongation of its length by 1/2; the double dot
indicates by 3/4. Above or below the note, the
dot indicates staccato.
double stop (Music Terms)
A chord of two notes played on a bowed string
instrument, obtaining a two-part harmony.
doxology (Music Terms)
In Christian worship, a hymn of praise to God.
duet (Music Terms)
A composition for two players or two voices, with
or without accompaniment.
dynamics (Music Terms)
Degrees of loudness; the branch of musical
science that deals with loudness.
eighth (Music Terms)
A note whose value is 1/8 of a whole note.
enharmonic (Music Terms)
Tones that have the same pitch when played on
tempered instruments but that are different in
notation, such as C# and Db.
estinto (Music Terms)
So soft that it can hardly be heard.
etude (Music Terms)
A study; an exercise in technique.
exposition (Music Terms)
The statement of the musical material on which a
movement is based.
expression marks (Music Terms)
Marks used to help the interpretation of a work;
they are concerned with dynamics, tempo, and mood
and indicate forte, allegro, con spirito, etc.
fa (Music Terms)
The note F.
falsetto (Music Terms)
The false voice; used to achieve notes above the
normal range.
fantasia (Music Terms)
A piece in which the composition follows the
fancy rather than any conventional form; of an
improvisational character.
fifth (Music Terms)
The interval between the root and the fifth tone
above it.
figuration (Music Terms)
The extended use of a particular melodic or
harmonic figure; the ornamental treatment of a
passage.
finale (Music Terms)
The last movement of a work of several movements;
for example, the conclusion of a concerto or the
last act of an opera.
flat (Music Terms)
The sign (__), indicating the pitch is to be
lowered by one semitone.
form (Music Terms)
The pattern of design of a work; its basic
elements are repetition, variation, and contrast
in the areas of harmony, rhythm, and tone.
forte (Music Terms)
A direction to play loudly.
forte piano (Music Terms)
A direction to play loudly, then softly.
fortissimo (Music Terms)
A direction to play very loudly.
forza (Music Terms)
A direction to play with force.
forzando (Music Terms)
Strongly accenting. Also sforzando.
fourth (Music Terms)
An interval reached by ascending three steps from
the root in a diatonic scale.
fox-trot (Music Terms)
A dance of American origin in duple time.
Fugue (Music Terms)
A contrapuntal composition in which two or more
themes are interwoven by the various parts at
different intervals of pitch.
fundamental (Music Terms)
The lowest tone of a chord when the chord is
founded on that tone; also, the lowest note in
the harmonic series.
galop (Music Terms)
A quick dance in 2/4 time popular in the
nineteenth century.
giocoso (Music Terms)
Jocose; merry.
glee (Music Terms)
A simple partsong, generally for male voices.
glissando (Music Terms)
Sliding the finger rapidly across keys or
strings.
grace note (Music Terms)
An ornamental note not essential to the melody
and not counted as part of the measure.
grandezza (Music Terms)
Grandeur.
grave (Music Terms)
A direction to play slowly, solemnly.
grazioso (Music Terms)
A direction to play gracefully.
Gregorian chant (Music Terms)
A style of church music for unaccompanied voices,
without definite rhythm, in one of the eight
church modes.
half note (Music Terms)
A note having half the time value of a whole note
and twice that of a quarter note.
harmonics (Music Terms)
Sounds produced on a stringed instrument or harp
by touching the strings at an exact fractional
point corresponding to the upper partials of the
strings; indicated by the harmonic mark.
harmony (Music Terms)
The structure and relationships of chords and
their successions.
homophonic (Music Terms)
Single-voiced; music in which one melody or part
is supported by chords; the opposite of
polyphonic.
imitation (Music Terms)
The use of the same or similar melodic material
in different voices successively.
impresario (Music Terms)
The conductor or manager of an opera or concert
company.
impromptu (Music Terms)
An improvised composition without fixed form.
incidental music (Music Terms)
Music for performance during the action of a
play.
interlude (Music Terms)
A short piece played between the acts of a drama;
the verses of a song, parts of a church service,
or sections of a cantata.
intermezzo (Music Terms)
A play with music performed between the acts of
an opera or drama that gave rise to opera buffa;
an interlude; a short movement in a symphony.
interval (Music Terms)
The distance in pitch between two notes, harmonic
if they are played together, melodic if they are
played in succession. Perfect i: the prime,
fourth, fifth, and octave. Major i: the second,
third, sixth, and seventh of the major scale.
Minor i: a chromatic half step smaller. Augmented
i: a chromatic half step larger than perfect and
major. Diminished i: a chromatic half step
smaller than perfect and minor.
intonation (Music Terms)
The production of tone with voice or instrument.
inversion (Music Terms)
The transposition of the lower and upper notes of
an interval. In an inverted chord, the lowest
tone is not its root; an inverted melody is one
in which its intervals are inverted.
Ionian mode (Music Terms)
A mode of church music represented on the white
keys of a keyboard by an ascending scale from C
to C.
key (Music Terms)
A series of notes forming a major or minor scale;
tonality; also, the levers on a keyboard
instrument.
key signature (Music Terms)
Sharps or flats placed at the beginning of a
composition to indicate its key.
la (Music Terms)
The note A.
larghetto (Music Terms)
Diminutive of largo.
largo (Music Terms)
A direction to play broadly, more slowly than
adagio but not as slowly as a grave.
leading tone (Music Terms)
The major seventh of any scale.
legato (Music Terms)
A direction to play smoothly and continuously.
lento (Music Terms)
A direction to play slowly, but not as slowly as
largo.
libretto (Music Terms)
The text of an opera or oratorio.
litany (Music Terms)
A song of invocation to God.
madrigal (Music Terms)
An unaccompanied song for three or more voices
using counterpoint and imitation.
maestoso (Music Terms)
A direction to play in a majestic, stately
manner.
magnificat (Music Terms)
Canticle of the Virgin sung as part of the
evening service in Reformed churches and at
vespers in the Catholic church.
major (Music Terms)
Applied to chords, intervals, scales, and keys, a
standard in contrast to diminished, augmented, or
minor.
major scale (Music Terms)
A scale in which the half steps occur between the
third and fourth and the seventh and eighth
tones.
march (Music Terms)
A composition with strong rhythms for a
procession or parade.
Mass (Music Terms)
A musical setting of the liturgy of the
Eucharist.
mazurka (Music Terms)
The Polish national dance in triple time, often
with a strong accent on the third beat.
measure (Music Terms)
A unit of rhythm, indicated by bars.
mediant (Music Terms)
The third note of a diatonic scale.
melody (Music Terms)
A succession of single tones, in contrast to
harmony, which refers to simultaneous tones.
mensural music (Music Terms)
A medieval term for music with definite note
values, as distinguished from plainsong.
meter (Music Terms)
A scheme of accents; a grouping of beats into
units of measure.
mezzo (Music Terms)
Medium, half; moderate.
mezzo forte (Music Terms)
A direction to play moderately loudly.
mezzo soprano (Music Terms)
The female voice between soprano and alto.
mi (Music Terms)
The note E.
middle C (Music Terms)
The C note that is nearest the middle of the
piano keyboard.
minor (Music Terms)
Intervals, scales, keys, and chords having
intervals a semitone less than major.
minor scale (Music Terms)
Natural minor has half steps between two and
three and between five and six. Harmonic minor
has half steps between two and three and between
seven and eight, ascending; in descending it
usually is natural.
minuet (Music Terms)
A slow, graceful dance of French origin in triple
time; a composition in this rhythm.
mode (Music Terms)
A system of scales in ancient Greek and early
church music made up of octaves and using only
the notes represented by the white keys of the
piano.
modulation (Music Terms)
The transition from one key to another through a
succession of chords.
molto (Music Terms)
Very.
monophony (Music Terms)
Music consisting of melody only, without
accompaniment, as in plainsong or folk song.
mordent (Music Terms)
An ornament played by quickly alternating a note
with the note below it.
morendo (Music Terms)
A final cadence.
motet (Music Terms)
An unaccompanied vocal composition with sacred
lyrics from the thirteenth century.
motif, motive (Music Terms)
The subject of a composition.
motion (Music Terms)
Melodic progression.
movement (Music Terms)
A distinct division of a composition with its own
key, themes, rhythm, and character.
natural (Music Terms)
The interval between a fundamental tone and the
ninth tone above it.
nocturne (Music Terms)
A serenade; a cantabile melody over a chordal
accompaniment.
note (Music Terms)
A tone of definite pitch.
obbligato (Music Terms)
Indispensable; the opposite of ad libitum.
octave (Music Terms)
The interval between a fundamental tone and the
eighth above it; all the tones within the
interval.
octet (Music Terms)
A composition of eight parts or voices; also, the
group of its performers.
opera (Music Terms)
A drama set to music performed with scenery and
costumes; among its elements are arias,
recitatives, duets, and choruses.
operetta (Music Terms)
A short opera.
opus (Music Terms)
A musical work or composition.
oratorio (Music Terms)
A musical setting of a scriptural text set
without costumes, scenery, or action.
orchestra (Music Terms)
A group of musicians playing various instruments.
overture (Music Terms)
An introduction to a large composition such as an
opera or oratorio; however, it can be independent
or the predecessor of a symphonic poem.
parallel motion (Music Terms)
The movement of two or more parts by the same
interval.
part (Music Terms)
A series of notes for voice, instrument, or
group, to be performed with other parts or in
solo.
partita (Music Terms)
A suite; a collection of dance tunes.
partsong (Music Terms)
A contrapuntal composition for three or more
voices, unaccompanied.
passion music (Music Terms)
A musical setting for the story of the suffering
and death of Christ.
pasticcio (Music Terms)
A medley; an opera made up of selections from
other operas.
pastorale (Music Terms)
A musical composition suggestive of rural life.
pentatonic scale (Music Terms)
A five-toned scale; the diatonic scale with
fourth and seventh tones omitted.
phrasing (Music Terms)
The emphasis and grouping of musical phrases;
notation for proper phrasing.
pianissimo (Music Terms)
A direction to play very softly.
piano quartet (Music Terms)
A term usually applied to quartets for piano,
violin, viola, and cello.
piano quintet (Music Terms)
A combination of piano with string quartet.
pizzicato (Music Terms)
A term indicating that strings should be plucked,
not bowed.
plainsong (Music Terms)
A nonmetrical chant in one of the church modes.
poco (Music Terms)
Little.
poco a poco (Music Terms)
Little by little.
polka (Music Terms)
A lively dance in 2/4 time that originated in
Bohemia c.1830.
polonaise (Music Terms)
A Polish dance in a stately rhythm adopted as a
musical form by Chopin.
polyphony (Music Terms)
Contrapuntal music; a style in which melodically
independent though harmonic parts are interwoven;
the opposite of homophony.
precipitato (Music Terms)
Hurried.
preciso (Music Terms)
Precise.
prelude (Music Terms)
An introductory movement complete in itself, as
opposed to an introduction, which leads directly
into the principal section; a short piano piece
in one movement.
program music (Music Terms)
Music intended to depict the concrete elements of
a story or image.
progression (Music Terms)
Melodic: the passage from tone to tone; harmonic:
the passage from chord to chord.
quartet (Music Terms)
A composition of four parts or voices; the
performers of a four-part composition.
quintet (Music Terms)
A composition of five voices or instruments;
also, the performers of a five-part composition.
recitative (Music Terms)
A style of singing resembling dramatic speech.
reel (Music Terms)
A popular dance in Scotland for two couples. The
Virginia reel is a variant for a large group of
dancers.
refrain (Music Terms)
Repeated lines that occur at the end of each
stanza of a poem.
requiem (Music Terms)
A Mass for the dead; also, a musical setting for
such a Mass.
resolution (Music Terms)
The progression from dissonance to consonance.
rest (Music Terms)
A character indicating pause or silence.
retard, ritardando (Music Terms)
A direction to gradually slow the speed.
rhapsody (Music Terms)
A title given to compositions of a heroic or
rhetorical character; an instrumental fantasy
based on folk song.
rinforzando1 (Music Terms)
Reinforcing.
ritenato (Music Terms)
Immediately slower.
rogoroso (Music Terms)
Exact.
romance (Music Terms)
A vocal or instrumental composition of a romantic
character without fixed form.
rondo (Music Terms)
A form of instrumental composition with a
recurring leading theme.
root (Music Terms)
The fundamental tone of a chord; the lowest tone,
unless the chord is inverted.
round (Music Terms)
A canon for three or more voices.
scale (Music Terms)
A series of tones arranged according to rising
pitches.
scherzo (Music Terms)
A playful, humorous instrumental composition.
second (Music Terms)
The interval between a fundamental tone and the
diatonic tone above.
semitone (Music Terms)
Half a whole note.
septet (Music Terms)
A composition for seven voices or instruments.
sequence (Music Terms)
Repetition of a figure at different intervals.
serenade (Music Terms)
An impromptu or unsolicited vocal or instrumental
performance, often outdoors; an instrumental
composition in several movements for a small
group, between the symphony and the suite.
signature (Music Terms)
Indications placed on the staff at the beginning
of a piece that show the key and the rhythm.
sixth (Music Terms)
The sixth diatonic tone above a fundamental; an
interval composed of the fundamental and the
sixth tone above it.
slur (Music Terms)
A curved line over a series of notes indicating
the smooth transition between them.
solo (Music Terms)
Performed alone.
sonata (Music Terms)
An instrumental composition of three or four
movements in related keys and in different forms
and character.
sonatina (Music Terms)
A short, simple sonata.
soprano (Music Terms)
The highest female or boy's voice; the treble.
sostenuto (Music Terms)
Sustained.
sotto voce (Music Terms)
In a low voice.
staccato (Music Terms)
Distinct, detached; the opposite of legato.
staff (Music Terms)
The five horizontal lines on and between which
notes are written.
stretto (Music Terms)
Compressed; in a fugue, the overlapping of
subject and answer.
subdominant (Music Terms)
The dominant below; the fourth tone of the
diatonic scale, in the same relation to the key
note from below as the dominant is from above.
subito (Music Terms)
Suddenly.
subject (Music Terms)
A theme used as the basis of a musical form.
submediant (Music Terms)
The sixth tone of a diatonic scale.
subtonic (Music Terms)
Under the tone; the seventh tone of the diatonic
scale.
suite (Music Terms)
An instrumental composition consisting of a
series of movements or distinct compositions;
originally, a cycle of dance tunes.
supertonic (Music Terms)
The tone one degree above the tonic.
symphonic poem (Music Terms)
Originated by Franz Liszt, a large narrative
orchestral work in one movement.
symphony (Music Terms)
A sonata for orchestra, usually in four
movements.
syncopation (Music Terms)
A shift from the normally strong to a weak beat.
tempo (Music Terms)
The speed at which a piece is played, indicated
by terms such as adagio.
tenor (Music Terms)
A high male voice; also, the instrument of
corresponding range.
tenuto (Music Terms)
Sustained; held.
theme (Music Terms)
A musical subject.
third (Music Terms)
The interval between a fundamental tone and the
third diatonic tone above.
time (Music Terms)
Used synonymously with measure or rhythm.
toccata (Music Terms)
A composition popular in the sixteenth century,
for organ or harpsicord, resembling the
capriccio.
tonality (Music Terms)
Chords grouped around the central tonic chord.
tone (Music Terms)
A sound of definite duration and pitch; a note.
tone cluster (Music Terms)
A group of notes played simultaneously with
forearm, elbow, and fist in a method introduced
by Henry Cowell.
tono (Music Terms)
Thunder.
transpose (Music Terms)
To change the key of a composition.
treble (Music Terms)
The highest voice in a choir or part; soprano; G
clef.
tremolo (Music Terms)
Rapid repetition of a note to resemble trembling.
triad (Music Terms)
A chord composed of a fundamental tone and a
third and fifth above.
trio (Music Terms)
A composition for three parts or voices; the
second part of a minuet or march.
triplet (Music Terms)
A group of three notes played in the time value
of two.
triple time (Music Terms)
Time in which there are three beats to a measure.
turn (Music Terms)
An embellishment consisting of the rapid
alternation between the written note, the note
above it, and the note a half step below.
tutti (Music Terms)
All; a full orchestra or chorus.
twelve-tone music (Music Terms)
A method of composition based on a chromatic
scale of 12, rather than 8, tones, developed by
Arnold Schoenberg.
unison (Music Terms)
Equal pitch; performance of the same part by all
voices.
variation (Music Terms)
Development of a theme through a variety of
forms; differences in rhythm, key, harmony, etc.
vivace (Music Terms)
A direction to play in a lively manner.
volume (Music Terms)
Fullness of a tone.
waltz (Music Terms)
A round dance in triple rhythm performed by
couples; also, music in this rhythm.
whole note (Music Terms)
The longest note in common use.
whole tone (Music Terms)
An interval of a major second; the interval of
two semitones.
THE MAKEUP OF A SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA
Strings: 12 to 14 first violins, 10 to 12 second
violins, 8 to 10 violas, 6 to 8 cellos,
4 to 6 double basses.
Woodwinds: 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2
bassoons.
Brass: 2 trumpets, 2 or 4 horns, 2 or 3
trombones, 1 tuba.
Percussion:2 or 3 kettledrums and various
instruments of definite pitch
(glockenspiel, bells, xylophone)
and indefinite pitch (snare drum, bass
drum, cymbals, triangle).
Harps: 1 or 2 (2 are called for more often than
1).
A larger orchestra would have this typical
composition:
Strings: 16 first violins, 14 second violins, 12
violas, 10 cellos, 8 double basses.
Woodwinds: 2 flutes and piccolo, 2 oboes and
English horn, 2 clarinets and bass
clarinet, 2 bassoons and contrabassoon.
Brass: 3 trumpets, 4 horns, 3 trombones, 1
tuba.
Percussion
and harps: As above.
Major Dancers, Choreographers, Twentieth Century
Ailey, Alvin (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1931 - 1989). American choreographer. Ailey
formed the American Dance Theater and is noted
for dramatic works and use of African elements,
as in Creation of the World (1954) and
Revelations (1960).
Alonso, Alicia (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1921 - ). Cuban dancer and choreographer. Alonso
soloed with companies including the American
Ballet Theater (1939) and danced on Broadway. She
has formed her own company, now the National
Ballet of Cuba.
Ashton, Sir Frederick (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1906 - 88). British choreographer and director
of Sadler's Wells (now Royal) Ballet (1935 - 70).
His works include Cinderella, Ondine, and A Month
in the Country.
Astaire, Fred (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1899 - 1987). American actor and dancer in
numerous musical comedies, such as Over the Top
and The Bandwagon, and films, including Top Hat
(1935) and Shall We Dance? (1937). Astaire
co-starred with Judy Garland, Rita Hayworth, and
Ginger Rogers and was distinguished by his
original and graceful tap dancing.
Balanchine, George (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1904 - 83). American choreographer and dancer
(b. Russia). Balanchine danced with Sergei
Diaghilev's Ballet Russe (1924 - 28); was ballet
master, Royal Opera, Copenhagen; organized the
Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo (1934); directed the
Metropolitan Opera Ballet (1934 - 37); and served
as principal artistic director and choreographer
of the New York City Ballet (1948 - 82). His
works, such as Serenade and Agon, are often
abstract and formal.
Baryshnikov, Mikhail (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1948 - ). Soviet choreographer and dancer who
emigrated to the West. Baryshnikov was a soloist
with the Kirov Ballet (1969 - 74), a member of
the American Ballet Theater (1974 - 78), and
later its director (1980 - ). A leading male
dancer of the early 1980s, he appeared in the
film The Turning Point (1977).
Bejart, Maurice (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1928 - ). French director of the Ballets de
l'Etoile, Paris (1954 - ). Bejart organized the
influential Ballet of the 20th Century, Brussels.
His works incorporate nontraditional elements,
such as jazz, avant-garde music, and acrobatics.
Bournonville, Auguste (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1805 - 79). Member of the Royal Danish Ballet.
Bournonville was a soloist and choreographer of
more than 50 works in a distinctive Romantic
style.
Bruhn, Erik (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1929 - ). Member and director of the Royal
Danish Ballet. Bruhn is noted for his precise,
dramatic style in such works as Swan Lake and
Giselle.
Cunningham, Merce (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1922 - ). American dancer and choreographer. A
soloist with the Martha Graham Company,
Cunningham formed his own company and
experimented in multimedia works, with music by
John Cage and others. His works include Symphony
by Chance and Square Game.
d'Amboise, Jacques (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1934 - ). American soloist with the New York
City Ballet and choreographer. d'Amboise is known
for his roles in American-theme works, such as
Western Symphony. His own works include the
ballets The Chase and Irish Fantasy.
Danilova, Alexandra (Dancers, Choreographers)
(c. 1906 - ). Russian-American dancer. Danilova
was prima ballerina with the Ballet Russe de
Monte Carlo (1939-58) and appeared in the film
The Turning Point (1977).
de Mille, Agnes (Dancers, Choreographers)
(c. 1908 - ). American choreographer and dancer.
De Mille created the first American ballet, Rodeo
(1942), and Fall River Legend (1948), and brought
ballet techniques to musicals such as Oklahoma!
(1943).
Diaghilev, Sergei Pavlovich (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1872 - 1929). Russian impresario and founder of
the Ballet Russe, Paris (1909), whose productions
revolutionized ballet.
Dolin, Anton (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1904 - ). English dancer with Diaghilev's Ballet
Russe (1924). He was a partner of Alicia Markova
in the formation of dance schools (1935, 1949)
and danced principal roles at the American Ballet
Theater when it was called Ballet Theater.
Duncan, Isadora (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1878 - 1927). American dancer who greatly
influenced modern dance. Her works, based on
Greek classical art, used free-flowing movements
and barefoot dancers. Duncan founded schools in
Berlin (1904), Paris (1914), and Moscow (1921).
Eglevsky, Andre (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1917 - 77). Russian-American member of the
Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo 1939 - 42; premier
dancer with the New York City Ballet 1951 - 59.
Elssler, Fanny (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1810 - 84). Austrian daughter of an assistant to
Franz Josef Haydn, Elssler was a favorite in
London and Paris, specializing in ballet and folk
dance.
Fokine, Michel (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1880 - 1942). Russian-American choreographer for
Nijinsky and Diaghilev. Fokine is considered the
founder of modern ballet. His works include
Firebird and Petrouchka.
Fonteyn, Dame Margot (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1919 - ). English star of the Royal Ballet. Her
major roles were in Sleeping Beauty, Firebird,
and Petrouchka. Fonteyn was the partner of Rudolf
Nureyev after 1962.
Graham, Martha (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1894 - ). American dancer and choreographer.
Graham formed her own company in 1929. Her works
include Appalachian Spring, Letter to the World,
and Care of the Heart. Her technique is noted for
austerity and technical rigor.
Helpmann, Robert (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1909 - ). Australian member of the Sadler's
Wells Ballet (1933) and partner to Margot
Fonteyn. Among his notable works is Miracle in
the Gorbals.
Horton, Lester (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1906 - 58). American soloist with the Denishawn
schools and pioneer of modern dance. His works
include Water Study and Theater Piece No. 2.
Ivanov, Lev (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1834 - 1905). Russian choreographer of the
Nutcracker (1892) and leading figure of Russian
Romanticism.
Joffrey, Robert (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1930 - 88). American choreographer. Joffrey
formed his own company, the City Center Joffrey
Ballet, in 1954. He choreographed works for the
New York City Opera, including Douglas Moore's
The Devil and Daniel Webster and Marc
Blitzstein's Regina.
Jooss, Kurt (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1901 - 79). German artist noted for his antiwar
Green Table. Jooss worked in England with the
Ballet Jooss during the Hitler era. He is noted
for introducing psychological themes into ballet.
Karsavina, Tamara (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1885 - 1978). Russian member of Diaghilev's
Ballet Russe. Karsavina created principal roles
in Firebird and Petrouchka with her partner
Nijinsky. She espoused the theories of Fokine.
Kirstein, Lincoln (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1907 - ). American co-founder, with Balanchine,
of the School of American Ballet (1934). Kirstein
was the director of the New York City Ballet
(1948 - ) and a promoter of an authentic American
style.
Lifar, Serge (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1905 - ). Russian member of Diaghilev's company
(1923 - 29). Lifar created the title role for
Balanchine's Prodigal Son and revolutionized
French ballet in works such as Phedre.
Makarova, Natalia (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1940 - ). Russian member of the Kirov Ballet
(1959 - 70) and the American Ballet Theater
(1970 - 72). Makarova is noted for outstanding
dramatic technique.
Massine, Leonide (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1896 - 1979). Russian-American principal dancer
and choreographer of Diaghilev's company (1914 -
20) and the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo (1932 -
42). His choreographed works include Parade and
the film The Red Shoes (1948).
Mitchell, Arthur (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1934 - ). American soloist with the New York
City Ballet and founder of the Dance Theater of
Harlem (1968), the first black classical dance
company.
Moiseyev, Igor A. (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1906 - ). Soviet ballet master. His company,
formerly the State Folk Dance Ensemble, uses
classically trained dancers to perform
adaptations of folk dances of the Soviet
Republics.
Nijinsky, Vaslav (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1890 - 1950). Russian premier dancer with
Diaghilev's Ballet Russe. Nijinsky created some
of the greatest ballet roles, as in Petrouchka
and Afternoon of a Faun. He is considered by many
to be the greatest dancer of the twentieth
century.
Nikolais, Alwin (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1912 - ). American choreographer of abstract
works, including Kaleidoscope and Illusion.
Nikolais formed his own company in New York City
in 1949.
Nureyev, Rudolf (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1938 - ). Russian soloist with the Kirov Ballet
(1958) and leading classical dancer of his
generation. Nureyev, often partner to Dame Margot
Fonteyn in the Royal Ballet, defected to the West
in 1961.
Pavlova, Anna Matveyevna (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1881 - 1931). Russian member of Diaghilev's
Ballet Russe, Pavlova toured widely. Considered
the greatest ballerina of her generation, she is
noted for her role in Dying Swan.
Perrot, Jules (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1810 - 1910). French dancer with the Imperial
Theater, St. Petersburg (1848 - 59). His ballets
include Esmeralda and Ondine.
Petipa, Marius (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1822 - 1910). French creator of modern classical
ballet. Petipa introduced European technique to
the St. Petersburg Imperial Theater. His works
include La Bayadere (1874) and Sleeping Beauty
(1890).
Petit, Roland (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1924 - ). French founder of the Ballets de Paris
de Roland Petit (1948) and director of the
Ballets de Marseilles (1972 -).
Robbins, Jerome (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1918 - ). American dancer and choreographer of
musical comedies; member of the American Ballet
Theater and the New York City Ballet (1969 - ).
Robbins is noted for his roles in Fancy Free and
for his choreography and direction of West Side
Story. His works include Dances at a Gathering.
St. Denis, Ruth (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1877 - 1968). American choreographer and dancer.
St. Denis founded the Denishawn schools with her
husband, Ted Shawn (1920). Her works include
Radha, Cobra, and Incense.
Taglioni, Maria (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1804 - 84). Italian major ballerina of the
Romantic period, noted for her ethereal style and
outstanding performances, as in La Sylphide,
Paris Opera (1832).
Tallchief, Maria (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1925 - ). American prima ballerina with the
Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo (1942 - 47) and the
New York City Ballet. She promoted American
ballet through television appearances and tours.
Taylor, Paul (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1930 - ). American dancer with Merce Cunningham
and Martha Graham. Taylor formed his own company
of innovative modern dance in 1954.
Tharp, Twyla (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1941 - ). American innovative dancer (1962 - 65)
and choreographer. Tharp was the director of the
Netherlands Dance Theater (1969) and the
Stuttgart Ballet (1974 - 76). She subsequently
formed her own company.
Tudor, Anthony (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1909 - ). English creator of psychological
dramas for the American Ballet Theater and other
companies, including Romeo and Juliet and Tiller
in the Fields.
Valois, Dame Ninette de (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1898 - ). English choreographic director of the
Abbey Theatre, Dublin, and the Old Vic Theatre,
London. She established the Sadler's Wells Ballet
(1931), London, and became its director.
Vestris, Gaetan (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1729 - 1808). Italian dance master to Louis XVI;
considered the greatest dancer of his time. He
was the first to discard the mask in mime.
Weidman, Charles (Dancers, Choreographers)
(1901 - 75). American member of the Denishawn
company (1920 - 27). Weidman founded a company
with Doris Humphrey in 1927 and his own school in
1945.
Terms Used in Dance
abstract dance (Dance Terms)
A composition of pure or absolute dance movements
with no implied meaning beyond that of the
movements themselves.
agitando (Dance Terms)
Heel work used in non-Flamenco Spanish dance.
air, en l' (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a step done off the ground-for
instance, tour en l'air, rond de jambe. It is the
opposite of par terre.
alegrias (Dance Terms)
One of the oldest of Flamenco dances, considered
the purest and most dignified.
allonge (Dance Terms)
In ballet, an elongated line; the term usually
refers to the extension of arms in an arabesque.
arabesque (Dance Terms)
In ballet, the extension of one leg straight in
back, while the position of arms and body may
vary.
assemble (Dance Terms)
A jump taken in ballet, usually from the fifth
position, with both feet landing together.
attitude (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a pose in which one leg is raised in
back with knee bent, usually with arm raised.
axial movement (Dance Terms)
Movement around an axis - for instance, an arm
around a body or a group of dancers around
another group or individual.
balance (Dance Terms)
A balancing step performed in place, usually in
3/4 time.
ballet (Dance Terms)
Classical theatrical dancing; its basic law is
aplomb, or perfect balance. Dances are based on
five classic positions of the feet.
ballet d'action (Dance Terms)
Ballet with a plot, usually tragic.
balletomane (Dance Terms)
A ballet enthusiast.
ballet de cours, les (court ballets) (Dance Terms)
Spectacles for entertainment produced during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, including
verse, vocal music, and danced entrees.
ballo (Dance Terms)
Standard Italian dances and their music of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
ballon (Dance Terms)
In ballet, the ability of a dancer to remain
suspended in air during a jump; elasticity in
jumping.
ballroom dances (Dance Terms)
Social dances usually performed by couples,
including the fox-trot, waltz, tango, rumba, and
cha cha.
bas (Dance Terms)
In ballet, low, as in the position of arms.
basic movement (Dance Terms)
In ballroom dance, a characteristic figure that
remains constant.
basse danse (Dance Terms)
A court dance, precursor of the minuet.
battement (Dance Terms)
A beating movement.
beat (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a beating movement of one leg against
the other, or crossing, while in the air.
bergamasque (Dance Terms)
A rustic dance in 2/4 time.
bocane (Dance Terms)
A sedate dance for two in 2/4 time, named after
Bocan, c. 1640.
bourree (Dance Terms)
A court dance of the sixteenth century, related
to the polka.
brise (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a broken movement.
cabriole (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a movement in the air in which the
legs are at an angle to the floor and one leg
beats against the other.
cachucha (Dance Terms)
A Spanish dance in 2/4 time with castanets.
cambre (Dance Terms)
In ballet, bending back or to the side.
can-can (Dance Terms)
A raucous dance, originated in Paris c. 1830,
featuring high leg kicks.
chasse (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a sliding step in which one foot
"chases" and displaces the other.
ciseaux (Dance Terms)
A jump in which both legs open while in the air,
resembling a scissors.
closed positions (Dance Terms)
In ballet, positions in which the feet are
closed: the first, third, and fifth positions.
coda (Dance Terms)
The third part of the pas de deux; the finale of
a classic ballet in which all principals appear.
conga (Dance Terms)
A ballroom dance of Afro-Cuban origin in 4/4 time
in which dancers step to the first three beats
and kick to the fourth.
contretemps (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a step in counter time.
corps de ballet (Dance Terms)
The members of a ballet company who do not
perform solo.
country dance (Dance Terms)
A traditional English dance in which dancers form
two facing lines.
coupe (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a step in which one foot cuts or
displaces the other.
couru (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a running step, usually in preparation
for a grand jete.
danseuse etoile (Dance Terms)
The star female dancer of a ballet company.
de face (Dance Terms)
Facing the audience.
degage (Dance Terms)
In ballet, to free the foot in preparation for a
step.
demi (Dance Terms)
A movement or position executed in less than full
measure or force.
demi-plie (Dance Terms)
A half plie; a pose with knees half bent and
heels on the floor in any of the five positions.
demi-point (Dance Terms)
On the half toes.
detourne (Dance Terms)
Turning on both feet in a backward direction.
efface (Dance Terms)
A pose in which the body is at an angle to the
audience and the working leg is extended away
from the body.
en l'air (Dance Terms)
See air, en l'.
entrechat (Dance Terms)
A ballet movement in which the dancer repeatedly
crosses his or her legs in the air.
ferme (Dance Terms)
In closed position.
flamenco (Dance Terms)
A Sevillian gypsy dance; also, all nonformal
Spanish dances.
fondu (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a lowering of the body by bending the
knee.
fouette en tournant (Dance Terms)
A spectacular movement in which the dancer
propels himself or herself around a supporting
leg with rapid circular movements of the other
leg while remaining in a fixed spot.
foxtrot (Dance Terms)
A dance of American origin in duple time.
galop (Dance Terms)
A quick dance in 2/4 time popular in the
nineteenth century.
jete (Dance Terms)
A thrown step; a jump to the side; the grand
jete: a large leap forward.
jitterbug (Dance Terms)
A social dance, especially popular in the 1940s,
to syncopated music in 4/4 time.
kabuki (Dance Terms)
An indigenous Japanese theater dance form,
featuring stylized narrative choreographic
movements.
mazurka (Dance Terms)
A Polish national dance in triple time, often
with a strong accent on the third beat.
minuet (Dance Terms)
A slow, graceful dance of French origin in triple
time.
ouvert (Dance Terms)
In ballet, open positions: second, fourth, and
sixth.
pantomime ballet (Dance Terms)
An aspect of ballet movement intended to convey
action through the conventional or expressive
gesture.
par terre (Dance Terms)
Steps performed on the floor. It is the opposite
of en l'air.
pas (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a step; usually prefixed to the name
of a step, as in pas alle, walking step, and pas
couru, turning step; also, a dance or dance
sequence such as pas seul, a solo dance.
pas de deux (Dance Terms)
A dance for two people; in classic ballet, a
choreographic poem in three parts: the adagio,
variations, and the coda.
penche (Dance Terms)
In ballet, leaning forward.
percussive movement (Dance Terms)
In modern dance, a type of movement similar to
staccato: the original force of the movement is
greater than what is carried through; used
particularly in the early works of Martha Graham.
petit tours (Dance Terms)
In ballet, short fast turns in which the dancer
progresses in a straight line or circle.
pique (Dance Terms)
Stepping directly onto the point of a supporting
foot.
pirouette (Dance Terms)
A turn on one foot propelled by the swing of the
arm.
plie (Dance Terms)
In ballet, bending the knees; grand plie: a deep
bend in which heels are raised; demi plie: a bend
with heels remaining on the floor.
polka (Dance Terms)
A Bohemian folk dance in 2/4 time, c. 1830,
popular throughout central and Eastern Europe.
port de bras (Dance Terms)
Movement of the arms.
premier danseur (Dance Terms)
The principal male dancer of a ballet company.
premier danseuse (Dance Terms)
The ballerina next in rank below danseuse etoile.
promenade (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a slow turn of the body on the whole
foot in adagio movements.
reel (Dance Terms)
A popular dance in Scotland for two couples. The
Virginia reel is a variant for a large group of
dancers.
releve (Dance Terms)
In ballet, rising with a spring movement to point
or demi-point.
revue (Dance Terms)
A theatrical production of musical numbers,
dances, and sketches, without plot or story.
reverence (Dance Terms)
A ballet bow or curtsy.
specialty (Dance Terms)
A solo or duet in a musical, generally prepared
by the dancers themselves rather than the
choreographer.
spotting (Dance Terms)
Movement of the head during fast turns in which
the eyes of the dancer fix on a single spot.
square dance (Dance Terms)
An American folk dance in which an even number of
dancers participate, arranged in the formation of
a square.
temps (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a step in which there is no transfer
of weight from one foot to the other.
tour (Dance Terms)
In ballet, a turn.
two-step (Dance Terms)
A ballroom dance in 2/4 time; the precursor of
the fox-trot.
variation (Dance Terms)
The second part of the pas de deux; any solo
performance in a ballet.
waltz (Dance Terms)
A basic dance in classical and romantic ballets,
usually for large ensembles; also, a ballroom
dance in 2/4 time.
Major Painters and Sculptors
American
Albers, Josef (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1888 - 1976), b. Germany. Artist and designer,
teacher at the Bauhaus and director of the Yale
School of Art. Albers is best known for the
Homage to the Square series and for his widely
studied color theories.
Calder, Alexander (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1898 - 1976), b. Pennsylvania. Artist best known
for his mobiles and his witty wire portraits and
constructions of zoos and circuses.
Davies, Arthur Bowen (American) (Painters, Sculptors)
(1862 - 1928), b. New York State. Member of "The
Eight"; organizer of the historic 1913 Armory
Show.
Davis, Stuart (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1894 - 1964), b. Pennsylvania. Painter of
bright, vibrant works. Davis developed a
distinctly American interpretation of Cubism, as
in Colonial Cubism.
de Kooning, Willem (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1904 - ), b. The Netherlands. Leader of U.S.
Abstract Expressionism, best known for his
monumental series, Woman.
Demuth, Charles (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1883 - 1935), b. Pennsylvania. One of the first
to incorporate geometric shapes of modern
technology into painting. His best-known work is
I Saw the Figure 5 Receding.
Dove, Arthur (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1880 - 1946), b. New York State. Forerunner of
Abstract Expressionism; painter of abstracted
natural forms.
Feininger, Lyonel (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1871 - 1956), b. New York State. Teacher at the
Bauhaus (1919 - 32). Feininger developed a
geometric style of painting, often representing
sailboats or skyscrapers.
Frankenthaler, Helen (American) (Painters, Sculptors)
(1928 - ), b. New York City. Teacher and artist
influenced by de Kooning and Pollock. Her works
are recognizable for their use of vertical
rectangles and square areas creating a sense of
distance.
Gorky, Arshile (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1904 - 48), b. Armenia. Painter of abstractions
of mysterious organic forms. Gorky influenced the
development of Abstract Expressionism.
Hartley, Marsden (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1877 - 1943), b. Maine. Painter of brightly
colored works. Hartley developed a distinctly
American blend of modernism.
Henri, Robert (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1865 - 1929), b. Ohio. Influential teacher;
member of "The Eight." A leader in the rebellion
against academicism, Henri is best known for his
dramatic portraits.
Hofmann, Hans (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1880 - 1966), b. Germany. Founder of two U.S.
art schools important to the development of
Abstract Expressionism. His paintings are
distinguished by their rough, dissonantly colored
rectangular forms.
Homer, Winslow (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1836 - 1910), b. Massachusetts. Probably the
most prominent nineteenth-century American
painter. A watercolorist, Homer is best known
for his dramatic seascapes such as Breaking Storm
and The Hurricane.
Hopper, Edward (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1882 - 1967), b. New York State. Painter of
lonely street scenes and stark interiors in
vibrant and muted colors, including Early Sunday
Morning.
Indiana, Robert (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1928 - ), b. New Castle, Indiana. Pop artist
best known for his LOVE paintings and sculpture,
which are boldly lettered, vividly colored
pieces.
Johns, Jasper (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1930 - ), b. Georgia. A founder of the Pop Art
movement. Johns used common signs and symbols in
his art, such as numbers, flags, and targets, as
playful enigmas.
Kent, Rockwell (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1882 - 1971), b. New York State. Painter,
writer, and social critic. His major paintings
include Toilers of the Sea and Winter.
Kline, Franz (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1910 - 62), b. Pennsylvania. Painter of large
canvases with dynamic black and white
brushstrokes. His work exemplifies Abstract
Expressionism.
Lichtenstein, Roy (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1932 - ), b. New York City. Painter associated
with Pop Art, known for his paintings derived
from comic strips, such as Preparedness.
Louis, Morris (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1912 - 62), b. Baltimore, Maryland. Painter
whose major and later life works used open color
technique, which creates an effect where paint
and canvas become one in the manner of a dyed
cloth.
Marsh, Reginald (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1898 - 1954), b. France. Illustrator and painter
known for his depictions of city street life,
including Why Not Use the `L'?
Moses, Grandma (Anna Mary Robertson Moses)
(1860 - 1961), b. New York State. A farmer's wife
who began painting in her 70s. Her
primitive-style, colorful paintings of farm life,
such as Sugaring-Off, achieved wide popularity.
Motherwell, Robert (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1915 - ), b. Washington State. Painter, writer,
and important theoretician of Abstract
Expressionism. His works are characterized by
amorphous shapes in austere colors; best known is
the series Elegy for the Spanish Republic.
Nevelson, Louise (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1900 - 88), b. Russia. Sculptor known for her
large works of painted wood.
Newman, Barnett (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1905 - 71), b. New York State. Painter whose
works bridged Abstract Expressionism and the
Color Field movement. His canvases are typically
large planes of flat color with thin vertical
stripes.
O'Keeffe, Georgia (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1887 - 1987), b. Wisconsin. Painter whose most
characteristic images are abstract organic forms.
She lived in New Mexico and often used elements
of the Southwestern landscape, as in Cow's Skull,
Red, White and Blue.
Oldenberg, Claes (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1929 - ), b. Sweden. Leader of the Pop Art
movement, known for his giant sculptures of
common objects, including Lipstick.
Parrish, Maxfield (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1870 - 1966), b. Pennsylvania. Creator of
posters, magazine covers, and book illustrations
in a distinctive, decorative style.
Pollock, Jackson (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1912 - 56), b. Wyoming. Pioneer of Abstract
Expressionism. Pollock developed a method of
"action paintings." His works are typically
large, of dripped and thrown paint in complex,
dense rhythms.
Prendergast, Maurice (American) (Painters, Sculptors)
(1859 - 1924), b. Canada. Member of "The Eight"
and painter of landscapes and figurative works in
a Post-Impressionist style, including Promenade
and Gloucester.
Pyle, Howard (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1853 - 1911), b. Delaware. Illustrator and
writer. His illustrations for children's books
display both realism and charm.
Rauschenberg, Robert (American) (Painters, Sculptors)
(1925 - ), b. Texas. Painter of collages
("combines") appropriating everyday images and
objects. The works emphasize their sculptural
transformation.
Rivers, Larry (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1923 - ), b. New York State. Painter of Abstract
Expressionist works in the 1950s. Later Rivers
returned to realistic figures in a style that
came to be known as Pop Art.
Rockwell, Norman (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1894 - 1978), b. New York State. Illustrator
best known for his Saturday Evening Post covers.
His popular works portray anecdotal scenes of
small-town America.
Rothko, Mark (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1903 - 70), b. Russia. Leader of Abstract
Expressionism. His typical canvases contain
blurred rectangular forms.
Sargent, John Singer (American) (Painters, Sculptors)
(1856 - 1925), b. Italy. Painter known for his
portraits of celebrities. He also produced
impressionistic watercolor landscapes.
Segal, George (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1924 - ), b. New York City. Sculptor known for
his life-sized human figures in plaster. Segal is
associated with the Pop Art movement.
Shahn, Ben (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1898 - 1969), b. Lithuania. Versatile artist of
social-realistic work that often tells a story
without the effect of preaching.
Sheeler, Charles (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1883 - 1965), b. Pennsylvania. Photographer and
painter known for his depictions of industrial
forms reduced to cool, formal simplification.
Smith, David (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1906 - 65), b. Indiana. Renowned abstract
sculptor whose works are of wrought iron and cut
steel in tomblike form.
Stella, Frank (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1936 - ), b. Massachusetts. Painter and sculptor
whose works, often wildly exuberant, typically
employ sweeping arched forms and concentric
angular strips.
Sully, Thomas (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1783 - 1872), b. England. Romantic portraitist
of national figures. His most famous work is the
historical scene Washington's Passage of the
Delaware.
Warhol, Andy (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1930 - 87), b. Pennsylvania. Leader of the Pop
Art movement. His works are notable for the
repetition of everyday images, such as Campbell's
soup cans.
Wood, Grant (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1891 - 1942), b. Iowa. Painter best known for
his stylized landscapes of the rural Midwest.
American Gothic is a quintessential American
work.
Wyeth, Andrew (American) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1917 - ), b. Pennsylvania. Popular painter of
rural landscapes in a meticulous, naturalistic
style. His best-known work is Christina's World.
In the mid-1980s, Wyeth astonished the public
with the appearance of the previously secret
series the Helga paintings.
British
Bacon, Francis (British) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1910 - ), b. Ireland. Painter of horrifying,
hallucinatory images, as in Crucifixion.
Blake, William (British) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1757 - 1827). Painter, engraver, and poet. Blake
illustrated the works of Milton, the Book of Job,
and his own poetic works. In the works of this
mystic and visionary, human and natural forms
become mythological figures in a spiritual drama.
Constable, John (British) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1776 - 1837). Leading English Romantic landscape
painter. His works include View on the Stour and
The Hay Wain.
Gainsborough, Thomas (British) ((Painters, Sculptors)
(1727 - 88). Portraitist and landscape painter.
His well-known works include The Mall, Perdition,
and The Blue Boy.
Hogarth, William (British) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1697 - 1764). Painter of satirical works, often
on moralistic themes, especially The Harlot's
Progress and his masterpiece, Marriage a la
Mode.
Moore, Henry (British) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1898 - 1986). Sculptor whose works of reclining
women were followed by abstract sculptures with
smooth, organic shapes and frequent hollows or
voids.
Turner, Joseph Mallord William (British Painters)
(1775 - 1851). Foremost English landscape
painter. Turner's works became increasingly
abstract in his attempt to represent light,
atmosphere, space, and the elemental forces of
nature, as in The Grand Canal and Approach to
Venice.
Dutch
Bosch, Hieronymus (Jerom Bos) (Dutch Painters)
(c. 1450 - 1516). Painter whose works depicted
ordinary objects, figures, and events in an
eerie, surreal fashion.
De Hooch (Hoogh), Pieter (Dutch Painters
(c. 1629 - 77). Genre painter of intimate
interiors. His works show a deft handling of
lighting, as in Courtyard of a Dutch House.
Mondrian, Piet (Dutch) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1872 - 1944). Co-founder of the Stijl group and
the magazine De Stijl. Mondrian developed a
geometric style, "Neoplasticism"; typical works
are composed of primary-color squares in highly
kinetic patterns.
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (Ryn) (Dutch Painters)
(1606 - 69). Master of the Dutch school and one
of the great Western painters of all time.
Rembrandt became established as a portrait
painter with his Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp
(1632). He produced some 600 paintings, including
over 100 self-portraits, 300 etchings, and 2,000
drawings, all distinguished by their profound
humanity.
Van Gogh, Vincent (Dutch) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1853 - 90). Perhaps the greatest known of all
painters. The majority of Van Gogh's vibrant
paintings were produced in a 29-month period of
frenzied work that culminated in his suicide.
Among his most famous works are The Potato
Eaters, Starry Night, Irises, and numerous
self-portraits.
Vermeer, Jan (Johannes) (Dutch Painters, Sculptors)
(1632 - 75). Genre and landscape painter. Vermeer
was a major colorist and painter of intimate
interiors, often with a solitary female figure.
Young Woman with a Water Jug is among his
best-known pieces.
Flemish, Belgian
Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder (Flemish, Belgian)
(c. 1525 - 69). Painter of peasant life in fields
and forests, as in The Harvesters, and of
religious histories and rhythmic landscapes.
Ensor, James (Baron) (Flemish, Belgian Sculptors)
(1860 - 1949). Painter and etcher. Ensor created
innovative, bizarre, and grotesque compositions,
opening the way for the Surrealist movement.
Magritte, Rene (Flemish, Belgian Painters)
(1898 - 1967). Early Cubist painter who succumbed
to the influence of Surrealist works, as in The
Red Model.
Rubens, Peter Paul (Flemish, Belgian Painters)
(1577 - 1640). Foremost Flemish painter of the
seventeenth century. Rubens organized a large
workshop that produced more than 2,000 works,
including Raising the Cross and paintings
depicting the life of Marie de Medici. His most
joyous works, among them Three Graces and Venus
and Adonis, were painted in the last 10 years of
his life.
Van Dyck (Vandyke), Sir Anthony (Flemish, Belgian)
(1599 - 1641). Portraitist, religious painter,
and etcher, and assistant to Rubens, later his
rival. Van Dyck's portraits include those of
James Stuart and Marchesa Durazzo; among his
masterpieces is Lamentation.
Van Eyck, Jan (Flemish, Belgian Painters)
(c. 1370 - c.1440). Known as the father of
Flemish painting, Van Eyck established a style of
portrait painting that was to become the standard
for centuries.
French
Arp, Jean (Hans) (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1887 - 1966). Creator of witty organic abstract
works in various media, including Navel and Human
Concretion. Arp was associated with the Dadaists
and Surrealists.
Bonnard, Pierre (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1867 - 1947). Painter, lithographer, and
illustrator who excelled at domestic interiors.
His subtle light effects, as in Bowl of Fruit,
were reminiscent of Impressionism.
Braque, Georges (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1882 - 1963). Exponent of Fauvism and founder of
Cubism with Picasso. His works include Nude, The
Table, and Woman with a Mandolin.
Cezanne, Paul (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1839 - 1906). Impressionist painter who moved
toward abstraction and Expressionism, as in Mont
Sainte-Victoire. Cezanne had a profound influence
on modern art, especially Cubism.
Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon (French Painters)
(1699 - 1779). Painter of still lifes and
domestic interiors as well as abstract
compositions. His works include Benediction and
Return from Market.
Corot, Jean-Baptiste Camille (French Painters)
(1796 - 1875). Influential landscape painter
whose works include The Coliseum, Femme a la
Perle, and Interrupted Reading.
Courbet, Gustave (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1819 - 77). Painter of subjects from everyday
life. Courbet's work was rejected in his lifetime
but later proved highly influential.
Daumier, Honore (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1808 - 79). Caricaturist, painter, and sculptor.
The greatest social satirist of his time, Daumier
produced some 4,000 lithographs as well as small
canvases in a similar style.
David, Jacques-Louis (French) (Painters, Sculptors)
(1748 - 1825). Painter and authority on French
art who introduced modern art through works
inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution.
Degas, Edgar (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1834 - 1917). Painter who favored ballet dancers
as subjects. Degas introduced daring
compositional innovations, such as cut-off views
and unusual angles, as in Woman with
Chrysanthemums and Foyer of the Dance.
Delacroix, Eugene (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1798 - 1863). Foremost French Romantic painter,
leader of the opposition to the Neoclassical
School of David. His works include Woman of
Algiers and Tiger Attacking a Horse.
Dubuffet, Jean (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1901 - 85). Painter and sculptor of playful,
childlike works, typically of asphalt, pebbles,
and glass.
Duchamp, Marcel (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1887 - 1968). Painter and sculptor. His Nude
Descending a Staircase is perhaps the most well
known and epochal of Cubist works. Duchamp
revolutionized the art world with his "ready
mades." His works are characterized by humor,
enigma, and complexity.
Dufy, Raoul (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1887 - 1953). Painter, illustrator, and
decorator known for his Fauvist landscapes,
seascapes, and portraits of society people.
Gauguin, Paul (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1848 - 1903). Painter and woodcutter. At 35
Gauguin left his career as a stockbroker to
devote himself to painting. His best-known work,
using flat planes, abstracted figures, and bright
colors, was executed while he lived on the island
of Tahiti.
Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique (French Painters)
(1780 - 1867). Hailed as an exemplar of Davidian
Classicism, Ingres was also deeply influenced by
the work of Raphael. His works are both rigidly
academic and richly sensual.
Lorrain, Claude (Claude Gelee) (French Painters)
(1600 - 82). French landscape painter who used
unlimited vistas and panoramas. Lorrain had a
marked impact on Romantic painting.
Manet, Edouard (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1832 - 83). Painter who profoundly influenced
Impressionism through the immediacy of his
perception. His major works include The Balcony
and The Fife Player.
Matisse, Henri (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1869 - 1954). Painter, sculptor, lithographer,
and major artist of the modern era. Matisse
executed significant Impressionist works,
including The Dinner Table. He used color for
abstract, expressive effects and reintroduced the
decorative in art.
Millet, Jean Francois (French) (Painters, Sculptors)
(1814 - 75). Realist painter associated with the
Barbizon School. His works include The Gleaners
and The Angelus.
Monet, Claude (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1840 - 1926). Major figure in the history of
landscape painting and a founder of
Impressionism. His works are characterized by
their intense observation of subtle changes in
light and atmosphere, as in the Haystack series
and the incomparable Water Lilies.
Pissarro, Camille (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1830 - 1903), b. Virgin Islands. Impressionist
landscape painter who experimented with color
theories before developing his own vital
interpretation of nature, as in Bather in the
Woods.
Poussin, Nicolas (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1594 - 1665). Painter who lived most of his life
in Italy yet developed the standard for French
Classicism. His contemplative, precise clarity
had a profound influence on nineteenth-century
art.
Renoir, Pierre Auguste (French) (Painters)
(1841 - 1919). Impressionist painter of sensuous,
joyous, light-filled works, such as Luncheon of
the Boating Party.
Rouault, Georges (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1871 - 1958). Expressionist painter of sad
clowns, corrupt judges, prostitutes, and,
especially, the suffering Christ.
Rousseau, Henri (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1844 - 1910). Self-taught painter known for his
primitive, haunting landscapes.
Seurat, Georges (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1859 - 91). Neo-Impressionist painter who
developed the pointillist technique of using
small dots of pure color. His works include A
Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande
Jatte.
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de (French Painters)
(1864 - 1901). Painter and lithographer
influenced by Degas. Music halls, cabarets, and
circuses were among his favorite subjects.
Vuillard, Edouard (French) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1868 - 1940). Painter, lithographer, and member
of the Nabis, known for his scenes of Montmartre
and his domestic paintings.
German
Durer, Albrecht (German) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1471 - 1528). Painter, engraver, and most
influential artist of the German School. Durer
is known for his technical mastery, his
theoretical contributions, and his adoption of
the principles of the Italian Renaissance. His
works include the series Apocalypse and the
humanistic St. Jerome in His Cell.
Ernst, Max (German) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1891 - 1976). Dadaist and a founder of
Surrealism. His works include Two Children Are
Threatened by a Nightingale.
Grosz, George (German) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1893 - 1959). Artist known for his savage
caricatures of post-World War I bourgeois
society. Grosz fled Germany for the United States
in 1932.
Grunewald, Mathias (Mathis Gothart Neithart)
(c. 1475 - 1528). Religious painter of unusually
expressive works, most frequently of the
Crucifixion of Christ. His masterpiece is the
Isenheim Altarpiece.
Holbein, Hans, the Younger (German Painters)
(c. 1497 - 1543). Outstanding portrait and
religious painter of the Northern Renaissance.
His works include the famous Madonna of the
Burgomeister Meyer, Dead Christ, and his portrait
of Christine of Denmark.
Kollwitz, Kathe Schmidt (German Painters, Sculptors)
(1867 - 1945). Graphic artist and sculptor known
for her woodcuts and lithographs. Kollwitz's work
reflected her socialist and pacifist views.
Italian
Bellini, (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
family of Venetian painters of the Renaissance.
Gentile Bellini (1429 - 1507) painted
contemporary Venetian life. His brother Giovanni
(c. 1430 - 1516) painted serene and luminous
works such as St. Job and St. Francis in Ecstasy.
Giovanni was the teacher of Titian and Giorgione.
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo (Gianlorenzo)
(1598 - 1680). Sculptor, painter, architect, and
leading figure of Italian Baroque art. Bernini
produced dynamic works, such as Rape of
Proserpine and Apollo and Daphne, in reaction to
the Mannerist works of his time.
Boccioni, Umberto (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1882 - 1916). Painter, sculptor, and major
figure of Futurist art. His works include the
painting The City Rises and the sculpture Unique
Forms of Continuity in Space.
Botticelli, Sandro (Alessandro di Mariano Filipepi)
(c. 1444 - 1510). Renaissance painter, favorite
of the Medici, supreme colorist, and master of
the rhythmic line. Botticelli is known for his
mythological scenes, as in Spring and Birth of
Venus.
Caravaggio, Michelangelo (Michelangelo Merisi)
(c. 1565 - 1609). Painter whose placement of
sacred figures in commonplace settings was
thought irreverent in his time but who ultimately
influenced such figures as Rembrandt and Ribera.
Cellini, Benvenuto (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1500 - 71). Sculptor, metalsmith, and author.
His late Florentine sculptures include Perseus
with the Head of Medusa and the bust of Cosimo I.
Chirico, Giorgio de (Italian) (Painters, Sculptors)
(1888 - 1978), b. Greece. Forerunner of
Surrealism. His "metaphysical paintings" are
characterized by deep perspective, mannequin
figures, and forms unrelated to their contexts.
Correggio (Antonio Allegri) (Italian Painters)
(c. 1494 - 1534). Baroque painter of mythological
scenes. His most famous piece is Assumption of
the Virgin.
da Vinci, Leonardo (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
See Leonardo da Vinci.
della Robbia, (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
Florentine family of sculptors and ceramicists
known for their enameled terra cotta. Luca della
Robbia (c. 1400 - 82) founded a workshop and
perfected a method of ceramics continued by his
nephew Andrea della Robbia (1435 - c. 1525) and
Andrea's sons, Luca II, Giovanni, and Girolamo.
Donatello (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
(c. 1386 - 1466). Foremost sculptor of the
Renaissance. Donatello headed a vast workshop in
Padua. His masterpieces include Magdalen of San
Lorenzo and the expressive St. Mark.
Fra Angelico (Guido or Guidolino de Pietro)
(c. 1400 - 55). Religious painter whose works
include the frescos Annunciation and Noli Mi
Tangere, distinguished for their sense of spatial
depth.
Giotto (Giotto di Bondone) (Italian Painters)
(c. 1266 - c. 1337). Florentine painter and
architect said to have determined the course of
painting in Europe. Giotto turned from Byzantine
formulas to the study of nature. He painted
dramatic narrative frescos, such as Life of the
Virgin and Last Judgment, which achieved a
remarkable representation of space without the
use of a system of perspective.
Leonardo da Vinci (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1452 - 1519). Painter, sculptor, musician,
engineer, scientist, and supreme figure of the
Renaissance. His studies of perspective and
anatomy contributed greatly to the course of
painting. Among Leonardo's paintings are some of
Europe's greatest masterpieces, including the
sublime Last Supper.
Lippi, Fra Filippo (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
(c. 1406 - 69). Foremost Florentine Renaissance
painter, best known for his easel paintings,
including Virgin Adoring the Christ Child.
Michelangelo Buonarroti (Italian Painters, Sculptors)
(1475 - 1564). Sculptor, painter, poet,
architect, and foremost figure of the
Renaissance. His master works include the
well-known statue David in Florence; the scenes
from Genesis on the ceiling of the Sistine
Chapel; his statues of the Medici; and the
allegorical Dawn, Evening, Night and Day.
Modigliani, Amedeo (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1884 - 1920). Sculptor, painter, and early
Cubist. African influences are evident in his
later style, distinguished by the use of long
faces drawn in pure lines.
Piero della Francesca (Italian) (Painters, Sculptors)
(c. 1420 - 92). Major Renaissance painter who
enjoyed the play of mathematical ratios, as in
The Story of the True Cross, depicting scenes
from the Golden Legend.
Pisano, Nicola (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
(c. 1220 - c. 1280). Sculptor and founder of a
school of sculpture. His greatest works include
the pulpit with scenes from the life of Christ
for the baptistry in Pisa and the reliefs for the
fountain at Perugia.
Raphael (Santi or Sanzio) (Italian Painters)
(1483 - 1520). High Renaissance painter emulated
far into the nineteenth century. His works
include The Knight's Dream, Agony in the Garden,
numerous madonnas, and The Deliverance of St.
Peter.
Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) (Italian Painters)
(c. 1490 - 1576). Venetian Renaissance painter.
His masterpieces include the altarpiece of the
Assumption of the Virgin, La Gloria, and the Rape
of Europa.
Uccello, Paolo (Italian) (Painters and Sculptors)
(c. 1396 - 1475). Florentine painter and early
master of perspective. His scenes from the Battle
of San Romano are notable for their experiments
with foreshortening.
Verrocchio, Andrea del (Francesco di Lioni)
(1435 - 88). Florentine sculptor and painter.
Verrocchio was a figure of the early Renaissance.
His sculptures include Boy with a Dolphin and the
imposing figure for the equestrian monument of
Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice.
Mexican
Kahlo, Frida (Mexican) Painters and Sculptors)
(1907 - 54). Crippled painter of self-portraits
and works that convey physical and psychic pain.
Orozco, Jose Clemente (Mexican) (Painters, Sculptors)
(1883 - 1949). Muralist and one of the leaders of
the Mexican Renaissance. Orozco is known for his
frescos, including Mankind's Struggle.
Rivera, Diego (Mexican) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1886 - 1957). Muralist whose works typically
portray his socialist ideals and the hope for a
Mexican socio-political renaissance.
Tamayo, Rufino (Mexican) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1899 - ). Foremost modern Mexican painter of
formal and decorative works, influenced by Cubism
and Fauvism.
Spanish
Dali, Salvador (Spanish) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1904 - 89). Surrealist painter working in a
precise style, typically on small canvases. His
nightmarish effects can be seen in Persistence of
Memory.
El Greco (Spanish) (Painters and Sculptors)
See Greco, El.
Goya y Lucientes, Francisco Jose de
(1746 - 1828). Painter known for his savage
satires and bleak outlook. Among his best-known
works are Disasters of War, Black Painting, and
Satan Devouring His Children.
Greco, El (Domenicos Theotocopoulos)
(c. 1541 - 1614), b. Crete. Visionary painter who
produced dynamic representations of religious
ecstasy. Among his masterpieces are Baptism,
Crucifixion, and Resurrection.
Gris, Juan (Jose Victoriano Gonzalez)
(1887 - 1972). Painter of still lifes in oil and
collages. Gris used simple, architectural forms
and was a developer of Synthetic Cubism.
Miro, Joan (Spanish) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1893 - 1983). Surrealist painter in a lyrical
style characterized by brilliant colors and the
free play of abstract shapes.
Murillo, Bartoleme Esteban (Spanish Painters)
(1617 - 82). Religious and portrait painter.
Among his greatest works are Knight of the Collar
and Girl and Her Duenna.
Picasso, Pablo (Spanish) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1881 - 1973). Painter, sculptor, graphic artist,
and ceramicist. Picasso's versatile works fall
into varied periods of style, personal rather
than historical, such as his blue period and his
rose period. His landmark Guernica is a
large-scale work on the agony of war.
Velazquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva
(1599 - 1660). Most celebrated painter of the
Spanish School. From his early monumental
chiaroscuro works evolved consummate art based on
color values. Velazquez' paintings include Venus
and Cupid, Coronation of the Virgin, and The
Maids of Honor.
Zurbaran, Francisco de (Spanish Painters, Sculptors)
(1598 - 1664). Baroque painter who produced large
narrative works as well as portraits of
devotional figures.
Other
Brancusi, Constantin (Other) (Painters Sculptors)
(1876 - 1957). Rumanian sculptor whose
economical, simple style was radically
innovative. His best-known work is the elegant
Bird in Space.
Chagall, Marc (Other) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1889 - 1985). Russian painter who lived most of
his life in France. His works, such as I and the
Village and Rabbi of Vitebsk, explored Jewish
life and folklore, often in a fantastic and
symbolic way.
Gabo, Naum (Other) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1890 - 1977). Russian Constructivist sculptor
and theorist. Gabo wrote the Realist Manifesto,
in which he proposed that modern concepts of time
and space be incorporated into art.
Giacometti, Alberto (Other) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1901 - 66). Swiss sculptor and painter known for
his bronze sculptures of elongated figures, such
as Man Walking.
Kandinsky, Wassily (Other) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1866 - 1944). Russian painter considered the
originator of abstract art. Kandinsky was the
author of Concerning the Spiritual in Art (1912),
a founder of the avant-garde Blaue Reiter group,
and a teacher at the Bauhaus.
Klee, Paul (Other) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1879 - 1940). Swiss painter whose works, such as
Twittering Machine and Revolutions of the
Viaducts, combined sophisticated theories of
abstraction with playful, childlike
inventiveness. Klee was associated with the Blaue
Reiter group.
Klimt, Gustav (Other) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1862 - 1918). Austrian figure of the Art Nouveau
movement, creator of extravagant exotic and
erotic works with symbolic themes.
Kokoschka, Oskar (Other) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1886 - 1980). Austrian Expressionist painter.
His well-known works include the portrait of Hans
Tietze and his wife and the landscape Jerusalem.
Munch, Edvard (Other) (Painters and Sculptors)
(1863 - 1944). Norwegian painter and graphic
artist. Munch forwarded Expressionism through his
emotionally charged images of fear, anxiety, and
isolation, as in The Shriek, The Kiss, and The
Vampire.
Phidias (Pheidias) (Other) (Painters and Sculptors)
(c. 500 - c. 432 B.C.). One of the greatest of
ancient Greek sculptors, although none of his
works survive. Phidias was the creator of the
famed sculpture of Zeus at Olympus, one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Praxiteles (Other) (Painters and Sculptors)
(c. 370 - 330 B.C.). Greek sculptor considered
the greatest of his time. His Hermes with the
Infant Dionysus is the only extant sculpture by
an ancient master.
Tatlin, Vladmir Evagofovitch (Other Sculptors)
(1885 - 1956). Russian founder of Constructivism.
His works include the Constructions of 1913 - 14
in wood, metal, and glass.
Terms Used in Art
applique (Art Terms)
An alien material applied to the surface of an
art object or painting for ornamentation.
bas-relief (Art Terms)
Low relief; sculpture in which figures project
slightly from the background.
cameo (Art Terms)
A gem on which a design has been engraved in
relief.
caricature (Art Terms)
A picture ludicrously exaggerating the qualities,
defects, or peculiarities of a person or idea.
cartoon (Art Terms)
A humorous sketch or drawing usually telling a
story or caricaturing some person or action. In
fine arts, a preparatory sketch or design for a
picture or ornamental motif to be transferred to
a fresco or tapestry.
chiaroscuro (Art Terms)
The rendering of light and shade in painting; the
subtle gradations and marked variations of light
and shade for dramatic effect; also, a woodcut
print produced from two blocks, each of a
different tone of the same color.
colors, complementary (Art Terms)
Two colors at opposite points on the color scale,
for example, orange and blue, green and red.
colors, primary (Art Terms)
Red, yellow, and blue, the mixture of which will
yield all other colors in the spectrum but which
themselves cannot be produced through a mixture
of other colors.
colors, secondary (Art Terms)
Orange, green, and purple, colors produced by
mixing two primary colors.
composition (Art Terms)
The organization of the parts of a work into a
unified whole.
dry point (Art Terms)
A technique of engraving, using a sharp-pointed
needle, that produces a furrowed edge resulting
in a print with soft, velvety lines.
engraving (Art Terms)
The art of producing printed designs through
various methods of incising on wood or metal
blocks, or through photographic processes.
etching (Art Terms)
The technique of engraving designs on metal
blocks through the corrosive action of acids.
figure (Art Terms)
A representation of a human or an animal form.
foreshortening (Art Terms)
Reducing or distorting in order to represent
three-dimensional space as perceived by the eye,
according to the rules of perspective.
fresco (Art Terms)
The technique of painting on moist lime plaster
with colors ground in water or a limewater
mixture.
genre painting (Art Terms)
A realistic style of painting in which everyday
life forms the subject matter, as distinguished
from religious or historical painting.
highlight (Art Terms)
On a represented form, a point of most intense
light.
high relief (Art Terms)
Sculptured relief in which areas strongly project
from the background, almost becoming a sculpture
in the round.
impasto (Art Terms)
In painting, the thick application of paint; in
ceramics, the application of enamel or slip to a
ceramic object to form a decoration in low
relief.
inlaying (Art Terms)
The decoration of an object with fine materials
set into its surface.
landscape (Art Terms)
The genre of painting in which natural scenery is
the subject.
lithography (Art Terms)
A printing process in which ink impressions are
taken from a flat stone or metal plate prepared
with some greasy or oily substance.
middle distance (middle ground) (Art Terms)
The represented space in a picture between
background and foreground.
modeling (Art Terms)
The formation of an image in clay, wax, etc., to
be reproduced in some more durable material, such
as bronze; also, the representation of a
structure, such as a building.
monochrome (Art Terms)
A painting or drawing with a single color in
different shades.
monotype (Art Terms)
A single print made from a metal or glass plate
on which has been painted an image in paint, ink,
etc.
palette (Art Terms)
A flat surface used by a painter to mix colors,
traditionally oblong with a hole for the thumb;
also, a range of colors used by a particular
painter.
paste (Art Terms)
A soft, subdued color; a dry paste made of ground
pigments, chalk, and gum water formed into a
stick; also, a drawing made with such a stick.
perspective (Art Terms)
A method of representing three-dimensional
volumes and spatial relationships on a flat
surface.
photoengraving (Art Terms)
A photographic process of preparing plates in
relief for letterpress printing.
polychrome (Art Terms)
Of many or various colors.
primary colors (Art Terms)
See colors, primary.
relief (Art Terms)
The projection of an image or form from its
background. In painting or drawing, the apparent
projection of parts conveying the illusion of
three dimensions; in printing, any process in
which ink impressions are produced from the high
areas of a prepared printing block.
scumbling (Art Terms)
A painting technique in which parts are overlayed
with opaque or semiopaque color applied lightly
with an almost dry brush.
secondary colors (Art Terms)
See colors, secondary.
stenciling (Art Terms)
A method of producing images or letters from
sheets of cardboard, metal, or other materials
from which images or letters have been cut away.
still life (Art Terms)
The representation of inanimate objects in
painting, drawing, or photography.
tempera (Art Terms)
A painting technique in which an emulsion of
water and egg yolk, or egg and oil, is used as a
binding medium.
texture (Art Terms)
The visual and tactile quality of a work of art
effected through the particular way the materials
are worked; also, the distribution of tones or
shades of a single color.
tone (Art Terms)
The effect of the harmony of color and values in
a work, for example, warm or cold tones.
trompe l'oeil (Art Terms)
In painting, the fine, detailed rendering of
objects to convey the illusion of spatial and
tactile qualities.
values (Art Terms)
In painting, the degree of lightness or darkness
in a color.
Art Movements
Abstract Expressionism (Art Movements)
A movement in painting, also called action
painting, originating in New York City in the
1940s. Propelled by the work of Arshile Gorky,
its focus is on surface qualities and on the act
of painting itself, with the admission of the
accidental. It was the first important school of
American painting to develop independently of
European styles.
Art Deco (Art Movements)
Design prevalent during the 1920s and 1930s,
characterized by a sleek use of straight lines
and slender forms.
Art Nouveau (Art Movements)
A decorative art movement that emerged at the
turn of the century. It is characterized by dense
ornamentation in sinuous forms, as in twining
plant tendrils, and is often symbolic and of an
erotic nature.
Ash Can ("The Eight") (Art Movements)
A group of American artists, founded in 1908,
bound by their opposition to academicism, so
called because of their portrayal of everyday
American life.
Barbizon School (Art Movements)
An association of French landscape painters c.
1830- 70, led by Theodore Rousseau.
Baroque (Art Movements)
A movement in painting of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries characterized by deep
perspective and strong compositional unity, with
attention to the treatment of three-dimensional
volumes in space. It is exemplified in the work
of Caravaggio and Rubens.
Byzantine (Art Movements)
A style of art of the Byzantine Empire and its
provinces, characterized by the use of
iconography, rich colors, tight formalism, and
shallow pictorial space.
classical (Art Movements)
Referring to the principles of the Greek art of
antiquity with its emphasis on harmony and
proportion; also, describing works in which the
emphasis is on structure and form.
Conceptual Art (Art Movements)
A radical movement in the United States of the
1960s and 1970s that emphasized the art concept
over the art object. It attempted to free art
from the confines of the gallery and the
pedestal.
Constructivism (Art Movements)
A Russian movement founded by Vladimir Tatlin
(c. 1913) related to Suprematism; free geometric
constructions in space were created using
materials of the machine age.
Cubism (Art Movements)
A movement in painting, originated in Paris,
1907, that presents objects analytically,
typically in fragmented planes, as the mind - not
the eye - perceives them, following the principles
of modern science.
Dadaism (Art Movements)
A nihilist movement (1916- 22) originated in
Europe by the French poet Tristan Tzara and
continued in the United States by Duchamp, Arp,
and Ernst. Dadaism laid the foundation for
Surrealism.
The Eight (Art Movements)
See Ash Can.
Expressionism (Art Movements)
A style of painting in which the communication of
an inner vision or feeling is achieved through
the distorted rendering of external reality.
Fauvism (Art Movements)
Literally, "wild beast," a name used derisively
yet adopted by a group of French painters,
including Matisse, Braque, and Dufy, who used
distorted forms and abstract or expressive color.
folk art (Art Movements)
Works of a culturally homogeneous people without
formal training, generally according to
nationalistic traditions and involving crafts.
Futurism (Art Movements)
An Italian school of painting (1909- 19) that
conveys the dynamism of the twentieth century,
the machine age, and the glories of war. It
heralded the emergence of fascism.
Impressionism (Art Movements)
A late nineteenth-century French school of
painting characterized by the direct yet
analytical observation of nature and the
rendering of transitory visual impressions, with
an emphasis on light.
Mannerism (Art Movements)
A style in art and architecture (c. 1520- 1600)
that arose in reaction to the harmony of form and
proportion of the High Renaissance, featuring
strange, unbalanced forms, tunnel-like spaces,
arbitrary arrangements, and harsh lighting.
Minimalism (Art Movements)
A movement in American painting and sculpture
that originated in New York City in the early
1960s. It emphasized pure, reduced forms and
colors without references beyond themselves, as
exemplified in the works of Joel Shapiro and
Frank Stella.
pointillism (Art Movements)
A systematic method of painting developed by
Georges Seurat and Paul Signac using dabs of pure
color to produce intense color effects.
Pop Art (Art Movements)
An American movement that arose in the 1950s in
opposition to seriousness in art. It used common
objects and the repetition of commercial imagery,
as in the soup cans of Andy Warhol.
Post-Impressionism (Art Movements)
A term used by Roger Fry to refer to a group of
nineteenth-century painters, including Cezanne,
Van Gogh, Gauguin, Matisse, and Picasso, who
rejected Impressionism.
Pre-Raphaelites (Art Movements)
English painters and poets (c. 1848) who imitated
the style of Italian painters prior to Raphael in
rejection of the materialism of industrialized
England.
Realism (Art Movements)
The direct representation of natural forms; the
nineteenth-century French movement that sprang up
in reaction to academicism.
Romanticism (Art Movements)
A movement in painting of the late eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries that arose in opposition to
Classical Formalism and Rationalism. It
emphasized nature and atmosphere.
Suprematism (Art Movements)
A Russian movement in painting originated by
Kazimir Malevich in 1913 parallel to
Constructivism in sculpture. It was characterized
by flat geometrical shapes on pure canvases and
emphasized the spiritual value of pure form.
Surrealism (Art Movements)
A movement in art of the 1920s and 1930s that
emphasized the unconscious, often using images
from dreams. Images were arranged either without
rational connections or in abstract, amorphous
forms.
Major Playwrights and Their Best-Known Works
Greek
Aeschylus (Greek) (Major Playwrights)
(525 - 456 B.C.) Athenian tragic poet and the
originator of tragic drama. Aeschylus authored
some 90 plays, including the trilogy the Oresteia
and the famous Prometheus Bound.
Aristophanes (Greek) (Major Playwrights)
(c. 448 - c. 388 B.C.). Athenian comic poet,
greatest of the ancient writers of comedy. His 11
surviving plays, social, political, and literary
satires, are the only complete extant examples of
ancient Greek comedy. Among them are The Clouds,
The Wasps, Lysistrata, The Frogs, and Plutus.
Euripides (Greek) (Major Playwrights)
(c. 480 - 406 B.C.). Greek tragic poet. One of
the three great Greek tragedians, Euripides' work
is characterized by his rationalism. He authored
some 92 plays, 19 of which survive. Among them
are Alcestis, Medea, Electra, Iphigenia in
Tauris, The Phoenician Women, Orestes, and The
Bacchae.
Sophocles (Greek) (Major Playwrights)
(c. 496 - c. 406 B.C.). Greek tragic poet. One of
the three great Greek tragedians, Sophocles was
the innovator of dramatic form. Seven of his
plays survive, including Ajax (perhaps his
earliest), Antigone, Oedipus Rex, and Electra.
Roman
Seneca (Roman) (Major Playwrights)
(3 B.C. - A.D. 65.) Roman philosopher, dramatist,
and statesman. His nine extant tragedies,
characterized by their lofty, moralistic tone,
are modeled on Greek tragedies. His plays include
Phaedra, Agamemnon, and Medea.
English
Beaumont, Francis (English) (Major Playwrights)
(c. 1584 - 1616). Dramatist who collaborated with
John Fletcher on many plays. Beaumont wrote as
sole author The Knight of the Burning Pestle
(1607-10), The Masque of the Inner Temple, Gray's
Inn (1613), and The Theatre of Apollo.
Dekker (Decker), Thomas (English) (Major Playwrights)
(c. 1572 - 1632). Dramatist and pamphleteer. His
most significant plays are The Shoemaker's Holiday
(1600), Old Fortunatus (1600), The Honest Whore
(with Thomas Middleton, 1604; part II, 1630), The
Roaring Girl (with Thomas Middleton, 1611), and
The Virgin Martyr (with Philip Massinger, 1622).
Dekker was imprisoned for debt from 1613 to 1619.
Fletcher, John (English) (Major Playwrights)
(1579 - 1625). Prolific and immensely popular
playwright who collaborated with Francis Beaumont
and many other dramatists, apparently including
Shakespeare (The Two Noble Kinsmen, 1613 - 16,
and Henry VIII, 1613). Among Fletcher's solo
plays are two early tragedies, Valantinian (1610
- 14) and Bonduca (1609 - 14), and the comedies
Wit Without Money (1614 - 20), The Woman's Prize
(1604 - 17), and Rule a Wife and Have a Wife
(1624), his sequel to Shakespeare's The Taming of
the Shrew.
Jonson, Ben (English) (Major Playwrights)
(1572 - 1637). Dramatist and poet tried for
killing another actor in a duel and imprisoned in
1598. His masterpieces are Volpone, Epicone, The
Alchemist, and Bartholomew Fair.
Kyd (Kid), Thomas (English) (Major Playwrights)
(1558 - 94). Author of The Spanish Tragedy (1592),
which may have been the source for the ghost and
play-within-the-play of Shakespeare's Hamlet. Kyd
was the major playwright of the English
Renaissance and the best-known representative of
the "tragedy of the blood" genre.
Marlowe, Christopher (English) (Major Playwrights)
(1564 - 93). Elizabethan playwright second only
to Shakespeare. Marlowe established the use of
blank verse in English drama. His most important
plays are Tamburlaine (c. 1587), Dr. Faustus (c.
1588), The Jew of Malta (c. 1589), and a history,
Edward II.
Middleton, Thomas (English) (Major Playwrights)
(1570 - 1627). Dramatist and pamphleteer known
for his satiric plays. Among the most outstanding
are A Trick to Catch the Old One (1608), A Chaste
Maid in Cheapside (c. 1612), and No Wit, No Help
Like a Woman's (c. 1617). His powerful tragedies
include The Changeling (1653) and The Spanish
Gipsy (1653).
Rowley, William (English) (Major Playwrights)
(c. 1585 - c. 1642). Dramatist and actor best
known for his works written with Thomas
Middleton, including The Spanish Gipsy (1653) and
The Changeling (1653). His solo plays include A
New Wonder (1632), A Watch at Midnight (1633),
and All's Lost by Lust (1633).
Shakespeare, William (English) (Major Playwrights)
(1564 - 1616). Poet, dramatist, and the most
influential writer in the history of English
literature. His career may be divided into four
periods. The first (1589 - 94) includes The
Comedy of Errors, the three parts of Henry VI,
Titus Andronicus, The Two Gentlemen of Verona,
Richard II, Love's Labour's Lost, The Taming of
the Shrew, and King John. The second (1595 -
1600), referred to as Shakespeare's lyrical
period, includes his best comedies and history
plays, as well as most of his poems and sonnets:
Richard II, A Midsummer Night's Dream, The
Merchant of Venice, Romeo and Juliet, parts I and
II of Henry IV, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much
Ado About Nothing, Henry V,Julius Caesar, As You
Like It, and Twelfth Night. The third period
(1601 - 09) includes his greatest tragedies:
Hamlet, Measure for Measure, Othello, King Lear,
Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, Timon of Athens,
and Pericles, Prince of Tyre. The fourth period
(1609 - 13) includes The Tempest, The Winter's
Tale, Cymbeline, and two plays that appear to
have been written with John Fletcher, Henry
VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen.
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley (English Playwrights)
(Irish-English, 1751 - 1816). Dramatist. His
works include The Rivals (1775), The School for
Scandal (1777), and The Critic (1779).
Webster, John (English) (Major Playwrights)
(1580 - 1625). Playwright best known for two
tragedies, The White Devil (1612) and The Duchess
of Malfi (1614). Webster collaborated with
numerous playwrights, including Thomas Dekker,
with whom he wrote Westward Ho! (1604) and
Northward Ho! (1605).
Spanish
Calderon de la Barca, Pedro (Spanish Playwrights)
(1600 - 81). Writer of a masterful series of
one-act religious plays as well as philosophical
dramas, including his masterpiece, Life Is a
Dream.
Tirso de Molina (Gabriel Tellez)
(1571 - 1648). Author of The Love Rogue, probably
the original version of the Don Juan legend, and
the outstanding playwright of the Golden Age.
Tirso authored some 300 to 400 plays, among them
The Man Damned by Jealousy, Prudence in a Woman,
and Pious Martha.
Vega, Lope de (Lope Felix de Vega Carpio)
(1652 - 35). Member of the Spanish Armada and
outstanding figure of Spanish literature. His
disregard for neoclassical models had a market
impact on European drama. Vega's works include
The Star of Seville, King Peter in Madrid, and
The Golden Fleece.
French
Corneille, Pierre (French) (Major Playwrights)
(1606 - 84). Playwright whose early masterpiece
Le Cid (1637) received such harsh criticism from
the French Academy that his subsequent works were
stifled by adherence to classical models.
Corneille continued to produce a score of
tragedies, among them Horace (1640), Cinna
(1640), and Polyeucte (1643).
Moliere, Jean Baptiste Poquelin (French Playwrights)
(1622 - 73). Dramatist and actor. In his youth
Moliere joined the Bejart troupe of actors, with
whom he remained. His comedies are distinguished
for their caricatures and satire. Among them are
Le Misanthrope (1664), L'Avare (1668), and Le
Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1670).
Racine, Jean (French) (Major Playwrights)
(1639 - 99). Exemplar of French Classicism,
master of the Alexandrian line. His early plays
were imitative of Pierre Corneille, whose status
as the leading French dramatist Racine was to
rival with the appearance of his tragedy
Andromaque (1667). His subsequent tragedies
include Britannicus (1669), Berenice (1670),
Mithradate, and Phedre.
Nineteenth-Century
Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich (19th-Century Playwrights)
(1860 - 1904). Russian dramatist and short-story
writer. His outstanding plays are Ivanov, The Sea
Gull, Uncle Vanya (1899), The Three Sisters
(1901), and The Cherry Orchard (1904).
Gorky, Maxim (Aleksey Maximovich Pyeshkov)
(1868 - 1936). Russian novelist, short-story
writer, and playwright. Gorky won his
international reputation for his drama of the
slums, The Lower Depths (1902).
Hugo, Victor Marie (19th- Century Playwrights)
(1802 - 85). French poet, dramatist, novelist, and
outstanding figure of nineteenth-century French
literature. His dramatic works include the
tragedy Hernani (the source for Verdi's opera
Ernani) and Le roi s'amuse (1832) (the source for
Verdi's Rigoletto). Other plays include Marione
de lorme and Les burgraves (1843).
Ibsen, Henrik (19th- Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1828 - 1906). Norwegian poet and dramatist. His
plays characteristically deal with the conflict
between the individual and society. Among his
masterpieces are A Doll's House (1879), Ghosts
(1881), An Enemy of the People (1882), The Wild
Duck (1884), The Lady From the Sea (1888), Hedda
Gabler (1894), and When We Dead Awaken (1899).
Rostand, Edmond (19th- Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1868 - 1918). French poet and dramatist, author
of the masterly Cyrano de Bergerac (1897), a
tour de force of dramatic poetry.
Shaw, George Bernard (19th- Century Playwrights)
(1856 - 1950). British (b. in Ireland) dramatist,
journalist, music critic, and drama critic. Among
his best-known plays are Man and Superman (1903),
Major Barbara (1905), Androcles and the Lion
(1911), Pygmalion (1912), and his masterpiece,
Saint Joan (1924).
Strindberg, Johan August (19th- Century Playwrights)
(1849 - 1912). Swedish dramatist and novelist
known for his plays about the misery of domestic
life. Of some 70 plays, the best-known are The
Father (1887), Comrades (1888), Miss Julie
(1888), and After the Fire (1907).
Wilde, Oscar (19th- Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1854 - 1900), British (b. in Ireland) dramatist,
novelist, and poet. Wilde was distinguished for his
wit and versatility as well as his eccentricity in
dress and life style. His dramatic works include
a verse tragedy, The Duchess of Padua (1891), as
well as drawing-room comedies such as A Woman of
No Importance (1893) and The Importance of Being
Earnest (1895).
Twentieth-Century
Albee, Edward (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1928 - ). American writer, producer, director.
He is best known for a skillful sense of dialogue
and the plays The Zoo Story (1959), Who's Afraid
of Virginia Woolf? (1962), and Tiny Alice (1964).
Anouilh, Jean (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1910 - ). French dramatist. Among his innovative
dramas are Antigone (1944) and The Waltz of the
Toreadors (1952).
Beckett, Samuel (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1906 - 1989). French (b. in Ireland) novelist
and playwright. His most significant plays,
Waiting for Godot (1952) and Endgame (1957),
typify his theater of the absurd technique,
combining humor and pathos with existential
anguish and vacuity.
Brecht, Bertolt (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1898 - 1956). German playwright and poet,
innovator of the revolutionary "epic theater,"
and committed Marxist. His best-known plays in
English translation are The Threepenny Opera
(with music by Kurt Weill, 1928), Galileo (1939),
and Mother Courage (1941).
Coward, Sir Noel (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1899 - 1973). English dramatist, actor,
producer, composer, and director. Coward was best
known for his highly successful comedies and
musicals, including Private Lives (1930), Blithe
Spirit (1941), and Bitter Sweet (1929).
Eliot, Thomas Stearns (T.S.) (20th-Century)
(1888 - 1965). English author. His plays,
including Murder in the Cathedral (1935) and The
Cocktail Party (1950), are outstanding examples
of modern verse drama.
Genet, Jean (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1919 - 86). French dramatist and preeminent
playwright of the theater of the absurd. His
best-known plays in English translation include
The Balcony (1956), The Blacks (1958), and The
Screens.
Giraudoux, Jean (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1882 - 1944). French novelist and dramatist. His
plays, such as Tiger at the Gates (1935) and
Electra (1937), are mostly reinterpretations of
Greek myths.
Hellman, Lillian (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1905 - 84). American dramatist. Her best-known
plays, often indictments of injustice, include
The Children's Hour (1934), The Little Foxes
(1939), and Watch on the Rhine (1941).
Ionesco, Eugene (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1912 - ). French (b. in Rumania) playwright,
author of classic plays of the theater of the
absurd. His plays include The Bald Soprano
(1950), The Chairs (1952), and Rhinoceros (1959).
Lorca, Federico Garcia (20th-Century Playwright)
(1899 - 1936). Spanish poet and playwright. Among
his best-known plays in English translation are
Blood Wedding (1939), Yerma (1934), and The House
of Bernarda Alba (1936). He was shot dead by
Franco's soldiers soon after the outbreak of the
Spanish Civil War.
Mamet, David (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1947 - ). American playwright best known for
American Buffalo (1975).
Miller, Arthur (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1915 - ). Outstanding American playwright. His
plays include The Crucible (1953), A View from
the Bridge (1955), and his masterpiece, Death of
a Salesman (1949).
Odets, Clifford (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1906 - 63). American playwright. His plays of
social and political protest include Waiting for
Lefty (1935) and Awake and Sing (1935). Among his
other plays are Golden Boy (1937) and The Big
Knife (1949).
O'Neill, Eugene (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1888 - 1953). American playwright and four-time
winner of the Pulitzer Prize, in 1920 for Beyond
the Horizon; in 1922 for Anna Christie; in 1928
for Strange Interlude; and in 1956 for A Long
Day's Journey into Night. O'Neill also won the
1936 Nobel Prize for literature. Among his other
outstanding plays are The Iceman Cometh (1946)
and the trilogy Mourning Becomes Electra (1931),
based on Aeschylus' trilogy.
Pinter, Harold (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1930 - ). English dramatist. His best-known
plays include The Dumbwaiter (1957), The Birthday
Party (1958), The Caretaker (1960), and The
Homecoming (1965). Pinter's works are
characterized by silences and the use of
inaction.
Pirandello, Luigi (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1867 - 1936). Italian dramatist and novelist,
winner of the 1934 Nobel Prize for literature.
Among his plays in English translation are Right
You Are If You Think You Are (1922), Henry IV
(1922), and The Pleasure of Honesty (1923).
Pirandello's best-known work outside of Italy is
Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921).
Saroyan, William (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1908 - 81). American author of the Pulitzer
prize-winning The Time of Your Life (1939).
Saroyan refused the award.
Sartre, Jean-Paul (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1905 - 80). French philosopher, novelist, and
playwright. His plays in English translation
include The Flies (1947), No Exit (1947), The
Victors (1948), and The Dirty Hands (1949), all
of which embody his Existentialist philosophy. In
1964 Sartre won the Nobel prize for literature.
Shepard, Sam (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1943 - ). American writer of surrealistic,
allegorical plays that include Operation
Sidewinder (1970); The Curse of the Starving
Class (1976), a Pulitzer Prize winner; Buried
Child (1978); and Fool for Love (1984).
Stoppard, Tom (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1937 - ). Czech-born English dramatist best
known for Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead
(1967).
Synge, John Millington (20th-Century Playwrights)
(1871 - 1909). Irish poet and dramatist best
known for his plays about Irish peasant life.
Synge was co-founder of the Abbey Theatre with
William Butler Yeats. Among his works are In the
Shadow of the Glen (1903), Riders to the Sea
(1904), and Playboy of the Western World (1907),
which created a furor.
Wilder, Thornton (20th-Century) (Major Playwrights)
(1897 - 1975). American novelist and playwright.
His plays Our Town (1938) and The Skin of Our
Teeth (1942) were both winners of the Pulitzer
Prize. Other plays are included in The Long
Christmas Dinner and Other Plays (1931).
Williams, Tennessee (20th-Century Playwrights)
(1911 - 83). American dramatist. Among his
outstanding plays are The Glass Menagerie (1945),
which won the New York Drama Critics Circle Award;
A Streetcar Named Desire (1947), winner of the
Pulitzer Prize; Summer and Smoke (1949); Cat on a
Hot Tin Roof, winner of the 1955 Pulitzer Prize;
and Night of the Iguana (1961).
Significant Architects and Their Works
Adam, Robert (Significant Architects)
(1728 - 92). Scottish architect. Adam designed,
with his brother James, numerous public and
private buildings in England and Scotland in a
distinctive style that combined Palladian,
Renaissance, and antique elements. Notable
examples are Osterley Park (1761 - 80) and Syon
House (1762 - 69), near London.
Alberti, Leon Battista (Significant Architects)
(1404 - 72). Italian architect, painter, author,
and pioneering theoretician of Renaissance
architecture. Alberti's buildings include the
Rucellai Palace in Florence; the Church of San
Francesco in Rimini, which he redesigned as a
Roman temple; and the Church of Sant'Andrea at
Mantua.
Behrens, Peter (Significant Architects)
(1868 - 1940). German architect. Behrens is known
for his factory buildings, which show a simple,
utilitarian approach. Le Corbusier, Mies van der
Rohe, and Walter Gropius were his students.
Berlage, Hendrik Petrus (Significant Architects)
(1856 - 1934). Dutch architect, town planner, and
furniture designer. His most significant work is
the red brick Amsterdam Exchange, which
introduced a new tradition in Dutch architecture.
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo (Gianlorenzo)
(1598 - 1680). Italian architect and sculptor.
Bernini was the dominant figure of the Italian
Baroque period and the designer of many churches,
chapels, fountains, tombs, and statues for the
popes. He designed the great piazza in front of
St.Peter's, as well as many of its interior
details. His other Roman works include the
fountains of the Piazza Navona and the churches
of Santa Maria della Vittoria.
Bramante (Donato d'Agnolo) (Significant Architects)
(1444 - 1514). One of the greatest architects of
the Italian High Renaissance. Bramante's works
include the churches of San Satiro and Santa
Maria delle Grazie in Milan and the Cancelleria
Palace in Rome. He constructed a corridor at the
Vatican and designed the new St. Peter's. Most of
his plans were executed after his death.
Brunelleschi, Filippo (Significant Architects)
(1377 - 1446). Florentine architect and the first
great architect of the Italian Renaissance.
Brunelleschi designed the celebrated octagonal
dome for the cathedral in Florence. His other
works include the small Pazzi chapel (1420), the
churches of San Lorenzo and Santo Spirito, and
the Pitti Palace, all in Florence.
Bulfinch, Charles (Significant Architects)
(1763 - 1844). American (b. in Massachusetts)
architect. Bulfinch designed the first theater in
New England, the Federal Street Theatre (1794),
as well as the Boston statehouse (1799),
University Hall at Harvard (1815), Massachusetts
General Hospital (1820), and, most significantly,
the Washington Capitol, which served as a model
for state capitols throughout the United States.
Burnham, Daniel Hudson (Significant Architects)
(1846 - 1912). American (b. in New York State)
architect and city planner. He designed the first
important skeleton skyscraper, the Masonic Temple
Building in Chicago (1892). His other important
buildings include the Flatiron Building in New
York City and Union Station in Washington, D.C.
With John Root he designed the general plan for
the Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
Butterfield, William (Significant Architects)
(1814 - 1900). English architect. His many
churches include St. Matthais, Stoke Newington;
St. Albans, Holborn; and his greatest
achievement, the "model" Church of All Saints,
Margaret Street, London (1849). He also designed
Keble College, Oxford (1867).
Chambers, Sir William (Significant Architects)
(1723 - 96). English architect, the most
prominent official architect of his day. Chambers
designed decorative structures for Kew Gardens as
well as the neo-Palladian Somerset House (1776).
Da Vinci, Leonardo (Significant Architects)
See Leonardo da Vinci.
Fuller, (Richard) Buckminster (Architects)
(1895 - 1983). American (b. in Massachusetts)
architect and engineer. He developed
revolutionary designs aimed at maximum ecological
efficiency, notably the Dymaxion automobile
(1933) and the geodesic dome.
Garnier, Jean Louis Charles (Significant Architects)
(1825 - 98). French architect. His principal work
is the Opera in Paris (1863 - 75). Garnier also
built the Casino at Monte Carlo and the
Observatory at Nice.
Gaudi i Cornet, Antonio (Significant Architects)
(1852 - 1926). Spanish architect whose sculptural
style paralleled the development of Art Nouveau,
or Modernismo. His work is exemplified in Casa
Mila, Barcelona, and his masterpiece, the
Expiatory Church of the Holy Family.
Giotto (Significant Architects)
(c. 1266 - c. 1337). Florentine architect and
painter. Giotto was the director of the works at
Santa Maria del Fiore, Rome, where he designed
the west front of the cathedral and the
campanile, called Giotto's Tower.
Gropius, Walter (Significant Architects)
(1883 - 1969). German-American architect.
Gropius, a great modern functionalist, was
director of the Weimar School of Art, which he
reorganized as the Bauhaus. He designed the glass
Fagus factory buildings at Alfeld (1910 - 11),
the Bauhaus buildings in Dessau, the Staattheater
in Jena (1923), the Pan Am building in New York
City, and many homes and industrial buildings.
Gropius taught at Harvard from 1937 to 1952.
Hoffmann, Josef (Significant Architects)
(1870 - 1956). Austrian designer of the Palais
Stoclet (1905-11), Brussels, and leader of the
modern Viennese style. Hoffmann is known for his
use of rectilinear units.
Hunt, Richard Morris (Significant Architects)
(1828-95). American (b. in Vermont) architect.
His work exemplifies nineteenth-century
eclecticism in imitation of historical styles.
Hunt designed the Lenox Library in New York City
and numerous mansions in New York and Rhode
Island.
Jenny, William Le Baron (Significant Architects)
(1832-1907). American (b. in Massachusetts)
architect and engineer. His Home Insurance
Building in Chicago, 10 stories high, is
considered to have been the first skyscraper. It
was the first building in which a metal skeletal
frame was used.
Johnson, Philip Cortelyou (Significant Architects)
(1906 - ). American (b. in Ohio) architect noted
for his glass-walled New Canaan House (1949),
Connecticut, and the New York State Theater at
Lincoln Center (1962-64). Johnson co-authored The
International Style (1932); collaborated on the
Seagram Building, New York, with Mies van der
Rohe (1958); and won the Pritzer Architecture
Prize (1979).
Jones, Inigo (Significant Architects)
(1573 - 1652). One of the first great English
architects. Jones broke from the Jacobean style,
thus beginning the Renaissance and Georgian
periods in English architecture.
Kahn, Louis Isador (Significant Architects)
(1901 - 74). Estonian-American architect. A
highly influential theorist, Kahn's significant
works include the Yale University Art Gallery and
the Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas, as
well as many housing projects, such as Carver
Court, Coatsville, Pennsylvania (1944).
Labrouste, Henri (Significant Architects)
(1801 - 75). French architect. He was among the
first to successfully use metal construction in
architecture, as in the reading room of the
Bibliotheque St. Genevieve (1843 - 50),
Paris, He also worked extensively on the
Bibliotheque Nationale.
Latrobe, Benjamin Henry (Significant Architects)
(1766 - 1820). British-American architect.
Considered the first professional architect in
the United States, Latrobe produced some of the
best monumental architecture of his time in
Classical Revival style. His works include the
Bank of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (1799); the
Bank of the United States, now the old
Philadelphia Custom House (completed by William
Strickland, 1819 - 24); the Roman Catholic
Cathedral, Baltimore, the first cathedral built
in the United States (1805 - 18); and St. John's
Church in Washington, D.C. (1816).
Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret)
(1887 - 1965). Swiss architect. His buildings as
well as his writings expressed a radical attitude
toward aesthetic and technological architectural
problems. Le Corbusier's works include studio
houses at Boulogne-sur-Seine, a housing
development at Pessac, and the Swiss Building at
Cite Universitaire, Paris.
Leonardo da Vinci (Significant Architects)
(1452 - 1519). Italian painter, sculptor,
architect, musician, engineer, and scientist. In
1490 Leonardo was consulting engineer on the
restoration of the cathedral at Pavin and later
on the cathedral at Piacenza. In 1506 he served
as architect and engineer in Milan for the French
king Louis XII. In Rome in 1513 he worked on
several architectural and engineering projects
for the Vatican.
Loos, Adolf (Significant Architects)
(1870 - 1933). Austrian architect. His best-known
work is the office building on Michaelerplatz
(1910). His purity of form had a pronounced
impact on the development of modern architecture.
Lutyens, Sir Edwin Landseer (Significant Architects)
(1869 - 1944). English architect. His outstanding
achievement was the plan for the city of New
Delhi, India. Lutyens also designed many war
memorials, including the Cenotaph in London and
those in Manchester, England, and Johannesburg,
South Africa. He also designed the Hampton Court
Bridge and the British Embassy in Washington,
D.C.
Mendelsohn, Erich (Significant Architects)
(1887 - 1953). German-Israeli architect. In
Germany he designed the Steinberg hat factory,
near Berlin (1923); a Berlin department store;
and the highly original concrete Potsdam
Observatory, also called the Einstein Tower
(1927). In 1937 he emigrated to Israel, where he
built the Hebrew University on Mt. Scopus, a
government hospital in Haifa, and a trade
school at Yagur.
Michelangelo Buonarroti (Significant Architects)
(1475 - 1564). Italian sculptor, painter,
architect, and poet. After finishing the frescos
of the Pauline Chapel (1541 - 50), Michelangelo
devoted himself primarily to architecture. In
1546 he became the chief architect of St. Peter's
in Rome. He also remodeled the tepidarium of the
Baths of Diocletian into the Church of Santa
Maria degli Angeli and the facades and court of
the palace group on Capitoline Hill.
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig (Significant Architects)
(1886 - 1969). German-American architect and
director of the Bauhaus (1930 - 33). Mies
perfected the simple, unornamented skyscraper.
His outstanding works include the Farnsworth
House, Illinois (1950), Chicago's Lake Shore
Drive Apartments (1950), and his crowning work,
the Seagram Building, New York (1958).
Mills, Robert (Significant Architects)
(1781 - 1855). American (b. in South Carolina)
architect. Mills was an exponent of the Classic
Revival School. He was the presidentially
appointed architect of public buildings in
Washington, D.C,including the Treasury Building
(1836), the Patent Office and Old Post Office
(1839), and the Washington Monument (1833 - 84).
Mills also designed the Bunker Hill monument.
Palladio, Andrea (Significant Architects)
(1508 - 80). Italian architect. In his greatest
work, the basilica at Vicenza, appear the much
imitated arch-and-column compositions known as
the Palladian motif. Palladio's other highly
original and influential works include the Teatro
Olimpico (1580); the Villa Capra, or Rotunda,
near Vicenza; and the San Giorgio Maggiore and
the Church of the Rendenfore in Venice.
Paxton, Sir Joseph (Significant Architects)
(1801 - 65). English architect and
horticulturist. After erecting a great
conservatory for the Duke of Devonshire in
Derbyshire, Paxton was commissioned to erect a
similar structure, the Crystal Palace, for the
Great Exhibition of 1851 in London.
Pei, I(eou) M(ing) (Significant Architects)
(1917 - ). Chinese-American architect. Among his
major works are the John Fitzgerald Kennedy
Library in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Mile
High Center in Denver, the Johnson Museum of Art
at Cornell University, and a pyramidal addition
to the Louvre Museum. Pei is the winner of
several awards for excellence in design.
Pugin, Augustus Welby Northmore (Architects)
(1812 - 52). English architect and author. Pugin
played a prominent role in the Gothic Revival and
erected numerous churches, monasteries, and
convents; however, his writings proved more
influential than his buildings. Pugin executed a
cathedral in St. George's Fields, London, and
worked on details of the House of Parliament. He
wrote the classic book on Gothic Revival
architecture, The True Principles of Pointed or
Christian Architecture (1841), as well as Gothic
Furniture in the Style of the 15th Century (1835)
and Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament and
Costume (1844).
Richardson, Henry Hobson (Significant Architects)
(1838 - 86). American (b. in Louisiana)
architect. His monumental work, Trinity Church,
Boston (1822 - 27), exemplifies the "Richardson
Romanesque" style. Among his other buildings is
the Marshall Field department store, Chicago.
Saarinen, Eliel (Significant Architects)
(1873 - 1950). Finnish city planner, architect,
and author. In Finland Saarinen designed the
National Museum and the railway station in
Helsinki. In America, where he resided after
1923, he designed many of the performance halls
at the Berkshire Music Center, as well as several
buildings of the Cranbrook Foundation, where he
was head of the Academy of Art. Saarinen wrote
The City: Its Growth, Its Decay, Its Future
(1943) and Search for Form (1948).
Smirke, Sir Robert (Significant Architects)
(1781 - 1867). English architect and notable
exponent of the Classical Revival School. His
best-known work is the main facade of the British
Museum (1823 - 47). Other achievements include
the General Post Office and the Royal College of
Physicians, both in London.
Smirke, Sydney (Significant Architects)
(1798 - 1877). English architect, brother of
Robert Smirke. Upon his brother's retirement,
Smirke took over his work at the British Museum,
where he erected the new reading room and the
western side of the quadrangle (1854 - 57). He
also built the Carlton Club (1857) and the
exhibition galleries for the Royal Academy at
Burlington House (1866).
Soufflot, Jacques Germain (Significant Architects)
(1713 - 80). French architect. Best known as the
designer of the Pantheon in Paris, his other
works include the Hotel-Dieu, Lyons, and the
Ecole de Droit, Paris.
Strickland, William (Significant Architects)
(1787 - 1854). American (b. in Pennsylvania)
architect. A student of Latrobe, Strickland
completed Latrobe's Bank of the United States
after his death. His most outstanding work is the
Merchant's Exchange (1834). He also restored
Independence Hall (1828) and built the Naval
Asylum and the Mint (1829 - 33), as well as the
state capitol in Nashville, Tennessee. Strickland
was a founder and first president of the American
Institute of Architects and the author of Reports
on Canals, Railways, Roads and Other Subjects
(1826).
Sullivan, Louis Henry (Significant Architects)
(1856 - 1924). American (b. in Massachusetts)
architect. A prominent figure in the development
of modern architecture, Sullivan was an exponent
of the form-follows-function school. He designed
the Wainwright Building, St. Louis (1890), and
the Transportation Building at the Columbian
Exposition, Chicago (1893).
Vanbrugh, Sir John (Significant Architects)
(1664 - 1726). English architect and dramatist.
He designed Castle Howard in 1699, a masterpiece
of Palladian architecture, initiating his
successful career, mainly as an architect of
country houses. Vanbrugh became the architect of
the palace at Blenheim Park in 1705 and in 1716
became the architect for Greenwich Hospital.
Wagner, Otto (Significant Architects)
(1841 - 1918). Austrian architect. A pioneer of
modern architecture, Wagner's most significant
work was the Postal Savings Bank, Vienna (1904 -
06). He also designed buildings for the Vienna
tramways and the church at Steinhof, near Vienna
(1894).
Walter, Thomas Ustick (Significant Architects)
(1804 - 87). American (b. in Pennsylvania)
architect. Walter designed extensions of
government buildings, including the Senate and
House wings of the Capitol and its iron dome. His
main building of Girard College, Philadelphia
(1833) was a significant work of Classical
Revival.
White, Stanford (Significant Architects)
(1853 - 1906). American (b. in New York City)
architect. Most interested in the decorative
aspects of building, his long-term partnership
with C. F. McKim and William R. Mead produced
significant works. White designed the Washington
Square Arch and the Century Club in New York.
Wren, Sir Christopher (Significant Architects)
(1632 - 1723). English architect, astronomer, and
mathematician. His redesign of the city of London
after the Great Fire of 1666 was never executed,
yet Wren is known for some of England's most
outstanding structures: St. Paul's Cathedral,
among 52 other London churches; the Chelsea
Hospital; the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford; and
the Trinity College Library in Cambridge.
Wright, Frank Lloyd (Significant Architects)
(1869 - 1959). American (b. in Wisconsin)
architect. His innovative approach integrated
modern technology into architectural aesthetics.
Wright's most significant and pace-setting works
include the Larkin Building, Buffalo (1904); the
Oak Park Unity Temple, near Chicago (1906); the
Imperial Hotel, Tokyo (1916 - 23); the Kaufman
house, "Falling Water," Bear Run, Pennsylvania
(1936 - 37); and the Guggenheim Museum, New York
City (1959).
Architectural Terms
abacus (Architectural Terms)
A tablet placed horizontally on the capital of a
column, aiding the support of the architrave.
abutment (Architectural Terms)
A solid piece of masonry used to support a
projecting part of a structure, for example, the
supports that connect a bridge with a river bank.
acropolis (Architectural Terms)
The citadel in ancient Greek towns.
adobe (Architectural Terms)
Sun-dried brick used in places with warm, dry
climates, such as Egypt and Mexico; the clay from
which bricks are made; the structures built out
of adobe bricks.
ambulatory (Architectural Terms)
A continuous aisle in a circular building, as in
a church.
apse (Architectural Terms)
A semicircular area; in most churches it contains
the altar.
arabesque (Architectural Terms)
Ornament consisting of garlands of foliage with
figures, fancifully interlaced to form graceful
curves and painted, inlaid, or carved in low
relief.
arcade (Architectural Terms)
A series of arches supported by columns or piers,
or a passageway formed by these arches.
arch (Architectural Terms)
A curved structure that supports the weight of
the material above it.
architrave (Architectural Terms)
The lowest part of an entablature resting on the
capital of a column; also, the holdings around a
doorway.
ashlar (Architectural Terms)
Stones hewn and squared for use in building, as
distinguished from rough stones.
atrium (Architectural Terms)
In an ancient Roman structure, a central room
open to the sky, usually having a pool for the
collection of rainwater. In Christian churches, a
courtyard flanked by porticos.
attic (Architectural Terms)
The part of the entablature above the cornice,
serving to hide the roof.
baldachin (Architectural Terms)
A richly ornamented canopy structure supported by
columns, suspended from a roof, or projected from
a wall, as over an altar.
Baroque (Architectural Terms)
A style that flourished in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, characterized by exuberant
decoration, curvaceous forms, and a grand scale
generating a sense of movement; later
developments show greater restraint.
basilica (Architectural Terms)
The early Greek name for a royal palace; a large
oblong building with double columns and a
semicircular apse at one end, frequently used by
Christian emperors of Rome for religious
purposes.
Bauhaus (Architectural Terms)
The style of the Bauhaus School, founded in
Germany by Walter Gropius in 1919, emphasizing
simplicity, functionalism, and craftsmanship.
buttress (Architectural Terms)
A projecting support built into or against the
external wall of a building, typically used in
Gothic buildings.
Byzantine (Architectural Terms)
A style dating from the fifth century,
characterized by masonry construction around a
central plan, with domes on penditives, typically
depicting the figure of Christ; foliage patterns
on stone capitals; and interiors decorated with
mosaics and frescos.
campanile (Architectural Terms)
A bell tower usually not actually attached to a
church; also, lofty towers that form parts of
buildings.
cantilever (Architectural Terms)
A horizontal projection, such as a balcony or
beam, supported at one end only.
classicism (Architectural Terms)
A tradition of Greek and Roman antiquity,
distinguished by the qualities of simplicity,
harmony, and balance.
Classical Revival (Architectural Terms)
The Italian Renaissance or neoclassical movements
in England and the United States in the
nineteenth century that looked to the traditions
of Greek and Roman antiquity.
clerestory (Architectural Terms)
Part of an interior rising above adjacent
rooftops, permitting the passage of light.
cloister (Architectural Terms)
In religious institutions, a courtyard with
covered walks.
colonnade (Architectural Terms)
A row of columns, usually equidistant.
column (Architectural Terms)
A vertical support; in an order it consists of a
shaft and capital, often resting on a base.
Composite Order (Architectural Terms)
A Roman order; its capital combines the
Corinthian acanthus leaf decoration with volutes
from the Ionic Order.
Corinthian Order (Architectural Terms)
The last of the three Greek orders, similar to
the Ionic, but with the capital decorated with
carvings of the acanthus leaf.
cornice (Architectural Terms)
The upper part of an entablature, extending
beyond the frieze.
dome (Architectural Terms)
A roof formed by a series of arches, roughly
forming a semicircle.
Doric Order (Architectural Terms)
The first and simplest of the three Greek orders
and the only one that normally has no base.
entablature (Architectural Terms)
The upper horizontal part of an order, between a
capital and the roof; it consists of the
architrave, frieze, and cornice.
facade (Architectural Terms)
Any important face of a building, usually the
principal front with the main entrance.
frieze (Architectural Terms)
The middle part of an entablature, often
decorated with spiral scrolls (volutes).
gargoyle (Architectural Terms)
A spout placed on the roof gutter of a Gothic
building to carry away rainwater, commonly carved
fancifully as in the shapes of animal heads.
Georgian (Architectural Terms)
The prevailing style of English architecture
during the reigns of George I, II, and III (1714-
1820), based on the principles of the Italian
Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio. The style
was transported to England by Inigo Jones and Sir
Christopher Wren. It became the prototype for the
colonial style in America.
Gothic (Architectural Terms)
A style employed in Europe during the thirteenth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries; also called
pointed. It is characterized by the use of
pointed arches and ribbed vaults, piers, and
buttresses in the support of its stone
construction. The style is best exemplified by
the Notre Dame in Paris and the cathedrals of
Amiens and Bourges.
Ionic Order (Architectural Terms)
Second of the three Greek orders. Its capital is
decorated with spiral scrolls (volutes).
lintel (Architectural Terms)
See post and lintel.
loggia (Architectural Terms)
A rostrum developed in medieval Italian towns,
roofed, slightly elevated, and open on three
sides, from which orators could address crowds.
minaret (Architectural Terms)
A slender, lofty tower with balconies attached to
a Muslim mosque.
module (Architectural Terms)
The measurement that architects use to determine
the proportions of a structure, for example, the
diameter of a column.
narthex (Architectural Terms)
An enclosed passage from the nave to the main
entrance of a church.
nave (Architectural Terms)
The principal area of a church, extending from
the main area to the transept.
Norman (Architectural Terms)
A style of buildings erected by the Normans
(1066 - 1154) based on the Italian Romanesque. It
was used principally in castles, churches, and
abbeys of massive proportions. Sparsely decorated
masonry and the use of the round arch are
characteristic.
order (Architectural Terms)
A term applied to the three styles of Greek
architecture, the Dorian, Corinthian, and Ionic,
referring to the style of columns and their
entablatures; it also refers to the Composite and
the Tuscan, developed from the original three
orders.
pagoda (Architectural Terms)
A temple or sacred building, typically in an
Asian nation, usually pyramidal, forming a tower
with upward curving roofs over the individual
stories.
pediment (Architectural Terms)
In a classical-style building, the triangular
segment between the horizontal entablature and
the sloping roof.
pendentive (Architectural Terms)
A curved support shaped like an inverted
triangle, used to support a dome.
pier (Architectural Terms)
A large pillar used to support a roof.
portico (Architectural Terms)
A structure usually attached to a building, such
as a porch, consisting of a roof supported by
piers or columns.
post and lintel (Architectural Terms)
A method of construction in which vertical beams
(posts) are used to support a horizontal beam
(lintel).
pyramid (Architectural Terms)
In ancient Egypt, a quadrilateral masonry mass
with steeply sloping sides meeting at an apex,
used as a tomb.
relief (Architectural Terms)
Moldings and ornamentation projecting from the
surface of a wall.
Renaissance (Architectural Terms)
Styles existing in Italy in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries; adaptations of ancient Roman
elements to contemporary uses, with attention to
the principles of Vitruvius and to existing
ruins. Symmetry, simplicity, and exact
mathematical relationships are emphasized.
Rococo (Architectural Terms)
A style originating in France c. 1720, developed
out of Baroque types, and characterized by its
ornamentation of shellwork, foliage, etc., and
its refined use of different materials, such as
stucco, metal, or wood for a delicate effect.
Romanesque (Architectural Terms)
A style developed in western and southern Europe
after 1000 characterized by heavy masonry and the
use of the round arch, barrel and groin vaults,
narrow openings, and the vaulting rib, the
vaulting shaft, and central and western towers.
spire (Architectural Terms)
A tall, tapering, acutely pointed roof to a
tower, as in the top of a steeple.
tracery (Architectural Terms)
Ornament of ribs, bars, etc., in panels or
screens, as in the upper part of a Gothic window.
transept (Architectural Terms)
A structure that forms the arms of a T - or
cross-shaped church.
Tudor (Architectural Terms)
A style of English architecture prevalent during
the reigns of the Tudors (1485- 1558),
transitional between Gothic and Palladian, with
emphasis on privacy and interiors.
turret (Architectural Terms)
A small tower, usually starting at some distance
from the ground, attached to a building such as a
castle or fortress.
Tuscan Order (Architectural Terms)
A Roman order resembling the Doric without a
fluted shaft.
vault (Architectural Terms)
An arched brick or stone ceiling or roof. The
simplest form is the barrel vault, a single
continuous arch; the groined vault consists of
two barrel vaults joined at right angles; a
ribbed vault has diagonal arches projecting from
the surface.
westwork (Architectural Terms)
In German Romanesque, a monumental entrance to a
church consisting of porches and towers, with a
chapel above.
The Academy Awards, 1927-88
1927-28
Best actor Best actress
Emil Jannings Janet Gaynor
"The Way of All "Seventh Heaven"
Flesh"
Best director Best picture
Frank Borzage "Wings"
"Seventh Heaven"
1928-29
Best actor Best actress
Warner Baxter Mary Pickford
"In Old Arizona" "Coquette"
Best director Best picture
Frank Lloyd "Broadway Melody"
"The Divine Lady"
1929-30
Best actor Best actress
George Arliss Norma Shearer
"Disraeli" "The Divorcee"
Best director Best picture
Lewis Milestone "All Quiet on
"All Quiet on the Western Front"
the Western Front"
1930-31
Best actor Best actress
Lionel Barrymore Marie Dressler
"A Free Soul" "Min and Bill"
Best director Best picture
Norman Taurog "Cimarron"
"Skippy"
1931-32
Best actor Best actress
Frederic March Helen Hayes
"Dr. Jekyll "The Sin of Madelon
and Mr. Hyde" Claudet"
Best director Best picture
Frank Borzage "Grand Hotel"
"Bad Girl"
1932-33
Best actor Best actress
Charles Laughton Katharine Hepburn
"The Private Life "Morning Glory"
of Henry VIII"
Best director Best picture
Frank Lloyd "Cavalcade"
"Cavalcade"
1934
Best actor Best actress
Clark Gable Claudette Colbert
"It Happened One "It Happened One
Night" Night"
Best director Best picture
Frank Capra "It Happened One
"It Happened One Night"
Night"
1935
Best actor Best actress
Victor McLaglen Bette Davis
"The Informer" "Dangerous"
Best director Best picture
John Ford "Mutiny on the
"The Informer" Bounty"
1936
Best actor Best actress
Paul Muni Luise Rainer
"The Story of "The Great Ziegfeld"
Louis Pasteur"
Best director Best picture
Frank Capra "The Great Ziegfeld"
"Mr. Deeds
Goes to Town"
1937
Best actor Best actress
Spencer Tracy Luise Rainer
"Captains Courageous" "The Good Earth"
Best director Best picture
Leo McCarey "The Life of Emile Zola"
"The Awful Truth"
1938
Best actor Best actress
Spencer Tracy Bette Davis
"Boy's Town" "Jezebel"
Best director Best picture
Frank Capra "You Can't Take It
"You Can't Take It with You"
with You"
1939
Best actor Best actress
Robert Donat Vivien Leigh
"Goodbye, Mr. Chips" "Gone with the Wind"
Best director Best picture
Victor Fleming
"Gone with the Wind" "Gone with the Wind"
1940
Best actor Best actress
James Stewart Ginger Rogers
"The Philadelphia "Kitty Foyle"
Story"
Best director Best picture
John Ford "Rebecca"
"The Grapes of Wrath"
1941
Best actor Best actress
Gary Cooper Joan Fontaine
"Sergeant York" "Suspicion"
Best director Best picture
John Ford "How Green Was
"How Green Was My Valley"
My Valley"
1942
Best actor Best actress
James Cagney Greer Garson
"Yankee Doodle Dandy" "Mrs. Miniver"
Best director Best picture
William Wyler "Mrs. Miniver"
"Mrs. Miniver"
1943
Best actor Best actress
Paul Lukas Jennifer Jones
"Watch on the Rhine" "The Song of Bernadette"
Best director Best picture
Michael Curtiz "Casablanca"
"Casablanca"
1944
Best actor Best actress
Bing Crosby Ingrid Bergman
"Going My Way" "Gaslight"
Best director Best picture
Leo McCarey "Going My Way"
"Going My Way"
1945
Best actor Best actress
Ray Milland Joan Crawford
"The Lost Weekend" "Mildred Pierce"
Best director Best picture
Billy Wilder "The Lost Weekend"
"The Lost Weekend"
1946
Best actor Best actress
Frederic March Olivia de Havilland
"The Best Years "To Each His Own"
of Our Lives"
Best director Best picture
William Wyler "The Best Years
"The Best Years of Our Lives"
of Our Lives"
1947
Best actor Best actress
Ronald Coleman Loretta Young
"A Double Life" "The Farmer's Daughter"
Best director Best picture
Elia Kazan "Gentleman's Agreement"
"Gentleman's Agreement"
1948
Best actor Best actress
Laurence Olivier Jane Wyman
"Hamlet" "Johnny Belinda"
Best director Best picture
John Huston "Hamlet"
"Treasure of
the Sierra Madre"
1949
Best actor Best actress
Broderick Crawford Olivia de Havilland
"All the King's Men" "The Heiress"
Best director Best picture
Joseph L. Mankiewicz "All the King's Men"
"A Letter to Three
Wives"
1950
Best actor Best actress
Jose Ferrer Judy Holliday
"Cyrano de Bergerac" "Born Yesterday"
Best director Best picture
Joseph L. Mankiewicz "All About Eve"
"All About Eve"
1951
Best actor Best actress
Humphrey Bogart Vivien Leigh
"The African Queen" "A Streetcar Named
Desire"
Best director Best picture
George Stevens "An American in Paris"
"A Place in the Sun"
1952
Best actor Best actress
Gary Cooper Shirley Booth
"High Noon" "Come Back, Little Sheba"
Best director Best picture
John Ford "The Greatest Show
"The Quiet Man" on Earth"
1953
Best actor Best actress
William Holden Audrey Hepburn
"Stalag 17" "Roman Holiday"
Best director Best picture
Fred Zinnemann "From Here to Eternity"
"From Here to Eternity"
1954
Best actor Best actress
Marlon Brando Grace Kelly
"On the Waterfront" "The Country Girl"
Best director Best picture
Elia Kazan "On the Waterfront"
"On the Waterfront"
1955
Best actor Best actress
Ernest Borgnine Anna Magnani
"Marty" "The Rose Tattoo"
Best director Best picture
Delbert Mann "Marty"
"Marty"
1956
Best actor Best actress
Yul Brynner Ingrid Bergman
"The King and I" "Anastasia"
Best director Best picture
George Stevens "Around the World
"Giant" in Eighty Days"
1957
Best actor Best actress
Alec Guinness Joanne Woodward
"The Bridge on "The Three Faces of Eve"
the River Kwai"
Best director Best picture
David Lean "The Bridge on
"The Bridge on the River Kwai"
the River Kwai"
1958
Best actor Best actress
David Niven Susan Hayward
"Separate Tables" "I Want to Live"
Best director Best picture
Vincente Minelli "Gigi"
"Gigi"
1959
Best actor Best actress
Charlton Heston Simone Signoret
"Ben-Hur" "Room at the Top"
Best director Best picture
William Wyler "Ben-Hur"
"Ben-Hur"
1960
Best actor Best actress
Burt Lancaster Elizabeth Taylor
"Elmer Gantry" "Butterfield 8"
Best director Best picture
Billy Wilder "The Apartment"
"The Apartment"
1961
Best actor Best actress
Maximillian Schell Sophia Loren
"Judgment at "Two Women"
Nuremberg"
Best director Best picture
Jerome Robbins "West Side Story"
Robert Wise
"West Side Story"
1962
Best actor Best actress
Gregory Peck Anne Bancroft
"To Kill a "The Miracle Worker"
Mockingbird"
Best director Best picture
David Lean "Lawrence of Arabia"
"Lawrence of Arabia"
1963
Best actor Best actress
Sidney Poitier Patricia Neal
"Lilies of the Field" "Hud"
Best director Best picture
Tony Richardson "Tom Jones"
"Tom Jones"
1964
Best actor Best actress
Rex Harrison Julie Andrews
"My Fair Lady" "Mary Poppins"
Best director Best picture
George Cukor "My Fair Lady"
"My Fair Lady"
1965
Best actor Best actress
Lee Marvin Julie Christie
"Cat Ballou" "Darling"
Best director Best picture
Robert Wise "The Sound of Music"
"The Sound of Music"
1966
Best actor Best actress
Paul Scofield Elizabeth Taylor
"A Man for All "Who's Afraid of
Seasons" Virginia Woolf?"
Best director Best picture
Fred Zinnemann "A Man for All Seasons"
"A Man for All
Seasons"
1967
Best actor Best actress
Rod Steiger Katharine Hepburn
"In the Heat of "Guess Who's Coming to
the Night" Dinner"
Best director Best picture
Mike Nichols "In the Heat of the
"The Graduate" Night"
1968
Best actor Best actress
Cliff Robertson Katharine Hepburn
"Charly" "The Lion in Winter"
Barbra Streisand
"Funny Girl"
Best director Best picture
Sir Carol Reed "Oliver!"
"Oliver!
1969
Best actor Best actress
John Wayne Maggie Smith
"True Grit" "The Prime of Miss
Jean Brodie"
Best director Best picture
John Schlesinger "Midnight Cowboy"
"Midnight Cowboy"
1970
Best actor Best actress
George C. Scott Glenda Jackson
"Patton" (refused) "Women in Love"
Best director Best picture
Franklin Schaffner "Patton"
Frank McCarthy
"Patton"
1971
Best actor Best actress
Gene Hackman Jane Fonda
"The French "Klute"
Connection"
Best director Best picture
William Friedkin "The French Connection"
"The French Connection"
1972
Best actor Best actress
Marlon Brando Liza Minelli
"The Godfather" "Cabaret"
(refused)
Best director Best picture
Bob Fosse "The Godfather"
"Cabaret"
1973
Best actor Best actress
Jack Lemmon Glenda Jackson
"Save the Tiger" "A Touch of Class"
Best director Best picture
George Roy Hill "The Sting"
"The Sting"
1974
Best actor Best actress
Art Carney Ellen Burstyn
"Harry and Tonto" "Alice Doesn't
Live Here Anymore"
Best director Best picture
Francis Ford Coppola "The Godfather, Part II"
"The Godfather, Part II"
1975
Best actor Best actress
Jack Nicholson Louise Fletcher
"One Flew over "One Flew over
the Cuckoo's Nest" the Cuckoo's Nest"
Best director Best picture
Milos Forman "One Flew over the
"One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest"
Cuckoo's Nest"
1976
Best actor Best actress
Peter Finch Faye Dunaway
"Network" "Network"
Best director Best picture
John G. Avildsen "Rocky"
"Rocky"
1977
Best actor Best actress
Richard Dreyfuss Diane Keaton
"The Goodbye Girl" "Annie Hall"
Best director Best picture
Woody Allen "Annie Hall"
"Annie Hall"
1978
Best actor Best actress
Jon Voight Jane Fonda
"Coming Home" "Coming Home"
Best director Best picture
Michael Cimino "The Deer Hunter"
"The Deer Hunter"
1979
Best actor Best actress
Dustin Hoffman Sally Field
"Kramer vs. Kramer" "Norma Rae"
Best director Best picture
Robert Benton "Kramer vs. Kramer"
"Kramer vs. Kramer"
1980
Best actor Best actress
Robert De Niro Sissy Spacek
"Raging Bull" "Coal Miner's Daughter"
Best director Best picture
Robert Redford "Ordinary People"
"Ordinary People"
1981
Best actor Best actress
Henry Fonda Katherine Hepburn
"On Golden Pond" "On Golden Pond"
Best director Best picture
Warren Beatty "Chariots of Fire"
"Reds"
1982
Best actor Best actress
Ben Kingsley Meryl Streep
"Gandhi" "Sophie's Choice"
Best director Best picture
Richard Attenborough "Gandhi"
"Gandhi"
1983
Best actor Best actress
Robert Duvall Shirley MacLaine
"Tender Mercies" "Terms of Endearment"
Best director Best picture
James L. Brooks "Terms of Endearment"
"Terms of Endearment"
1984
Best actor Best actress
F. Murray Abraham Sally Field
"Amadeus" "Places in the Heart"
Best director Best picture
Milos Forman "Amadeus"
"Amadeus"
1985
Best actor Best actress
William Hurt Geraldine Page
"Kiss of the "The Trip to Bountiful"
Spider Woman"
Best director Best picture
Sydney Pollack "Out of Africa"
"Out of Africa"
1986
Best actor Best actress
Paul Newman Marlee Matlin
"The Color of Money" "Children of a
Lesser God"
Best director Best picture
Oliver Stone "Platoon"
"Platoon"
1987
Best actor Best actress
Michael Douglas Cher
"Wall Street" "Moonstruck"
Best director Best picture
Bernardo Bertolucci "The Last Emperor"
"The Last Emperor"
1988
Best actor Best actress
Dustin Hoffman Jody Foster
"Rain Man" "The Accused"
Best director Best picture
Barry Levinson "Rain Man"
"Rain Man"
Additional Sources of Information (The Arts)
Apel, Willi, ed. The Harvard Dictionary of
Music., rev., enl. Harvard University Press,
1969.
Chujoy, Anatole, and Manchester, P. W., eds. The
Dance Encyclopedia. Simon & Schuster, 1967.
Fleming, John, ed. The Penguin Dictionary of
Architecture, 1972.
Gassner, John, and Quinn, Edward, eds. The
Reader's Encyclopedia of World Drama. Crowell,
1969.
Gloag, John. Guide to Western Architecture.
Macmillan, 1958.
Hartnoll, Phyllis, ed. The Oxford Companion to
the Theatre, 4th ed. Oxford University Press,
1983.
Janson, Horst W. History of Art, 3rd ed.
Prentice-Hall, 1986.
Kennedy, Michael. The Oxford Dictionary of Music.
Oxford University Press, 1985.
Kobbe, Gustave. The Definitive Kobbe's Opera
Book. Putnam, 1987.
Koegler, Horst. Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Ballet. Oxford University Press, 1982.
Murphy, Howard. Music Fundamentals, A Guide to
Musical Understanding. Sam Fox, 1962.
Musgrove, John, ed. A History of Architecture:
Sir Banister-Fletcher's, 19th ed. Butterworth,
1987.
Peltz, Mary Ellis, ed. Introduction to Opera, A
Guidebook Sponsored by the Metropolitan Opera
Guild. Barnes & Noble, 1962.
Sadie, Stanley, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of
Music and Musicians. 20 vols. Macmillan, 1980.
Shipley, Joseph T. Crown Guide to the World's
Great Plays, rev. ed. Crown, 1984.
Slonimsky, Nicolas. Baker's Biographical
Dictionary of Musicians, 7th rev. ed. G.
Schirmer, 1984.
Upjohn, E. M. A History of World Art. Oxford
University Press, 1958.
Vinson, James, ed. Contemporary Dramatists, St.
Martin's Press, 1973.
Vinton, John, ed. Dictionary of Contemporary
Music. Dutton, 1974.
Literature
Important U.S. and Canadian Authors
Any list of "important" authors is subject to
debate. The following list includes writers who
have had a substantial impact on American and
Canadian literature, whether as a result of a
single work or an entire oeuvre. This list is not
all-inclusive, but it does contain most of the
authors who are generally considered to have made
a substantial contribution to American and Canadian
literature.
The titles and dates of first publication of each
author's major works are given. An asterisk (*)
designates a book that was awarded a Pulitzer Prize
in literature; a plus sign (+) indicates that the
work was awarded a National Book Award. In those
instances where an author is known by a pseudonym,
he or she is listed by that pseudonym with the real
name in brackets.
Agee, James (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1909 - 55): Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941),*
A Death in the Family (1957), Agee on Film (1958)
Aiken, Conrad (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1889 - 1973): The House of Dust: A Symphony
(1920), *Selected Poems (1929), Conversation; or,
Pilgrim's Progress (1940), The Soldier (1944), The
Kid (1947)
Alcott, Louisa May (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1832 - 88): Little Women (1868 - 69), Little Men
(1871), Silver Pitchers and Independence (1876),
Spinning-Wheel Stories (1884)
Algren, Nelson (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1909 - 81): The Man with the Golden Arm (1949),
A Walk on the Wild Side (1956)
Anderson, Sherwood (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1876 - 1941): Winesburg, Ohio (1919), The Triumph
of the Egg (1921), A Story Teller's Story (1924),
Dark Laughter (1925), Beyond Desire (1932)
Asimov, Isaac (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1920 - ): Foundation (1951), Foundation and Empire
(1952), Second Foundation (1953), Opus 200 (1979)
Atwood, Margaret (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1939 - ): The Circle Game (1966), Surfacing
(1972), Selected Poems (1976), Dancing Girls
(1977), Bodily Harm (1981), The Handmaid's Tale
(1985), Cat's Eye (1988)
Auchincloss, Louis [Stanton] (U.S., Canadian Authors)
(1917 - ): Portrait in Brownstone (1962), The
Winthrop Covenant (1976), Life, Law and Letters
(1979), Diary of a Yuppie (1987)
Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh) (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1907 - 73): Spain (1937), For the Time Being
(1945), *The Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue
(1948), Collected Shorter Poems, 1930 - 44 (1950),
Making, Knowing and Judging (1956), The Dyer's Hand
(1962), Collected Poems (1976)
Audubon, John James (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1785 - 1851): The Birds of America (1827 - 38)
Austin, Mary (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1868 - 1934): Isidro (1905), A Woman of Genius
(1912), The Ford (1917), Earth Horizon (1932)
Baldwin, James (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1924 - 87): Go Tell It on the Mountain (1953),
Notes of a Native Son (1955), Nobody Knows My Name
(1961), Another Country (1962), Just Above My Head
(1979)
Baraka, Imamu Amiri (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(formerly LeRoi Jones, 1934 - ): Dutchman (1964),
The Slave (1964), The Toilet (1964), Black Music
(1967), Black Magic ... (1969), Selected Plays and
Prose (1979), Selected Poetry (1979)
Barth, John [Simmons] (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1930 - ): The Sot-Weed Factor (1960), Giles
Goat-Boy (1966), Chimera (1972)
Barthelme, Donald (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1931 - ): Come Back, Dr. Caligari (1964), Snow
White (1967), City Life (1970), Sixty Stories
(1982)
Bartlett, John (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1820 - 1905): Familiar Quotations (1855)
Baum, Lyman Frank (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1856 - 1919): The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900)
Beattie, Ann (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1947 - ): Distortions (1976), Chilly Scenes of
Winter (1976)
Bellow, Saul (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1915 - ): Dangling Man (1944), plus The Adventures
of Augie March (1953), Henderson the Rain King
(1959), Herzog (1964), *Humboldt's Gift (1975), The
Dean's December (1982)
Benchley, Robert (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1889 - 1945): Love Conquers All (1922), My Ten
Years in a Quandary (1936), Benchley Beside Himself
(1943)
Benet, Stephen Vincent (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1898 - 1943): *John Brown's Body (1928), Ballads
and Poems, 1915 - 30 (1931), *Western Star (1943)
Benet, William Rose (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1886 - 1950): Oxford Anthology of American
Literature (editor, 1938), *The Dust Which Is God
(1941)
Bierce, Ambrose (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1842 - 1914?): Tales of Soldiers and Civilians
(1891), Can Such Things Be? (1893), The Devil's
Dictionary (1911)
Bontemps, Arna (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1902 - 73): God Sends Sunday (1931), Drums at Dusk
(1939), Sam Patch (1951), One Hundred Years of
Negro Freedom (1961)
Boyle, Kay (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1903 - ): Wedding Day (1930), Plagued by the
Nightingale (1931), Death of a Man (1936), Thirty
Stories (1946), The Underground Woman (1975), Fifty
Stories (1980)
Bradbury, Ray (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1920 - ): The Martian Chronicles (1950), The
Illustrated Man (1951), Fahrenheit 451 (1953),
Something Wicked This Way Comes (1963), I Sing the
Body Electric (1969)
Bradstreet, Anne (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(c. 1612 - 72): The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in
America (1650)
Brooks, Gwendolyn (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1917 - ): Annie Allen (1949), In the Mecca (1968),
Family Pictures (1970)
Buck, Pearl (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1892 - 1973): *The Good Earth (1931), My Several
Worlds (1954), Imperial Woman (1956), Command the
Morning (1959), A Bridge for Passing (1962)
Burroughs, Edgar Rice (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1875 - 1950): Tarzan of the Apes (1914)
Burroughs, William S. (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1914 - ): The Naked Lunch (1959), Nova Express
(1964), Cities of the Red Night (1981)
Cather, Willa (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1873 - 1947): O Pioneers! (1913), The Song of the
Lark (1915), My Antonia (1918), *One of Ours
(1922), Shadows on the Rock (1931)
Chandler, Raymond (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1888 - 1959): The Big Sleep (1939), Farewell, My
Lovely (1940), The Long Goodbye (1954)
Cheever, John (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1912 - 82): + The Wapshot Chronicle (1957), The
Wapshot Scandal (1964), Falconer (1977)
Chopin, Kate (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1851 - 1904): Bayou Folk (1894), the Awakening
(1899)
Cooper, James Fenimore (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1789 - 1851): The Spy (1821), The Pioneers (1823),
The Pilot (1823), The Last of the Mohicans 1826),
The Prairie (1827), The American Democrat (1838),
The Pathfinder (1840), The Deerslayer (1841)
Crane, Stephen (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1871 - 1900): Maggie: A Girl of the Streets
(1893), The Red Badge of Courage (1895), The Black
Riders (1895), The Open Boat (1898), The Monster
(1899)
cummings, ee [Edward Estlin] (U.S., Canadian Authors)
(1894 - 1962): The Enormous Room (1922), & (1925),
is 5 (1926), 50 Poems (1940), I x I (1944), 95
Poems (1958)
Davies, Robertson (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1913 - ): A Mixture of Frailties (1958), Fifth
Business (1970), The Rebel Angels (1981), What's
Bred in the Bone (1985)
Dickinson, Emily (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1830 - 86): Poems (1890), Poems: Second Series
(1891), Poems: Third Series (1896), The Single
Hound (1914)
Didion, Joan (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1934 - ): Slouching Towards Bethlehem (1968), The
White Album (1970), Play It As It Lays (1970)
Dillard, Annie (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1945 - ): *Pilgrim at Tinker Creek (1974),
Teaching a Stone To Talk (1982)
Doctorow, E(dgar) L(awrence) (U.S., Canadian Authors)
(1931 - ): The Book of Daniel (1971), Ragtime
(1975), Loon Lake (1980), World's Fair (1986)
Dos Passos, John (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1896 - 1970): Manhattan Transfer (1925), The 42nd
Parallel (1930), 1919 (1932), The Big Money (1936)
Dreiser, Theodore (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1871 - 1945): Sister Carrie (1900), The Financier
(1912), The Titan (1914), The Genius (1915), An
American Tragedy (1925)
Edel, Leon (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1907 - ): The Untried Years (1953), The Conquest
of London (1962), The Middle Years (1962), The
Treacherous Years (1969), The Master (1972),
Bloomsbury: A House of Lions (1979)
Eliot, T(homas) S(tearns) (U.S., Canadian Authors)
(1888 - 1965): Prufrock and Other Observations
(1917), The Waste Land (1922), Murder in the
Cathedral (1935), Four Quartets (1943)
Ellison, Ralph (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1914 - ): + Invisible Man (1952)
Emerson, Ralph Waldo (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1803 - 82): Self-Reliance (1834), Nature (1836),
The American Scholar (1837), May-Day and Other
Pieces (1867), Society and Solitude (1870)
Faulkner, William (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1897 - 1962): Soldier's Pay (1926), Sartoris
(1929), The Sound and the Fury (1929), As I Lay
Dying (1930), Absalom, Absalom! (1936), The Hamlet
(1940), *A Fable (1954), *The Reivers (1962)
Fitzgerald, F. Scott (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1896 - 1940): Tales of the Jazz Age (1922), The
Great Gatsby (1925), Tender Is the Night (1934),
The Last Tycoon (1941)
Franklin, Benjamin (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1706 - 90): Poor Richard's Almanack (1733 - 58),
Autobiography (1771 - 88)
Frost, Robert (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1874 - 1963): North of Boston (1914), Mountain
Interval (1916), *New Hampshire (1923), *Collected
Poems (1930), *A Further Range (1936), *A Witness
Tree (1942), In the Clearing (1962)
Frye, Northrop (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1912 - ): Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William
Blake (1947), Anatomy of Criticism (1957), The
Great Code: Literature and the Bible (1982)
Gardner, John (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1933 - 82): Grendel (1971), October Light (1976),
Freddy's Book (1980)
Ginsberg, Allen (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1926 - ): Howl and Other Poems (1956), Kaddish
and Other Poems (1961), Collected Poems 1947 - 1980
(1984)
Gordon, Charles William [Ralph Connor] (Authors)
(1860 - 1937): Black Rock: A Tale of the Selkirks
(1898), The Sky Pilot: A Tale of the Foothills
(1899), The Men from Glengarry: A Tale of the
Ottawa (1901), Glengarry School Days: A Story of
Early Days in Glengarry (1902), The Foreigner: A
Tale of Saskatchewan (1909), The Sky Pilot in No
Man's Land (1919)
Hammett, Dashiell (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1894 - 1961): The Maltese Falcon (1930), The Thin
Man (1932)
Hawkes, John [Clendennin Burne, Jr.] (Authors)
(1925 - ): The Lime Twig (1961), The Blood Oranges
(1971), Death, Sleep and the Traveler (1974)
Hawthorne, Nathaniel (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1804 - 64): Twice-Told Tales (1837; enlarged
1842), The Scarlet Letter (1850), The House of the
Seven Gables (1851)
Heinlein, Robert A. (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1907 - ): Stranger in a Strange Land (1961), Time
Enough for Love (1973)
Heller, Joseph (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1923 - ): Catch-22 (1961), Something Happened
(1974)
Hellman, Lillian (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1905 - 84): An Unfinished Woman (1969), Pentimento
(1973), Scoundrel Time (1976)
Hemingway, Ernest (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1899 - 1961): The Sun Also Rises (1926), A
Farewell to Arms (1929), To Have and Have Not
(1937), For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940),* The Old
Man and the Sea (1952), A Moveable Feast (1964)
Henry, O. (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(William Sydney Porter 1862 - 1910): Cabbages and
Kings (1904), The Four Million (1906), The Trimmed
Lamp (1907), The Voice of the City (1908),
Whirligigs (1910), Strictly Business (1910), Sixes
and Sevens (1911), Rolling Stones (1913),
Postscripts (1923)
Hersey, John [Richard] (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1914 - ):* A Bell for Adano (1944), Hiroshima
(1946), The Wall (1950)
Howells, William Dean (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1837 - 1920): The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885), A
Traveler from Altruria (1894)
Hughes, Langston (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1902 - 67): The Weary Blues (1926), The Ways of
White Folks (1934), Shakespeare in Harlem (1941),
Ask Your Mama (1961)
Hurston, Zora Neale (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1901 - 60): Mules and Men (1935), Their Eyes Were
Watching God (1937), Dust Tracks on a Road (1942)
Irving, Washington (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1783 - 1859): History of New York (1809), The
Sketch Book (1819 - 20), The Crayon Miscellany (3
vols., 1835)
Jackson, Shirley (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1919 - 65): The Lottery; or, the Adventures of
James Harris (1949), We Have Always Lived in the
Castle (1953), The Bird's Nest (1954), The Haunting
of Hill House (1959)
James, Henry (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1843 - 1916): The American (1877), The Europeans
(1878), Daisy Miller (1879), The Portrait of a Lady
(1881), The Bostonians (1886), Embarrassments
(1896), The Two Magics (1898), The Awkward Age
(1899), The Ambassadors (1903), The Golden Bowl
(1904)
Jong, Erica (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1942 - ): Fear of Flying (1973), Fanny (1987)
Kerouac, Jack (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1922 - 69): On the Road (1957), The Dharma Bums
(1958), Desolation Angels (1965)
Kosinski, Jerzy (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1933 - ): The Painted Bird (1965), Steps (1968),
Being There (1971)
Lardner, Ring (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1885 - 1933): You Know Me, Al: A Busher's Letters
(1916), How to Write Short Stories (1924)
Leacock, Stephen (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1869 - 1944): Literary Lapses (1910), Nonsense
Novels (1911), Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town
(1912), Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich
(1914), My Discovery of the West (1937)
Lewis, Sinclair (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1885 - 1951): Main Street (1920), Babbitt (1922),
*Arrowsmith (1925), Dodsworth (1929)
London, Jack (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1876 - 1916): The Call of the Wild (1903), The
Sea-Wolf (1904), White Fang (1906), The Iron Heel
(1908), Martin Eden (1909)
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (U.S., Canadian Authors)
(1807 - 82): Voices of the Night (1839), Ballads
and Other Poems (1841), Hiawatha (1855), The
Courtship of Miles Standish (1858), The Tales of
a Wayside Inn (1863)
Lowry, Malcolm (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1909 - 57): Ultramarine (1933), Under the Volcano
(1947), Hear Us O Lord from Heaven Thy Dwelling
Place (1961)
Mailer, Norman (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1923 - ): The Naked and the Dead (1948), An
American Dream (1965), *The Armies of the Night
(1968), *The Executioner's Song (1979)
McCarthy, Mary (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1912 - ): The Groves of Academe (1952), Memories
of a Catholic Girlhood (1957), The Group (1963)
Melville, Herman (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1819 - 91): Typee (1846), Omoo (1847),
White-Jacket (1850), Moby-Dick (1851)
Mencken, H(enry) L(ouis) (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1880 - 1956): The American Language (1919, revised
1921, 1923, 1936; supplements in 1945, 1948)
Michener, James (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1907 - ): *Tales of the South Pacific (1947),
Hawaii (1959), The Drifters (1971), Chesapeake
(1978)
Miller, Henry (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1891 - 1980): Tropic of Cancer (1934), Tropic of
Capricorn (1939)
Mitchell, Margaret (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1900 - 49): *Gone with the Wind (1936)
Montgomery, Lucy Maude (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1874 - 1942): Anne of Green Gables (1908), Emily
of New Moon (1923), The Blue Castle (1926), A
Tangled Web (1931), Jane of Lantern Hill (1937)
Morrison, Toni [Chloe Anthony Wofford] (Authors)
(1931 - ): The Bluest Eye (1969), Sula (1973), Song
of Solomon (1977), Tar Baby (1981),* Beloved (1987)
Oates, Joyce Carol (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1938 - ): A Garden of Earthly Delights (1967),
Expensive People (1968), them (1969), Bellefleur
(1980), On Boxing (1987), You Must Remember This
(1988)
Paine, Thomas (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1737 - 1809): Common Sense (1776), The Age of
Reason (1794 - 95)
Percy, Walker (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1916 - ): The Moviegoer (1961), The Last Gentleman
(1966), Love in the Ruins (1971), The Thanatos
Syndrome (1987)
Plath, Sylvia (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1932 - 63): The Colossus (1960), The Bell Jar
(1963), Ariel (1965)
Poe, Edgar Allan (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1809 - 1849): Poems by Edgar A. Poe (1831), Tales
of the Grotesque and the Arabesque (1840), Tales
(1845), The Raven and Other Poems (1845)
Porter, Katherine Anne (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1890 - 1980): Flowering Judas (1930), Pale Horse,
Pale Rider (1939), Noon Wine (1937), Ship of Fools
(1962), *Collected Stories (1965)
Pound, Ezra (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1885 - 1972): Cantos (1970)
Pratt, E. J. (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1882 - 1964): The Witches' Brew (1925), Titans:
Two Poems (1926), The Fable of the Goats and Other
Poems (1932), The Titanic (1935), Brebeuf and His
Brethren (1940), Towards the Last Spike (1952), The
Collected Poems of E. J. Pratt (1958)
Pynchon, Thomas (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1937 - ); V (1963), + Gravity's Rainbow (1973)
Richler, Mordecai (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1931 - ): A Choice of Enemies (1957), The
Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz (1959), Cocksure
(1968), St. Urbain's Horseman (1971)
Roberts, Sir Charles G. D. (U.S., Canadian Authors)
(1860 - 1943): Orion, and Other Poems (1880), In
Divers Tones (1886), Songs of the Common Day
(1893), Earth's Enigmas (1896), The Vagrant of Time
(1927), The Iceberg, and Other Poems (1934),
Further Animal Stories (1936)
Ross, Sinclair (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1908 - ): As for Me and My House (1941), The Well
(1958), The Lamp at Noon and Other Stories (1968),
Whir of Gold (1970), Sawbones Memorial (1974)
Roth, Philip (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1933 - ): + Goodbye, Columbus (1959), Letting Go
(1962), Portnoy's Complaint (1969), The Great
American Novel (1973), The Ghost Writer (1979), The
Facts: A Novelist's Autobiography (1988)
Salinger, J. D. (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1919 - ): The Catcher in the Rye (1951), Franny
and Zooey (1961)
Sandburg, Carl (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1878 - 1967): Chicago Poems (1916), *Cornhuskers
(1918), *Complete Poems (1950)
Saroyan, William (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1908 - 81): The Daring Young Man on the Flying
Trapeze (1934), The Human Comedy (1943), One Day
in the Afternoon of the World (1964)
Singer, Isaac Bashevis (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1904 - ): Satan in Goray (1935), The Family Moskat
(1950), Gimpel the Fool (1957), The Spinoza of
Market Street (1961), Old Love (1979)
Stein, Gertrude (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1874 - 1946): Three Lives (1909), The
Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas (1933), Yes Is for
a Very Young Man (1946)
Steinbeck, John (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1902 - 68): Tortilla Flat (1935), Of Mice and Men
(1937), The Long Valley (1938), *The Grapes of
Wrath (1939), East of Eden (1952)
Stowe, Harriet Beecher (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1811 - 96): Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852)
Styron, William (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1925 - ): Lie Down in Darkness (1951), *The
Confessions of Nat Turner (1967), Sophie's Choice
(1979)
Thoreau, Henry David (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1817 - 62): Civil Disobedience (1849), Walden
(1854), The Maine Woods (1864)
Twain, Mark [Samuel Langhorne Clemens] (Authors)
(1835 - 1910): The Innocents Abroad (1869),
Roughing It (1872), The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
(1876), The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884),
Following the Equator (1897)
Tyler, Anne (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1941 - ): A Slipping-Down Life (1970), Searching
for Caleb (1976), Morgan's Passing (1980), Dinner
at the Homesick Restaurant (1982), The Accidental
Tourist (1985), *Breathing Lessons (1988)
Updike, John (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1932 - ): Rabbit, Run (1960), Couples (1968),
*Rabbit Is Rich (1981), The Witches of Eastwick
(1984)
Vonnegut, Kurt Jr., (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1922 - ); Cat's Cradle (1963),
Slaughterhouse-Five; or The Children's Crusade
(1969)
Walker, Alice (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1944 - ): Meridian (1976), *The Color Purple
(1982)
Warren, Robert Penn (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1905 - ): *All the King's Men (1946), *Promises
(1957), The Cave (1959)
Webster, Noah (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1758 - 1843): An American Dictionary of the
English Language (2 vols., 1828)
Welty, Eudora (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1909 - ): The Bride of the Innisfallen (1955),
Thirteen Stories (1965), *The Optimist's Daughter
(1970), The Collected Stories of Eudora Welty
(1980), One Writer's Beginnings (1984)
Wharton, Edith (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1862 - 1937): Ethan Frome (1911), Xingu and Other
Stories (1916), *The Age of Innocence (1920)
White, E. B. (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1899 - 1985): One Man's Meat (1942), Here Is New
York (1949), Charlotte's Web (1952), The Elements
of Style (1959)
Whitman, Walt (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1819 - 92): Leaves of Grass (1855), Drum-Taps
(1865), Passage to India (1871), Two Rivulets
(1876), November Boughs (1888)
Wilson, Edmund (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1895 - 1972): Axel's Castle (1931), The Wound and
the Bow (1940), Patriotic Gore (1962)
Wolfe, Thomas (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1900 - 38): Look Homeward, Angel (1929), Of Time
and the River (1935), The Web and the Rock (1939)
Wolfe, Tom [Thomas Kennerly, Jr.] (Authors)
(1931 - ): The Pump House Gang (1968), The Electric
Kool-Aid Acid Test (1968), The Right Stuff (1975),
The Bonfire of the Vanities (1988)
Wouk, Herman (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1915 - ): *The Caine Mutiny (1951), Marjorie
Morningstar (1955), The Winds of War (1971), War
and Remembrance (1978)
Wright, Richard (U.S. and Canadian Authors)
(1908 - 60): Native Son (1940), Black Boy (1945),
The Outsider (1953)
Important European and Russian Authors
This list of important European authors is not
meant to be comprehensive. It includes most
European writers who have made substantial
contributions to the literature of their countries,
their continent, and the world at large. Some of
their most significant works appear here.
The years of first publication are given in
parentheses. Authors known by their pseudonyms are
so listed, with their real names given in brackets.
Andersen, Hans Christian (European, Russian Authors)
(Danish, 1805 - 75): Fairy Tales for Children
(1835 - 42), Tales and Stories (1839), New Fairy
Tales (1843 - 47), New Tales and Stories (1858-
67)
Austen, Jane (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1775 - 1817): Sense and Sensibility
(1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Emma (1816),
Persuasion (1818)
Balzac, Honore de (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1799 - 1850): Droll Tales (1832 - 37),
The Human Comedy (1830 - 50)
Baudelaire, Charles Pierre (European,Russian Authors)
(French, 1821 - 67): Les fleurs du mal (1857), Les
paradis artificiels (1860), Les epaves (1861),
Nouveles fleurs du mal (1866), Petits poemes en
prose (1869)
Belloc, Joseph Hilaire Peter (Authors)
(English, 1870 - 1914): The Bad Child's Book of
Beasts (1896), On Nothing (1908), Cautionary Tales
for Children (1908), On Everything (1909), On
Anything (1910)
Blake, William (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1757 - 1827): Poetical Sketches (1783),
Songs of Innocence (1789), The Marriage of Heaven
and Hell (1793), The Visions of the Daughters of
Albion (1793), Songs of Experience (1794), Milton
(1804)
Blasco Ibanez, Vicente (European, Russian Authors)
(Spanish 1867 - 1928): Flor de Mayo (1896), La
barraca (1898), Canas y barro (1902), La bodega
(1905), Sangre y arena (1908)
Blok, Alexander Alexandrovich (Authors)
(Russian, 1880 - 1921): Verses About the Beautiful
Lady (1904), The Puppet Show (1906), A Frightful
World (c. 1910), Dances of Death (c. 1910), Black
Blood (c. 1910), The Twelve (1917)
Boccaccio, Giovanni (European, Russian Authors)
(Italian, 1313 - 75): Decameron (1349 - 53)
Boll, Heinrich (European, Russian Authors)
(German, 1917 - ): Traveler, If You Come to Spa
(1950), Adam, Where Art Thou? (1951), Billiards at
Half-past Nine (1959), The Clown (1965), Group
Portrait with Lady (1971), The Lost Honor of
Katharina Blum (1974)
Boswell, James (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1740 - 95): The Life of Samuel Johnson
(1791)
Bronte, Charlotte (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1816 - 55): Jane Eyre (1847)
Bronte, Emily (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1818 - 48): Wuthering Heights (1847)
Browning, Elizabeth Barrett (Authors)
(English, 1806 - 61): The Seraphim and Other Poems
(1838), Sonnets from the Portuguese (1850), Aurora
Leigh (1856), Last Poems (1862)
Browning, Robert (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1812 - 89): Bells and Pomegranates
(1841 - 46), Dramatic Lyrics (1842), Dramatic
Romances and Lyrics (1845), Christmas Eve and
Easter Day (1850), Men and Women (1855), Dramatis
Personae (1864)
Burgess, Anthony (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1917 - ): A Clockwork Orange (1962),
Napoleon Symphony: A Novel in Four Movements (1974)
Burns, Robert (European, Russian Authors)
(Scottish, 1759 - 96): Poems, Chiefly in the
Scottish Dialect (1786), The Scots Musical Museum
(1787 - 96)
Byron, Lord [George Gordon] (Authors)
(English, 1788 - 1824): Childe Harold's Pilgrimage,
Cantos I and II (1812), Childe Harold, Cantos III
and IV (1816, 1817), The Prisoner of Chillon
(1816), Manfred (1817), Don Juan (1819 - 24)
Calvino, Italo (European, Russian Authors)
(Italian, 1923 - ): The Path of the Nest of Spiders
(1947), The Watcher and Other Stories (1958),
Cosmicomics (1965), T Zero (1967), Italian
Folktales (1971), Invisible Cities (1974), If on
a Winter's Night a Traveler (1979), Mr. Palomar
(1985)
Camus, Albert (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1913 - 60): The Stranger (1942, revised
1953), The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays
(1942), Caligula (1944), The Plague (1948), The
Rebel (1951), The Fall (1956), Exile and the
Kingdom (1957)
Canetti, Elias (European, Russian Authors)
(German, 1905 - ): Auto-da-Fe (1936), Crowds and
Power (1960)
Capek, Karel (European, Russian Authors)
(Czech, 1890 - 1938): R.U.R. (1921), Tales from One
Pocket (1929), Tales from the Other Pocket (1929),
Hordubal (1933), Meteor (1934), An Ordinary Life
(1934)
Carroll, Lewis [Charles Lutwidge Dodgson] (Authors)
(English, 1832 - 98): Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland (1865), Through the Looking Glass (1872)
Catullus (European, Russian Authors)
(Roman, c. 84 B.C.- 54 B.C.): verse
Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de (Authors)
(Spanish, 1547 - 1616): Don Quixote (1605 - 15),
Exemplary Novels (1613)
Chaucer, Geoffrey (European, Russian Authors)
(English, c. 1340 - 1400): The Canterbury Tales
(after 1387)
Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich (European, Russian Authors)
(Russian, 1860 - 1904): The Shooting Party (1884),
Motley Tales (1886), The Duel (1892), Uncle Vanya
(1896), The Seagull (1896), Three Sisters (1900),
The Cherry Orchard (1904)
Christie, Agatha (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1891 - 1976): The Murder of Roger Ackroyd
(1926), Murder at the Vicarage (1930), The Body in
the Library (1942), Passenger to Frankfurt (1970)
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1772 - 1834): Lyrical Ballads (1798), The
Poetical Works (1834)
Colette (Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette) (Authors)
(French, 1873 - 1954): Claudine (1900 - 03), The
Vagrant (1910), Mitsou (1919), Cheri (1920), A
Lesson in Love (1928), Gigi (1944)
Conrad, Joseph (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1857 - 1924): The Nigger of the
"Narcissus" (1897), Lord Jim (1900), Typhoon
(1903), Nostromo (1904), Chance (1914)
Dante Alighieri (European, Russian Authors)
(Italian, 1265 - 1321): Divine Comedy (c. 1310 -
20)
Defoe, Daniel (European, Russian Authors)
(English, c. 1660 - 1731): Robinson Crusoe (1719),
Moll Flanders (1722), The Fortunate Mistress:
Roxanna (1724)
Dickens, Charles (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1812 - 70): Oliver Twist (1838), Nicholas
Nickleby (1839), A Christmas Carol (1843), David
Copperfield (1850), Bleak House (1853), A Tale of
Two Cities (1859), Great Expectations (1861), Edwin
Drood (1870)
Dinesen, Isak [Karen Blixen] (Authors)
(Danish, 1885 - 1962): Seven Gothic Tales (1934),
Out of Africa (1937), Winter's Tales (1942), Last
Tales (1957)
Donne, John (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1572 - 1631): The Anniversaries (1611,
1612), Songs and Sonnets (1633)
Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Mikhaylovich (Authors)
(Russian, 1821 - 81): Notes from the Underground
(1864), Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot
(1869), The Possessed (1871 - 72), The Brothers
Karamazov (1880)
Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1858 - 1930): Study in Scarlet (1887),
The Sign of the Four (1889), The Adventures of
Sherlock Holmes (1904), The Valley of Fear (1915),
The Case Book of Sherlock Holmes (1927)
Dryden, John (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1631 - 1700): All for Love (1678),
Absalom and Achitophel (1681), The Medal (1682),
MacFlecknoe (1682)
Dumas, Alexandre, pere (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1802 - 70): The Count of Monte-Cristo
(1844 - 45), The Three Musketeers (1844), The
Corsican Brothers (1844)
Eliot, George [Mary Ann Evans] (Authors)
(English, 1819 - 80): Silas Marner (1861),
Middlemarch (1871 - 72)
Fielding, Henry (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1707 - 54): The Tragedy of Tragedies;
or, The Life and Death of Tom Thumb the Great
(1731), Joseph Andrews (1742), Tom Jones (1749)
Flaubert, Gustave (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1821 - 80): Madame Bovary (1857),
Sentimental Education (1869)
Garcia Lorca, Federico (European, Russian Authors)
(Spanish, 1898 - 1936): Canciones (1927), Ode to
Walt Whitman (1933), Llanto por la muerte de
Ignacio Sanchez Mejias (1935), Poet in New York
(1940)
Gide, Andre (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1869 - 1951): The Immortalist (1902),
Straight is the Gate (1909), The Pastoral Symphony
(1919)
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (Authors)
(German, 1749 - 1832): Wilhelm Meister's
Apprenticeship (1795 - 96), Faust, Part I (1819),
Part II (1821)
Gogol, Nikolai (European, Russian Authors)
(Russian, 1809 - 52): Arabesques (1835), Mirgorod
(1835), The Inspector General (1836), Dead Souls
(1842), Collected Works (1842)
Golding, William (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1911 - ): Lord of the Flies (1954)
Gombrowicz, Witold (European, Russian Authors)
(Polish, 1904 - 69): Memoir from Adolescence
(1933), Ferdydurke (1937), Pornografia (1960)
Gorky, Maxim (European, Russian Authors)
(Russian, 1868 - 1936): Foma Gordeyev (1899),
Twenty-Six Men and a Girl and Other Stories (1902),
The Lower Depths (1902), Mother (1906)
Grass, Gunter (European, Russian Authors)
(German, 1927 - ): The Tin Drum (1959), The
Flounder (1977)
Grimm, Wilhelm (European, Russian Authors)
(German, 1786 - 1859); Fairy Tales (3 vols., 1812,
1815, 1822), Fairy Tales (2 vols.,1816, 1818)
Hamsun, Knut (European, Russian Authors)
(Norwegian, 1859 - 1952): Hunger (1890), Mysteries
(1892), The Growth of the Soil (1917)
Hardy, Thomas (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1840 - 1928): Far from the Madding Crowd
(1874), The Return of the Native, (1878), Tess of
the D'Urbervilles (1891), Jude the Obscure (1896)
Hasek, Jaroslav (European, Russian Authors)
(Czech, 1883 - 1923): The Good Soldier Svejk and
Other Strange Stories (1912), The Good Soldier
Svejk and His Fortunes in the World War (4 vols.,
1921 - 23)
Hesse, Hermann (European, Russian Authors)
(German, 1877 - 1962): Demian (1919), Siddhartha
(1922), Steppenwolf (1927)
Homer (European, Russian Authors)
(Greek, c. 700 B.C.): The Iliad, The Odyssey
Hugo, Victor Marie (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1802 - 85): The Hunchback of Notre-Dame
(1831), Lucretia Borgia (1833), Les Miserables
(1862)
Ibsen, Henrik Johan (European, Russian Authors)
(Norwegian, 1828 - 1906): Peer Gynt (1867), A
Doll's House (1879), An Enemy of the People (1882),
The Wild Duck (1884), Hedda Gabler (1890)
Johnson, Samuel (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1709 - 84): A Dictionary of the English
Language (1755)
Joyce, James (European, Russian Authors)
(Irish, 1882 - 1941): Dubliners (1914), Portrait
of the Artist as a Young Man (1916), Ulysses
(1922), Finnegan's Wake (1939)
Kafka, Franz (European, Russian Authors)
(German, 1883 - 1924): Metamorphosis (1916), The
Judgment (1916), In the Penal Colony (1919), The
Trial (1925), The Castle (1926), Amerika (1927)
Keats, John (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1795 - 1821): The Poems of John Keats
(1817), Endymion (1818), The Fall of Hyperion
(1819 - 21), Lamia, Isabella, and The Eve of St.
Agnes and Other Poems (1820)
Kipling, Rudyard (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1865 - 1936): Plain Tales from the Hills
(1888), The Phantom Rickshaw (1889), Barrack-Room
Ballads (1892), The Jungle Book (1894), The Second
Jungle Book (1895), Captains Courageous (1897),
Kim (1901), Just So Stories (1902)
Lawrence, D(avid) H(erbert) (Authors)
(English, 1885 - 1930): Sons and Lovers (1913),
Women in Love (1920), Lady Chatterley's Lover
(1928)
Lessing, Doris (European, Russian Authors)
(British, 1919 - ): The Grass Is Singing (1950),
Martha Quest (1952), The Golden Notebook (1962),
Briefing for a Descent into Hell (1971), The Good
Terrorist (1986)
Malory, Sir Thomas (European, Russian Authors)
(English, ? - 1471): Le Morte d'Arthur (1485)
Malraux, Andre (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1901 - 76): Man's Fate (1933), Man's Hope
(1937)
Mandelstam, Osip Emilevich (Authors)
(Russian, 1891 - 1938): Kamen (1913), Tristia
(1922), Journey to Armenia (1933)
Mann, Thomas (European, Russian Authors)
(German, 1875 - 1955): Buddenbrooks (1900), Death
in Venice (1913), The Magic Mountain (1924)
Manzoni, Alessandro (European, Russian Authors)
(Italian, 1785 - 1873): The Betrothed (1827)
Maugham, William Somerset (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1874 - 1965): Of Human Bondage (1915),
Cakes and Ale (1930), The Summing Up (1938), The
Razor's Edge (1944)
Maupassant, Henri Rene Albert Guy de (Authors)
(French, 1850 - 93): Boule de suif (1880), La
Maison Tellier (1881), Bel-Ami (1885), Pierre et
Jean (1888)
Mauriac, Francois Charles (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1885 - 1970): The Family (1923), Therese
(1927), The Desert of Love (1929), A Woman of the
Pharisees (1941)
Milton, John (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1608 - 74): Paradise Lost (1667),
Paradise Regained (1671)
Montaigne, Michel de (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1533 - 92): Essais (1580)
Nabokov, Vladimir Vladimirovich (Authors)
(Russian, 1899 - 1977): Lolita (1955), Invitation
to a Beheading (1959), Pale Fire (1962), Speak,
Memory (1969)
Orwell, George (European, Russian Authors)
(Eric Blair) (English, 1903 - 50): Animal Farm
(1945), 1984 (1949)
Ovid (European, Russian Authors)
(Roman, 43 B.C. - A.D. 17): Amores (c. 16 B.C.),
Heroines, Metamorphoses
Pasternak, Boris Leonidovich (Authors)
(Russian, 1890 - 1960): My Sister-Life (1922),
Doctor Zhivago (1957)
Petronius (European, Russian Authors)
(Roman, ? - 66): Satyricon (c. 50)
Plato (European, Russian Authors)
(Greek, c. 428 - 347 B.C.): Parmenides (c. 370
B.C.), The Republic, Apologia (c. 399 B.C.)
Plutarch (European, Russian Authors)
(Greek, c. 48 - 122): Moralia, Parallel Lives
Pope, Alexander (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1688 - 1744): An Essay on Criticism
(1711), The Rape of the Lock (1712)
Proust, Marcel (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1871 - 1922): Remembrance of Things Past
(7 vols., 1913 - 27)
Rabelais, Francois (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1494? - 1553): Gargantua and Pantagruel
(1532 - 64)
Racine, Jean (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1639 - 99): Bajazet (1672), Mithridate
(1673), Iphigenie en Aulide (1674), Phedre (1677)
Rilke, Rainer Maria (European, Russian Authors)
(German, 1875 - 1926): Das Buch der Bilder (1902),
New Poems (2 vols., 1907 - 08), Duino Elegies
(1923), Sonnets to Orpheus (1923)
Rostand, Edmond (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1868 - 1918): Cyrano de Bergerac (1897),
The Princess Faraway (1921)
Sand, George [Amandine-Aurore-Lucie Dupin] (Authors)
(French 1804 - 76): Indiana (1832), Lelia (1833),
The Companion of the Tour of France (1841),
Consuelo (1842 - 43), He and She (1859), The
Marquis of Villemer (1860 - 61)
Sappho (European, Russian Authors)
(Greek, c. 612 B.C. - ?): verse
Sartre, Jean-Paul (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1905 - 80): Nausea (1938), The Flies
(1943), Being and Nothingness (1943), No Exit
(1944), The Condemned of Altona (1961)
Scott, Sir Walter (European, Russian Authors)
(Scottish, 1771 - 1832): The Heart of Midlothian
(1818), The Bride of Lammermoor (1819), Ivanhoe
(1819), Kenilworth (1821)
Shakespeare, William (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1564 - 1616): Richard III (1592 - 93),
Romeo and Juliet (1594 - 95), The Two Gentlemen of
Verona (1594 - 95), A Midsummer Night's Dream
(1595 - 96), Hamlet (1600 - 01), Macbeth
(1605 - 06), Sonnets (1609), The Winter's Tale
(1610 - 11), Henry VIII (1612 - 13)
Shaw, George Bernard (European, Russian Authors)
(Irish, 1856 - 1950): Plays Pleasant and Unpleasant
(1898), Man and Superman (1901 - 03), Major Barbara
(1905), Pygmalion (1912)
Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft (Authors)
(English, 1797 - 1851): Frankenstein, or the
Modern Prometheus (1818)
Shelley, Percy Bysshe (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1792 - 1822): Prometheus Unbound (1820),
Adonais (1821)
Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. (Authors)
(Russian, 1918 - ): One Day in the Life of Ivan
Denisovich (1962), The Cancer Ward (1968), The
Gulag Archipelago (1973 - 76)
Spenser, Edmund (European, Russian Authors)
(English, c. 1552 - 99): The Faerie Queene (1590)
Stevenson, Robert Louis (European, Russian Authors)
(Scottish, 1850 - 94): Treasure Island (1883), The
Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886)
Strindberg, August (European, Russian Authors)
(Swedish, 1849 - 1912): Master Olof (1874), Married
(1884 - 86), The Father (1887), Comrades (1888),
Miss Julie (1888)
Swift, Jonathan (European, Russian Authors)
(Irish, 1667 - 1745): Gulliver's Travels (1726)
Swinburne, Algernon Charles (Authors)
(English, 1837 - 1909): Atalanta in Calydon (1865),
Poems and Ballads: First Series (1866), Poems and
Ballads: Second Series (1878), Astrophel (1894),
A Tale of Balen (1896)
Synge, John Millington (European, Russian Authors)
(Irish, 1871 - 1909): Riders to the Sea (1904),
The Playboy of the Western World (1907)
Tennyson, Alfred (Lord) (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1809 - 92): Poems, Chiefly Lyrical
(1830), Poems (1832), Poems (1842), Locksley Hall
(1842), In Memoriam (1833 - 50), Maud, and Other
Poems (1855), Idylls of the King (1859 - 85)
Thackeray, William Makepeace (Authors)
(English, 1811 - 63): Barry Lyndon (1844), Vanity
Fair (1847 - 48)
Thomas, Dylan Marlais (European, Russian Authors)
(English-Welsh, 1914 - 53): Eighteen Poems (1934),
Twenty-five Poems (1936), A Child's Christmas in
Wales (1952), Under Milk Wood (1954)
Tocqueville, Alexis de (European, Russian Authors)
(1805 - 1859): De la democratie en Amerique (2
vols., 1835; 2 supplementary vols., 1840)
Tolstoy, Leo [Count Lev Nikolayevich] (Authors)
(Russian, 1828 - 1910): War and Peace (1863 - 69),
Anna Karenina (1875 - 77)
Trollope, Anthony (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1815 - 82): The Warden (1855), Barchester
Towers (1857)
Turgenev, Ivan (European, Russian Authors)
(Russian, 1818 - 83): A Month in the Country
(1850), A Sportsman's Sketches (1852), A Nest of
Gentlefolk (1858), On the Eve (1860), Fathers and
Sons (1862), Smoke (1867)
Undset, Sigrid (European, Russian Authors)
(Norwegian, 1882 - 1949): Kristin Lavransdatter
(1920 - 22), Olaf Andunsson (1925 - 27)
Verne, Jules (European, Russian Authors)
(French, 1828 - 1905): A Voyage to the Center of
the Earth (1864), Twenty Thousand Leagues Under
the Sea (1870), Around the World in Eighty Days
(1873)
Virgil [Publius Vergilius Maro] (Authors)
(Roman, 70 - 19 B.C.): Georgics (37 - 30 B.C.),
Bucolics (37 B.C.), Aeneid (30 - 19 B.C.)
Voltaire (European, Russian Authors)
(Francois-Marie Arouet, French, 1694 - 1778):
Candide (1759)
Wilde, Oscar (European, Russian Authors)
(Irish, 1854 - 1900): The Portrait of Dorian Gray
(1891), Salome (1893), The Importance of Being
Earnest (1899)
Woolf, Virginia (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1882 - 1941): Mrs. Dalloway (1925), To
the Lighthouse (1927), A Room of One's Own (1929)
Wordsworth, William (European, Russian Authors)
(English, 1770 - 1850): Lyrical Ballads (1798),
Poems Chiefly of Early and Late Years (1842)
Yeats, William Butler (European, Russian Authors)
(Irish, 1865 - 1939): The Wind Among the Reeds
(1899), The Wild Swans at Coole (1919), The Winding
Stair (1933), Collected Poems (1933)
Zola, Emile Edouard Charles Antoine (Authors)
(French, 1840 - 1902): Therese Raquin (1867),
Nana (1880), Germinal (1885)
Important Asian, African, and Latin American Authors
Armah, Ayi Kweh (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Ghanaian, 1939- ):
The Beautiful Ones Are Not Yet Born(1968),
Why Are We So Blest? (1972)
Basho [Matsuo Munefusal] (Asian Authors)
(Japanese, 1644-94)
The Narrow Road to the Deep North (1694)
Beti, Mongo [Alexandre Biyidi] (African Authors)
(Cameroonian, 1932- )
Le pauvre Christ de Bomba (1956, Mission
terminée (1957), Le roi miraculé (1958)
Borges, Jorge Luis (Latin American Authors)
(Argentinian, 1899-1987)
A Universal History of Infamy (1935),
Six Problems for Don Isidro Parodi (1942),
Ficciones (1935-44), The Aleph and Other
Stories (1949), Labyrinthe (1962), The
Book of Sand (1975)
Cesaire, Aimé (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(West Indian, 1913- )
Return to My Native Land (1939), State of the
Vinou (1946), The Tragedy of King Christophe (1963)
Chatterje, Bankim-Chandra (Asian/African Authors)
(Indian, 1838-94)
The Chieftain's Daughter (1880), Kopal-Kundala:
A tale of Bengali Life (1885), Drishna Kante's
Will (1895)
Confucius (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Chinese, c. 551-479 B.C.)
The Analects of Confucius
Fuentes, Carlos (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Mexican, 1929- )
The Death of Artemio Cruz (1962),
Distant Relations (1980)
García, Márquez, Gabriel (Latin American Authors)
(Colombian, 1928- )
One Hundred Years of Solitude (1968), The Autumn
of the Patriarch (1975), Love in the Time of
Cholera (1988)
Guzmán, Martín Luis (Latin American Authors)
(Mexican, 1887-1976)
The Eagle and the Serpent (1928), Memorias de
Pancho Villa (4 vols., 1938-40)
Kawabata, Yasunari (Asian/Latin American Authors)
(Japanese, 1899-1972)
Snow Country (1937), Thousand Cranes (1952),
Beauty and Sadness (1965)
Lao-tzu (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Chinese, c. 6th century B.C.)
Tao-te-ching
Laye, Camara (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Guinean, 1928- )
The African Child (1953), The Radiance of the
King (1954), The Guardian of the Word (1980)
Li Po (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Chinese, 701-762)
Complete Works
Machado de Assis, Joaquim Maria (Authors)
(Brazilian, 1839-1908)
The Posthumous Memoirs of Braz Cubas (1881),
Philosopher or Dog? (1891), Dom Casmurro (1899)
Marquéz, Gabriel García
See García Márquez, Gabriel
Mishima, Yukio (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Japanese, 1925-70)
Confession of a Mask (1948), Forbidden
Colors (2 vols., 1951-53), The Sailor Who Fell
from Grace with the Sea (1963), The Sea of
Fertility (4 vols., 1969-71)
Murasaki, Shikibu (Asian/Latin American Authors)
(Japanese, c. 978-1026)
The Tale of the Genji (c. 1010)
Naipaul, V.S. (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Trinidadian, 1932- )
The Mystic Masseur (1957), A House for
Mr. Biswas (1961), The Middle Passage (1962),
In a Free State (1971)
Natsume Soseki (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Japanese, 1867-1916)
I Am a Cat (1905-07), The Three-Cornered
World (1907), And Then (1910)
Neruda, Pablo [Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basoalto]
(Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Chilean, 1904-73)
Twenty Love Poems and a Story of Despair (1924),
Canto General (1950), Elementary Odes (3 vols.,
1954-57), We Are Many (1967), End of the
World (1969)
Omar Khayyam (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Persian, 1048-1131)
Rubaiyat (1859)
Paton, Alan Stewart (African/Latin American Authors)
(South African, 1903-88)
Cry the Beloved Country (1948)
Paz, Octavio (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Mexican, 1914- )
The Labyrinth of Solitude (1850),
Sun-Stone (1957), Salamandra 1958-1961 (1962),
Ladera esta 1962-1968 (1969), Vuelta (1976)
Sembene, Ousmane (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Senegalese, 1923- )
Le docher noir (1956), L'Harmattan (1964),
The Money Order (1965)
Senghor, Leopold Sedar (African/Latin American Authors)
(Senegalese, 1906- )
Chants d'ombre (1945), Nocturnes (1961),
Liberte I. Negritude et Humanisme (1964)
Soyinka, Wole (Asian/African/Latin American Authors)
(Nigerian 1934- )
Three Plays (1963), The Road (1965), The Forest
of a Thousand Daemons (1968)
Tanizaki Junichiro (Asian/Latin American Authors)
(Japanese, 1886-1965)
Tattoo (1911), The Secret History of the
Lord Musashi (1935), The Key (1956), Seven
Japanese Tales (1963)
Ts'so Hsueh-ch'in (Asian/Latin American Authors)
(Chinese, c. 1715-63)
The Dream of Red Chamber (c. 1763)
Vargas Llosa, Mario (African/Latin American Authors)
(Peruvian, 1936- )
The Green House (1966), Conversations in the
Cathedral (1969)
Literary Terms
allegory (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A story with an underlying meaning symbolized by the
characters and action.
alliteration (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The use of a repeated consonant, usually at the
start of a word.
allusion (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Reference to a familiar person or event, often from
literature.
anachronism (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A chronological error in literature that places a
person, event, or object in an impossible historical
context.
anagram (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A word created by transposing the letters of another
word.
analogy (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The relation of one thing to something familiar.
antagonist (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The major character opposing a hero or a
protagonist.
anthropomorphism (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The assigning of human characteristics and feelings
to animals and nonhuman things.
anticlimax (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Something that works against a climax, such as
humor; a sudden descent from the lofty to the
trivial.
antihero (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A protagonist lacking in heroic qualities like
courage, idealism, and honesty.
autobiography (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The story of one's life as written by oneself.
ballad (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A poem, often meant to be sung, that tells a story.
bathos (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A sudden descent from the lofty to the ordinary or
ridiculous.
belles-lettre (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Literature.
bibliography (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A list of books on a similar subject or by a given
author or authors.
blank verse (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Unrhymed poetry, especially poetry written in iambic
pentameter.
cacophony (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Discordant sounds, sometimes used in poetry for
effect.
caesura (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A pause in a line of verse, usually in the middle of
a line, caused when a word ends within a metrical
foot.
climax (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The point of high emotional intensity at which a
story or play reaches its peak.
couplet (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Two successive lines of poetry, usually rhymed.
denouement (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The events following a climax.
doggerel (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Crudely written poetry.
elegy (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A poetic lament.
epic (Literary Terms) (Literature)
An extended narrative poem.
epistolary novel (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A novel written in the form of correspondence.
essay (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A short written work of nonfiction, usually on one
topic.
euphony (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Harmonious sounds, often used in poetry for effect.
fable (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A prose or poetic story that illustrates a moral.
fiction (Literary Terms) (Literature)
An invented work of prose, verse, or drama.
free verse (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A poem without regular meter or line length.
haiku (Literary Terms) (Literature)
An unrhymed poem form, originated by the Japanese,
consisting of three lines of five, seven, and five
syllables that record the essence of a moment.
hero (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A character, often the protagonist, who exhibits
qualities such as courage, idealism, and honesty.
high comedy (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Comedy that is characterized by intellect or wit.
historical novel (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A narrative that places fictional characters or
events in historically accurate surroundings.
hyperbole (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A deliberate overstatement.
iamb (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A metrical foot that contains one short or
unstressed syllable preceding one long or stressed
syllable.
iambic pentameter (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Poetry consisting five parts per line, each part
having one short or unstressed syllable and one long
or stressed syllable.
imagery (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Figurative language used to evoke particular mental
pictures.
irony (Literary Terms) (Literature)
An expression of a meaning that contradicts the
literal meaning.
literature (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Novels, stories, poems, and plays of high standards
that entertain, inform, stimulate, or provide
aesthetic pleasure.
low comedy (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Humorous material that employs physical actions or
jokes of questionable taste.
malapropism (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A mistaken substitution of one word for another that
sounds similar, generally with humorous effect.
metaphor (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A comparison between two unlike things.
meter (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in
poetry.
motif (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A recurring or central theme that runs throughout a
work or series of works.
myth (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A legend, usually made up in part of historical
events, that helps define the beliefs of a people
and that often has evolved as an explanation for
rituals and natural phenomena.
nonfiction (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A historically accurate narrative.
novel (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A long work of fictional prose.
novella (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A short novel; also, the early tales or short
stories of French and Italian writers.
ode (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A lyric poem marked by strong feelings and an
involved style.
onomatopoeia (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Formation of a word by imitating the natural sound
associated with the object or action involved; the
use of words that are so named.
oxymoron (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A figure of speech that employs two contradictory
terms.
palindrome (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A word, a sentence, or a group of sentences
(sometimes in verse) that reads the same backward
and forward.
parable (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A short story that illustrates a moral.
paradox (Literary Terms) (Literature)
An apparently contradictory statement that contains
a truth that reconciles the contradiction.
parody (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A humorous, often exaggerated, imitation of a
serious literary work.
pathetic fallacy (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The assigning of human attributes to nature.
pathos (Literary Terms) (Literature)
An element that evokes feelings of pity, tenderness,
and sympathy.
personification (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The assigning of human attributes to abstractions,
objects, and other nonhuman things.
plot (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The organization of individual incidents in a
narrative or play.
poem (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A rhythmic expression of feelings or ideas, often
using metaphor, meter, and rhyme.
poetic license (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The practice of violating rules, expectations, or
conventions to achieve a desired effect.
prologue (Literary Terms) (Literature)
An introductory speech or monologue, given by an
actor or actress before a play, which helps to set
the stage for what is to come.
prose (Literary Terms) (Literature)
As distinguished from poetry, literary writing that
varies in rhythm and is more like ordinary speech.
protagonist (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The main character of a play, novel, story, usually
the hero.
pun (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A humorous and often clever play on words in which
one word evokes another with a similar sound but a
different meaning.
refrain (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A phrase or verse that is repeated throughout a poem
or song.
rhetorical question (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A question put forth to achieve an effect or make a
point, to which an answer is not expected.
rhyme (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The repetition of similar or identical sounds at the
ends of lines of verse.
rhythm (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in
a line of poetry or prose.
satire (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Ridicule of a subject; the work in which it is
contained.
short story (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A brief work of narrative prose.
simile (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A comparison of two unlike things that usually
employs like or as.
soliloquy (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A dramatic monologue meant to convey the thoughts of
a character in a play.
sonnet (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A poem consisting of fourteen iambic pentameter
lines with a rigidly prescribed rhyming scheme.
spondee (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A type of metrical foot with two stressed syllables.
spoonerism (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The transposition of the initial sounds of two or
more words, often with humorous results. Names for a
Professor Spooner of Oxford, who was famous for such
transpositions.
style (Literary Terms) (Literature)
An author's individual method and tone.
subplot (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A secondary plot in a story.
symbol (Literary Terms) (Literature)
In literature, something that stands for, or means,
something else.
theme (Literary Terms) (Literature)
The central idea or thesis of a work.
trochee (Literary Terms) (Literature)
A metrical foot that contains one long or stressed
syllable preceding one short or unstressed syllable.
verse (Literary Terms) (Literature)
Lines of writing arranged in metrical patterns, or a
single such line.
Pseudonyms of Famous Authors (Literature)
Most of the authors in this list published under
both their real names and pseudonyms.
Real Name Pseudonym or Pen Name
Kingsley Amis Robert Markham
Hans Christian Anderson Villiam Christian
Walter
Isaac Asimov Dr. A. Paul French
Louis Auchincloss Andrew Lee
L. Frank Baum Edith Van Dyne
Robert Benchley Guy Fawkes
Ambrose Bierce Dod Grile
Eric Arthur Blair George Orwell
Anne Brontë Acton Bell, Lady
Geralda, Olivia
Vernon, Alexandria
Zenobia
Charlotte Brontë C.B., Currer Bell,
Marquis of Douro,
Genius, Lord
Charles Wellesley
Emily Jane Brontë R. Alcon, Ellis Bell
William S. Burroughs William Lee
Barbara Cartland Barbara Hamilton
McCorquodale
Agatha Christie Agatha Christie
Mallowen, Mary
Westmacott
Samuel Langhorne Clemens Mark Twain
Howard Fast E.V. Cunningham
Erle Stanley Gardner A.A. Fair, Charles
M. Green, Charleton
Kendrake, Charles
J. Kenny
Theodor Seuss Geisel Theo LeSieg, Dr.
Seuss
Edward St. John Gorey Eduard Blutig, Mrs.
Regera Dowdy,
Redway Grode,
O. Mude,
Hyacinthe Phypps,
Ogdred Weary,
Dreary Wodge
Dashiell Hammett Peter Collinson
Robert A. Heinlein Anson MacDonald
Eleanor Alice Burford Eleanor Burford,
Hibbert Philippa Carr,
Elbur Ford,
Victoria Holt,
Kathleen Kellow,
Jean Plaidy,
Ellalice Tate
L. Ron Hubbard Elron, Tom
Esterbrook, Rene
La Fayette, Capt.
B.A. Northrop, Kurt
von Rachem
Ford Madox Hueffer Ford Madox Ford
E. Howard Hunt John Baxter, Gordon
Davis, Robert
Dietrich, David St.
John
Evan Hunter Hunt Collins, Richard
Marsten, Ed McBain
LeRoi Jones Imamu Amiri Baraka
Teodor Jozef Konrad Joseph Conrad
Korzeniowski
Louis L'Amour Tex Burns
T.E. Lawrence J.H. Ross, T.E. Shaw
Manfred Lee and Frederic Ellery Queen, Barnady
Dannay Ross
Kenneth Millar John Ross Macdonald,
Ross Macdonald
Edna St. Vincent Millay Nancy Boyd
Mystery Writers of America, Theo Durrant
California chapter
Conor Cruise O'Brien Donat O'Donnell
Dorothy Parker Constant Reader
Eric Partridge Vigilans
William Sydney Porter O. Henry
William Saroyan Sirak Goryan
Terry Southern Maxwell Kenton
Irving Stone Irving Tannenbaum
Gore Vidal Edgar Box
Nathan Wallenstein Nathaniel West
Weinstein
J.A. Wight James Herriot
John Burgess Wilson Anthony Burgess,
Joseph Kell
Willard Huntington Wright S.S. Van Dine
Poet Laureates (Literature)
In 1616 Ben Jonson was named England's first poet
laureate; however, the title did not become an
official royal office until 1668, when John Dryden
assumed the honored post. Since that time, the
office has been awarded for life. The poet laureate
is responsible for composing poems for court and
national occasions. At the time of each laureate's
death, it is the duty of the prime minister to
nominate successors from which the reigning
sovereign will choose. It is the Lord Chamberlain
who appoints the poet laureate by issuing a warrant
to the laureate-elect. The life appointment is
always announced in the London Gazette.
Laureateship Poet Birth and Death Dates
1668-88 John Dryden 1631-1700
1688-92 Thomas Shadwell 1643?-92
1692-1715 Nahum Tate 1652-1715
1715-18 Nicholas Rowe 1674-1718
1718-30 Laurence Eusden 1688-1730
1730-57 Colley Cibber 1671-1757
1757-85* William Whitehead 1715-85
1785-90 Thomas Warton 1728-90
1790-1813 Henry James Pye 1745-1813
1813-43 Robert Southey 1774-1843
1843-50 William Wordsworth 1770-1850
1850-92** Alfred, Lord Tennyson 1809-92
1896-1913 Alfred Austin 1835-1913
1913-30 Robert Bridges 1844-1930
1930-67 John Masefield 1878-1967
1968-72 Cecil Day-Lewis 1904-72
1972-84 Sir John Betjeman 1906-84
1984- Ted Hughes (b. 1930)
* The 1757 appointment was declined by Thomas
Gray.
** The 1850 appointment was declined by Samuel
Russell.
Book Awards and Their Recipients
Nobel Prize in Literature (Literature)
1901 Rene F.A. Sully-Prudhomme, France
1902 Theodor Mommsen, Germany
1903 Bjornsterne Bjornson, Norway
1904 Frederic Mistral, France
Jose Echegaray, Spain
1905 Henryk Sienkiewicz, Poland
1906 Giosue Carducci, Italy
1907 Rudyard Kipling, Great Britain
1908 Rudolph C. Eueken, Germany
1909 Selma Lagerlof, Sweden
1910 Paul J.L. Heyse, Germany
1911 Maurice Maeterlinck, Belgium
1912 Gerhart Hauptmann, Germany
1913 Rabindranath Tagore, India
1914 No award
1915 Romain Rolland, France
1916 Verner von Heidenstamm, Sweden
1917 Karl A. Gjellerup, Denmark
Henrik Pontoppidan, Denmark
1918 No award
1919 Carl F. G. Spitteler, Switzerland
1920 Knut Hamsun, Norway
1921 Anatole France, France
1922 Jacinto Benavente y Martinez, Spain
1923 William Butler Yeats, Ireland
1924 Wladyslaw S. Reymont, Poland
1925 George Bernard Shaw, Great Britain
1926 Grazia Deledda, Italy
1927 Henri Bergson, France
1928 Sigrid Undset, Norway
1929 Thomas Mann, Germany
1930 Sinclair Lewis, U.S.
1931 Erik A. Karlfeldt, Sweden
1932 John Galsworthy, Great Britain
1933 Ivan A. Bunin, France
1934 Luigi Pirandello, Italy
1935 No award
1936 Eugene O'Neill, U.S.
1937 Roger Martin de Gard, France
1938 Pearl S. Buck, U.S.
1939 Frans E. Sillanpaa, Finland
1940 No award
1941 No award
1942 No award
1943 No award
1944 Johannes V. Jensen, Denmark
1945 Gabriela Mistral, Chile
1946 Hermann Hesse, Switzerland
1947 Andre Gide, France
1948 T.S. Eliot, Great Britain
1949 William Faulkner, U.S.
1950 Bertrand Russell, Great Britain
1951 Par F. Lagerkvist, Sweden
1952 Francois Mauriac, France
1953 Sir Winston Churchill, Great Britain
1954 Ernest Hemingway, U.S.
1955 Halldor K. Laxness, Iceland
1956 Juan Ramon Jimenez, Puerto Rico
1957 Albert Camus, France
1958 Boris L. Pasternak, U.S.S.R. (prize
declined)
1959 Salvatore Quasimodo, Italy
1960 Saint-John Perse, France
1961 Ivo Andric, Yugoslavia
1962 John Steinbeck, U.S.
1963 Giorgos Seferis, Greece
1964 Jean-Paul Sartre, France (prize
declined)
1965 Mikhail Sholokhov, U.S.S.R.
1966 Samuel Joseph Agnon, Israel
Nelly Sachs, Sweden
1967 Miguel Angel Asturias, Guatemala
1968 Yasunari Kawabata, Japan
1969 Samuel Beckett, Ireland
1970 Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn, U.S.S.R.
1971 Pablo Neruda, Chile
1972 Heinrich Boll, Federal Republic of
Germany
1973 Patrick White, Australia
1974 Eyvind Johnson, Sweden
Harry Edmund Martinson, Sweden
1975 Eugenio Montale, Italy
1976 Saul Bellow, U.S.
1977 Vicente Aleixandre, Spain
1978 Isaac Bashevis Singer, U.S.
1979 Odysseus Elytis, Greece
1980 Czeslaw Milosz, Poland-U.S.
1981 Elias Canetti, Bulgaria-Great Britain
1982 Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Colombia-Mexico
1983 William Golding, Great Britain
1984 Jaroslav Siefert, Czechoslovakia
1985 Claude Simon, France
1986 Wole Soyonka, Nigeria
1987 Joseph Brodsky, U.S.
1988 Naguib Mahfouz, Egypt
Pulitzer Prize in Letters
Fiction (Pulitzer Prize in Letters) (Literature)
1918 Ernest Poole, His Family
1919 Booth Tarkington, The Magnificent
Ambersons
1920 No award
1921 Edith Wharton, The Age of Innocence
1922 Booth Tarkington, Alice Adams
1923 Willa Cather, One of Ours
1924 Margaret Wilson, The Able McLaughlins
1925 Edna Ferber, So Big
1926 Sinclair Lewis, Arrowsmith (prize
declined)
1927 Louis Bromfield, Early Autumn
1928 Thornton Wilder, Bridge of San Luis
Rey
1929 Julia M. Peterkin, Scarlet Sister Mary
1930 Oliver LaFarge, Laughing Boy
1931 Margaret Ayer Barnes, Years of Grace
1932 Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth
1933 T.S. Stribling, The Store
1934 Caroline Miller, Lamb in His Bosom
1935 Josephine W. Johnson, Now in November
1936 Harold L. Davis, Honey in the Horn
1937 Margaret Mitchell, Gone with the Wind
1938 John P. Marquand, The Late George Apley
1939 Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, The Yearling
1940 John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath
1941 No award
1942 Ellen Glasgow, In This Our Life
1943 Upton Sinclair, Dragon's Teeth
1944 Martin Flavin, Journey in the Dark
1945 John Hersey, A Bell for Adano
1946 No award
1947 Robert Penn Warren, All the King's Men
1948 James A. Michener, Tales of the South
Pacific
1949 James Gould Cozzens, Guard of Honor
1950 A.B. Guthrie, Jr., The Way West
1951 Conrad Richter, The Town
1952 Herman Wouk, The Caine Mutiny
1953 Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the
Sea
1954 No award
1955 William Faulkner, A Fable
1956 MacKinlay Kantor, Andersonville
1957 No award
1958 James Agee, A Death in the Family
1959 Robert Lewis Taylor, The Travels of
Jaimie McPheeters
1960 Allen Drury, Advise and Consent
1961 Harper Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird
1962 Edwin O'Connor, The Edge of Sadness
1963 William Faulkner, The Reivers
1964 No award
1965 Shirley Ann Grau, The Keepers of the
House
1966 Katherine Anne Porter, Collected
Stories of Katherine Anne Porter
1967 Bernard Malamud, The Fixer
1968 William Styron, The Confessions of Nat
Turner
1969 N. Scott Momaday, House Made of Dawn
1970 Jean Stafford, Collected Stories
1971 No award
1972 Wallace Stegner, Angle of Repose
1973 Eudora Welty, The Optimist's Daughter
1974 No award
1975 Michael Shaara, The Killer Angels
1976 Saul Bellow, Humboldt's Gift
1977 No award
1978 James Alan McPherson, Elbow Room
1979 John Cheever, The Stories of John
Cheever
1980 Norman Mailer, The Executioner's Song
1981 John Kennedy Toole, A Confederacy of
Dunces
1982 John Updike, Rabbit Is Rich
1983 Alice Walker, The Color Purple
1984 William Kennedy, Ironweed
1985 Alison Lurie, Foreign Affairs
1986 Larry McMurtry, Lonesome Dove
1987 Peter Taylor, A Summons to Memphis
1988 Toni Morrison, Beloved
1989 Anne Tyler, Breathing Lessons
General Nonfiction (Pulitzer Prize in Letters)
1962 Theodore White, The Making of the
President 1960
1963 Barbara W. Tuchman, The Guns of August
1964 Richard Hofstadter,
Anti-Intellectualism in American Life
1965 Howard Mumford Jones, O Strange New
World
1966 Edwin Way Teale, Wandering Through
Winter
1967 David Brion Davis, The Problem of
Slavery in Western Culture
1968 Will and Ariel Durant, Rousseau and
Revolution
1969 Norman Mailer, The Armies of the Night
Rene Jules Dubois, So Human an Animal:
How We are Shaped by Surroundings and
Events
1970 Eric H. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth
1971 John Toland, The Rising Sun
1972 Barbara W. Tuchman, Sitwell and the
American Experience in China, 1911-1945
1973 Frances FitzGerald, Fire in the Lake
Robert Coles, Children in Crisis (vols.
2 and 3)
1974 Ernest Becker, The Denial of Death
1975 Annie Dillard, Pilgrim at Tinker Creek
1976 Robert N. Butler, Why Survive? Being
Old in America
1977 William W. Warner, Beautiful Swimmers
1978 Carl Sagan, The Dragons of Eden
1979 Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature
1980 Douglas R. Hofstadter, Godel,
Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid
1981 Carl E. Schorske, Fin-de-Siecle Vienna:
Politics and Culture
1982 Tracy Kidder, The Soul of a New Machine
1983 Susan Sheehan, Is There No Place on
Earth for Me?
1984 Paul Starr, Social Transformation of
American Medicine
1985 Studs Terkel, The Good War
1986 Joseph Lelyveld, Move Your Shadow
J. Anthony Lukas, Common Ground
1987 David K. Shipler, Arab and Jew
1988 Richard Rhodes, The Making of the
Atomic Bomb
1989 Neal Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie:
John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam
Additional Sources of Information (Literature)
Atkinson, Frank. Dictionary of Literary
Pseudonyms, 4th ed. American Library Association,
1987.
Bauer, Andrew. The Hawthorn Dictionary of
Pseudonyms. Hawthorn Books, 1971.
Beckson, Karl, and Ganz, Arthur. Literary Terms:
A Dictionary. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1975.
Bede, Jean-Albert, and Edgerton, William B., eds.
Columbia Dictionary of Modern European Literature.
Columbia University Press, 1980.
Benet's Reader's Encyclopedia, 3rd ed. Harper &
Row, 1987.
Drabble, Margaret, ed. The Oxford Companion to
English Literature, 5th ed. Oxford University
Press, 1985.
Frye, Northrop; Baker, Sheridan; and Perkins,
George. The Harper Handbook to Literature. Harper
& Row, 1985.
Hart, James D. The Concise Oxford Companion to
American Literature. Oxford University Press,
1986.
Holman, Clarence Hugh. A Handbook to Literature,
5th ed. Macmillan, 1986.
O'Neal, Robert. Teachers' Guide to World
Literature for the High School. National Council
of Teachers of English, 1966.
Toye, William, ed. The Oxford Companion to
Canadian Literature. Oxford University Press,
1983.
Vinson, James, and Kirkpatrick, Daniel, eds. Great
Foreign Language Writers. St. Martin's Press,
1984.
Religions
The World's Major Religions
Religious beliefs of one sort or another are an
intrinsic aspect of virtually every society that
has ever existed on this planet. Many of these
beliefs are organized and codified, often based on
the teachings and writings of one or more
founders. Other belief systems are less rigid in
their external structures and may be transmitted
orally from one generation to the next, whether by
family members or by religious leaders within the
community. While all religious beliefs are of vital
importance to those who hold them, the less
formalistic belief systems - variously referred to
as animist or tribal religions, and adhered to by
peoples all over the world - have proven somewhat
enigmatic to Western minds. This section,
therefore, deals only with those religions that are
recognizable as such to Westerners, ones that
employ certain readily identifiable tenets,
beliefs, and doctrines.
Baha'i (Major Religions)
Baha'i, which has 4.5 million followers, was
founded by Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri, who took the
name Baha'Ullah (Glory of God) in 1863 while in
exile in Baghdad. Baha'Ullah's coming had been
foretold by Mirza Ali Muhammad, known as al-Bab,
who founded Babism in 1844, from which the Baha'i
faith grew. The Baha'i faith emphasizes the unity
of all religious teachings that share the same
spiritual truths and promotes universal education,
equality between the sexes, world peace, and world
government.
Buddhism (Major Religions)
Buddhism has 307 million followers. It was founded
by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha
(Enlightened One), in southern Nepal in the sixth
and fifth centuries B.C. The Buddha achieved
enlightenment through meditation and gathered a
community of monks to carry on his teachings.
Buddhism teaches that meditation and the practice
of good religious and moral behavior can lead to
Nirvana, the state of enlightenment, although
before achieving Nirvana one is subject to repeated
lifetimes that are good or bad depending on one's
actions (karma). The doctrines of the Buddha
describe temporal life as featuring "four noble
truths": existence is a realm of suffering; desire,
along with the belief in the importance of one's
self, causes suffering; achievement of Nirvana ends
suffering; and Nirvana is attained only by
meditation and by following the path of
righteousness in action, thought, and attitude.
Confucianism (Major Religions)
A faith with 5.6 million followers, Confucianism
was founded by Confucius, a Chinese philosopher,
in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. Confucius's
sayings and dialogues, known collectively as the
Analects, were written down by his followers.
Confucianism, which grew out of a strife-ridden
time in Chinese history, stresses the relationship
between individuals, their families, and society,
based on li (proper behavior) and jen
(sympathetic attitude). Its practical, socially
oriented philosophy was challenged by the more
mystical precepts of Taoism and Buddhism, which
were partially incorporated to create
neo-Confucianism during the Sung dynasty (A.D.
960 - 1279). The overthrow of the Chinese monarchy
and the Communist revolution during the twentieth
century have severely lessened the influence of
Confucianism on modern Chinese culture.
Ethical Culture (Major Religions)
Ethical Culture, which has 7,000 followers, was
founded as the Society for Ethical Culture in 1876
in New York City by Felix Adler. The International
Union of Ethical Societies was formed in 1896. It
joined other humanist organizations in 1952 to form
the International Humanist and Ethical Union, based
in Utrecht, The Netherlands. The Ethical Culture
movement stresses the importance of ethics and
morality in human interaction, although it offers
no system of ethics or other religious beliefs of
its own.
Hinduism (Major Religions)
A religion with 648 million followers, Hinduism
developed from indigenous religions of India in
combination with Aryan religions brought to India
c. 1500 B.C. and codified in the Veda and the
Upanishads, the sacred scriptures of Hinduism.
Hinduism is a term used to broadly describe a vast
array of sects to which most Indians belong. Hindu
beliefs include the acceptance of the caste system,
which ranks people from birth based on religious
practice, employment, locale, and tribal
affiliation, among other categories, and classifies
society at large into four groups: the Brahmins or
priests, the rulers and warriors, the farmers and
merchants, and the peasants and laborers. The goals
of Hinduism are release from repeated reincarnation
through the practice of yoga, adherence to Vedic
scriptures, and devotion to a personal guru.
Various deities are worshiped at shrines; the
divine trinity, representing the cyclical nature
of the universe, are Brahma the creator, Vishnu the
preserver, and Shiva the destroyer.
Islam (Major Religions)
Islam has 840 million followers. It was founded by
the prophet Muhammad, who received the holy
scriptures of Islam, the Koran, from Allah (God)
c. A.D. 610. Islam (Arabic for "submission to God")
maintains that Muhammad is the last in a long line
of holy prophets, preceded by Adam, Abraham, Moses,
and Jesus. In addition to being devoted to the
Koran, followers of Islam (Muslims) are devoted to
the worship of Allah through the Five Pillars: the
statement "There is no god but God, and Muhammad
is his prophet"; prayer, conducted five times a day
while facing Mecca; the giving of alms; the keeping
of the fast of Ramadan during the ninth month of
the Muslim year; and the making of a pilgrimage at
least once to Mecca, if possible. Consumption of
pork and alcohol, as well as usury, slander, and
fraud, are prohibited. The two main divisions of
Islam are the Sunni and the Shiite; the Wahabis are
the most important Sunni sect, while the Shiite
sects include the Assassins, the Druses, and the
Fatimids, among countless others.
Judaism (Major Religions)
Stemming from the descendants of Judah in Judea,
Judaism was founded c. 2000 B.C. by Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob and has 18 million followers. Judaism
espouses belief in a monotheistic God, who is
creator of the universe and who leads His people,
the Jews, by speaking through prophets. His word
is revealed in the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament),
especially in that part known as the Torah. Jews
believe that the human condition can be improved,
that the letter and the spirit of the Torah must
be followed, and that a Messiah will eventually
bring the world to a state of paradise. Judaism
promotes community among all people of Jewish
faith, dedication to a synagogue or temple(the
basic social unit of a group of Jews, led by
a rabbi), and the importance of family life.
Religious observance takes place both at home and
in temple. Judaism is divided into three main
groups who vary in their interpretation of those
parts of the Torah that deal with personal,
communal, international, and religious activities:
The Orthodox community, which views the Torah as
derived from God, and therefore absolutely binding;
the Reform movement, which follows primarily its
ethical content; and the Conservative Jews, who
follow most of the observances set out in the Torah
but allow for change in the face of modern life.
Orthodox Eastern Church (Major Religions)
With 158 million followers, the Orthodox Eastern
Church is the second largest Christian community
in the world. It began its split from the Roman
Catholic Church in the fifth century; the break
was finalized in 1054. The followers of the
Orthodox Church are in fact members of many
different denominations,including the Church of
Greece, the Church of Cyprus,and the Russian
Orthodox Church. Orthodox religion holds biblical
Scripture and tradition, guided by the Holy Spirit
as expressed in the consciousness of the entire
Orthodox community, to be the source of Christian
truth. It rejects doctrine developed by the Western
churches. Doctrine was established by seven
ecumenical councils held between 325 and 787 and
amended by other councils in the late Byzantine
period. Relations between the Orthodox churches
and Roman Catholicism have improved since Vatican
Council II (1962 - 65).
Roman Catholicism (Major Religions)
The Roman Catholic church, with 900 million
followers, is the largest Christian church in the
world. It claims direct historical descent from the
church founded by the apostle Peter. The Pope in
Rome is the spiritual leader of all Roman
Catholics. He administers Church affairs through
bishops and priests. Members accept the gospel of
Jesus Christ and the teachings of the Bible, as
well as the Church's interpretations of these.
God's grace is conveyed through the sacraments,
especially the Eucharist or communion that is
celebrated at Mass, the regular service of worship.
Redemption through Jesus Christ is professed as the
sole method of obtaining salvation, which is
necessary to ensure a place in Heaven after life
on earth.
Rosicrucianism (Major Religions)
Rosicrucianism is a modern movement begun in 1868
by R. W. Little that claims ties to an older
Society of the Rose and Cross that was founded in
Germany in 1413 by Christian Rosencreuz. The number
of its followers is uncertain. The Ancient Mystical
Order Rosae Crusis (AMORC) was founded in San Jose,
California, in 1915 by H. Spencer Lewis. The
Rosicrucian Brotherhood was established in
Quakertown, Pennsylvania, by Reuben
Swinburne Clymer in 1902. Both sects could be
classified as either fraternal or religious
organizations, although they claim to empower
members with cosmic forces by unveiling secret
wisdom regarding the laws of nature.
Shinto (Major Religions)
Shinto, with 3.5 million followers, is the ancient
native religion of Japan, established long before
the introduction of writing to Japan in the fifth
century A.D. The origins of its beliefs and rituals
are unknown. Shinto stresses belief in a great many
spiritual beings and gods, known as kami, who are
paid tribute at shrines and honored by festivals,
and reverence for ancestors. While there is no
overall dogma, adherents of Shinto are expected to
remember and celebrate the kami, support the
societies of which the kami are patrons, remain
pure and sincere, and enjoy life.
Taoism (Major Religions)
Both a philosophy and a religion, Taoism was
founded in China by Lao-tzu, who is traditionally
said to have been born in 604 B.C. Its number of
followers is uncertain. It derives primarily from
the Tao-te-ching, which claims that an
ever-changing universe follows the Tao, or path.
The Tao can be known only by emulating its quietude
and effortless simplicity; Taoism prescribes that
people live simply, spontaneously, and in close
touch with nature and that they meditate to achieve
contact with the Tao. Temples and monasteries,
maintained by Taoist priests, are important in some
Taoist sects. Since the Communist revolution,
Taoism has been actively discouraged in the
People's Republic of China, although it continues
to flourish in Taiwan.
Significant Dates in the History of Religion
B.C.
c. 2000? Abraham, founder of Judaism,
is alive
c. 13th century Moses, Hebrew lawgiver, is
alive
c. 1200-c. 900 The Rig-Veda, sacred texts of
the Hindus, are compiled
604 Traditional birth date of
Lao-tzu, founder of Taoism
588 Traditional date of
Zoroaster's revelation
c. 563-c. 483 Buddha, founder of Buddhism,
is alive
551-479 Confucius, founder of
Confucianism, is alive
c. 540-c. 468 Mahavira, founder of the
Jains, is alive
c. 400 The Bhagavad Gita, important
Hindu text, is written
6 or 4-c. A.D. 30 Jesus of Nazareth, founder of
Christianity, is alive
A.D
33? The Crucifixion and death of
Jesus Christ
64? Peter, disciple of Jesus and,
according to tradition, first
bishop of Rome, dies
c. 70-c. 100 First four books of the New
Testament-Matthew, Mark, Luke,
and John-are written
5th century Two Buddhist sects-Zen and
Pure Land (or Amidism)-are
established
c. 570-632 Muhammad the prophet-whose
teachings, recorded in the
Koran, form the basis of
Islam-is alive
622 Muhammad flees persecution in
Mecca and settles in Yathrib
(later Medina); the first day
of the lunar year in which
this event, known as the
Hegira, takes place marks the
start of the Muslim era
936 Traditional date of the
arrival from Iran of the first
Parsis (followers of
Zoroastrianism) in India
1054 Catholic Pope Leo IX condemns
the patriarch of
Constantinople, finalizing the
split between the Eastern
Orthodox Church and the Roman
Catholic Church
c. 1224-74 Saint Thomas Aquinas, Italian
philosopher and Roman Catholic
theologian, is alive
1309-77 The Roman Catholic papacy is
seated in Avignon, France
1483-1546 Martin Luther, leader of the
Protestant Reformation in
Germany and author of "95
Theses" (1517), is alive
1491-1556 Ignatius Loyola, founder of
the Jesuit Order of Roman
Catholic priests, is alive
1509-64 John Calvin, leader of the
Protestant Reformation in
France, is alive
1549 The first Christian mission
in Japan is established
1582 Jesuit Matteo Ricci is the
first missionary to be sent
to China
1620 Plymouth Colony in North
America is founded in December
by 102 English Puritan
separatists, known as Pilgrims
1624-91 George Fox, English founder
of the Protestant Society of
Friends (the Quakers), is
alive
1703-91 John Wesley, English founder
of the Protestant movement
that later became the
Methodist Church, is alive
1859 Charles Darwin, English
naturalist, publishes Origin
of Species, which
elucidates his theory of
organic evolution
1869-70 The first Roman Catholic
Vatican Council, at
which the dogma of papal
infallibility is promulgated,
is convened by Pope Pius IX
1869-1948 Mohandas K. Gandhi, Indian
spiritual and political leader
who helped his country achieve
independence from Britain and
sought rapprochement
between Hindus and Muslims,
is alive
1933-45 The systematic persecution and
attempted extermination of
European Jews, known as the
Holocaust, by Adolf Hitler's
Nazi party takes place
1948 The independent Jewish state
of Israel is declared
1962-65 The second Roman Catholic
Vatican Council, at
which changes were made in the
liturgy and greater
participation in services by
lay church members was
encouraged, is convened by
Pope John XXIII and
concluded by Pope Paul VI
Major Religious Holidays in the United States
January 6 Feast of the Epiphany
(Christian) marks
the arrival of the Three Wise
Men who sought the
newborn baby Jesus and the
Twelfth Night, or end, of
the Christmas season
February 2 Candlemas (Christian)
celebrates the
presentation of the Christ
child in the temple and the
purification of the Blessed
Virgin Mary 40 days after
she gave birth to Jesus;
mostly observed in Roman
Catholic, Orthodox Eastern,
and Anglican churches
February 14 St. Valentine's Day (Roman
Catholic) celebrates the feast
day of the patron saint of
lovers, engaged couples, and
anyone wishing to marry;
it has, by tradition, become
an ecumenical day
celebrating love and affection
February or March Purim (Jewish), the Feast of
Lots, memorializes Queen
Esther's prevention of the
annihilation of the Persian
Jews with a celebratory
festival of food,
entertainment, and costumes;
held on the 14th day of the
lunar year of Adar.
Shrove Tuesday (Christian),
or Mardi Gras, is the last day
before Lent; it is celebrated
by eating rich foods forbidden
during Lent and by carnivals
in such cities as New Orleans,
Rio de Janeiro, and Nice
February, March, Lent (Christian) is a 40-day
or April period of fasting and
penitence in preparation for
Easter that begins on Ash
Wednesday in Western churches
and on the Monday 41 days
before Easter in the Orthodox
Eastern Church
March 17 St. Patrick's Day (Roman
Catholic) celebrates the feast
day of the patron saint of
Ireland; by tradition, it has
become a day to celebrate the
Irish and their contributions
to U.S. culture
March or April Passover (Jewish), or Pesach,
commemorates the time when
Moses led the Jews out of
Egypt; it is celebrated for
seven days by Reform and
Israeli Jews and for eight
days by Orthodox and
Conservative Jews, starting
on the fourteenth day of
the lunar month Nisan with a
meal of remembrance called a
seder
Palm Sunday (Christian)
celebrates Jesus's triumphal
ride into Jerusalem and the
start of Holy Week; it is
observed the Sunday before
Easter
Maundy Thursday (Christian),
the Thursday before Easter,
marks the Last Supper, the
Agony in the Garden, and the
arrest of Jesus
Good Friday (Christian), the
Friday before Easter,
commemorates Jesus's
Crucifixion
Holy Saturday (Christian), the
Saturday before Easter, is
observed primarily in Roman
Catholic, Orthodox Eastern, and
Anglican churches
Easter Sunday (Christian)
celebrates the day Jesus Christ
rose from the dead
May or June Ascension Day (Christian)
celebrates Christ's ascent to
Heaven; it is held 40 days
after Easter
Shavuot (Jewish) celebrates the
harvest of grain while also
observing the receipt of the
Ten Commandments by Israel; it
is held for one day by Reform
and Israeli Jews or for two
days by Orthodox and
Conservative Jews, starting the
sixth day of the lunar month of
Sivan
Pentecost (Christian), or
Whitsunday, marks the descent
of the Holy Spirit on the
Apostles; it is held 50 days
after Easter
August 15 The Assumption of the Blessed
Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic
and Orthodox Eastern) is the
principal feast day in honor
of Mary, celebrating her
assumption, body and soul,
into Heaven after her death
September or Rosh Hashanah (Jewish) marks
October the start of the new year with
solemn prayer and the blowing
of the shofar, a ram's horn;
it is observed for one day
by Reform and Israeli Jews or
for two days by Orthodox
and Conservative Jews,
starting the first day of the
lunar month of Tishri
Yom Kippur (Jewish), the Day
of Atonement, is a day of
fasting and repentance for the
previous year's sins; it
follows the 10 days of
penitence that began on Rosh
Hashanah; it is observed on
the tenth day of the lunar
month of Tishri
Sukkoth (Jewish), the Feast of
the Tabernacles, is an autumn
harvest festival that
recalls the wandering of the
Jews in the wilderness;
it is celebrated for eight
days (seven in Israel)
starting on the fifteenth day
of the lunar month of Tishri
Sunday nearest Reformation Sunday
October 31 (Protestant) celebrates the
day Martin Luther nailed his
"95 Theses" to a church door,
heralding the start of the
Protestant Reformation
November 1 All Saints' Day (Christian)
is the feast day honoring all
martyrs and the Virgin Mary;
it is celebrated by Roman
Catholic, Orthodox Eastern,
and Anglican churches; it is
also known as All Hallows'
Day and is preceded by
Halloween on October 31
Sunday nearest Advent (Christian) is the
November 30 through period of repentance in
Christmas Eve preparation for the
anniversary of the
birth of Christ
December Hanukkah (Jewish), the
Festival of Lights, is marked
by the lighting of eight
candles in a menorah; it
commemorates the restoration
of traditional worship and the
rededication of the temple
in Jerusalem as well as the
rededication of the Jews
to their religious ancestry;
it is held for eight days
beginning on the twenty-fifth
day of the lunar month
of Kislev
December 8 Feast of the Immaculate
Conception (Roman
Catholic) honors the Virgin
Mary's state of freedom
from original sin from the
time of her conception
December 9 Feast of the Conception of St.
Anne (Orthodox Eastern)
celebrates the conception of
the Virgin Mary
December 25 Christmas Day (Christian)
celebrates the birth of Jesus
Christ; in many Western
countries it has become a
nonsectarian winter holiday
Roman Catholic Patron Saints
Protector of Saint
Accountants Matthew
Actors Genesius
Air travelers Joseph of Cupertino
Altar boys John Berchmans
Architects Barbara
Art Catherine of Bologna
Artists Luke
Astronomers Dominic
Athletes Sebastian
Authors Francis de Sales
Bakers Elizabeth of Hungary
Bankers Matthew
Barren women Antony of Padua
Beggars Alexius, Giles
Blind Raphael
Bookbinders Peter Celestine
Bookkeepers Matthew
Booksellers John of God
Boy Scouts George
Bricklayers Stephen
Brides Nicholas of Myra
Broadcasters Archangel Gabriel
Builders Vincent Ferrer
Cab drivers Fiacre
Cancer victims Peregrine Laziosi
Carpenters Joseph
Charitable societies Vincent de Paul
Childbirth Gerard Majella
Children Nicholas of Myra
Church Joseph
Comedians Vitus
Cooks Martha
Cripples Giles
Dancers Vitus
Deaf Francis de Sales
Dentists Apollonia
Desperate situations Jude
Domestic animals Antony
Dying Joseph
Ecologists Francis of Assisi
Editors John Bosco
Emigrants Frances Xavier Cabrini
Falsely accused Raymund Nonnatus
Farmers Isidore the Farmer
Fathers Joseph
Fire fighters Florian
Fire prevention Catherine of Siena
Fishermen Andrew, Peter
Foundlings Holy Innocents
Funeral directors Joseph of Arimathea
Gardeners Adelard
Girls Agnes
Glassworkers Luke
Gravediggers Antony the Abbot
Grocers Michael
Hairdressers Martin de Porres
Heart patients John of God
Hospitals Camillus de Lellis, John
of God
Hotelkeepers Amand
Invalids Roch
Jewelers Eligius
Journalists Francis de Sales
Laborers Isidore
Lawyers Thomas More, Yves
Learning Ambrose
Librarians Jerome
Lost articles Antony of Padua
Lovers Valentine
Mariners Nicholas of Tolentine
Married women Monica
Mentally ill Dympna
Messengers Gabriel
Midwives Raymund Nonnatus
Missions Francis Xavier,
Therese of Lisieux,
Leonard of Port Maurice
Mothers Monica
Musicians Cecelia, Gregory
Nurses Agatha, Camillus de
Lellis, John of God
Orators John Chrysostom
Orphans Jerome Emiliani
Painters Luke
Pawnbrokers Nicholas of Myra
Philosophers Catherine of Alexandria,
Justin
Physicians Cosmas and Damian, Luke
Plasterers Bartholomew
Poets David
Police officers Michael
Poor Antony of Padua
Postal workers Gabriel
Preachers Catherine of Alexandria,
John Chrysostom
Pregnant women Gerard Majella
Priests John Vianney
Printers Augustine, Genesius, John
of God
Prisoners Dismas
Radio workers Gabriel
Rheumatism James the Greater
Sailors Brendan, Erasmus
Scholars Brigid
Scientists Albert the Great
Sculptors Claude
Secretaries Genesius
Servants Martha
Sick John of God, Camillus de
Lellis
Skaters Lidwina
Skiers Bernard
Social justice Joseph
Social workers Louise de Marillac
Soldiers George, Martin of Tours
Students Catherine of Alexandria,
Thomas Aquinas
Surgeons Cosmas and Damian, Luke
Tax collectors Matthew
Teachers Gregory, John Baptist de
la Salle
Television Clare of Assisi
Theologians Alphonsus Liguori,
Augustine
Throat ailments Blaise
Travelers Christopher
Vintners Amand, Morand, Vincent
Vocations Alphonsus
Widows Paula
Women in labor Anne
Writers Francis de Sales
Youth Aloysius Gonzaga
Holy Books of the World
Bhagavad-Gita (Holy Books of the World)
A Sanskrit poem that is part of the Indian epic
known as the Mahabharata. It describes, in a
dialogue between Lord Krishna and Prince Arjuna,
the Hindu path to spiritual wisdom and the unity
with God that can be achieved through karma
(action), bhakti (devotion), andjnana (knowledge).
The Bhagavad-Gita was probably written sometime
between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200.
Five Classics (Holy Books of the World)
Five works traditionally attributed to Confucius
that form the basic texts of Confucianism. They are
the Spring and Autumn Annals, a history of
Confucius's native district; the I Ching (or Book
of Changes), a system of divining the future; the
Book of Rites, which outlines ceremonies and
describes the ideal government; the Book of
History; and the Book of Songs, a collection of
poetry. Together they promulgate a system of ethics
for managing society based on sympathy for others,
etiquette, and ritual. Although the dates of these
books are uncertain, they were probably written
before the third century B.C.
Koran (Arabic, al-Qurafan) (Holy Books of the World)
The primary holy book of Islam. It is made up of
114 suras, or chapters, which contain
impassioned appeals for belief in God,
encouragement to lead a moral life, portrayals
of damnation and beatitude, stories of Islamic
prophets, and rules governing the social and
religious life of Muslims. Believers maintain
that the Koran contains the verbatim word of
God, revealed to the prophet Muhammad through
the Angel Gabriel. Some of the suras were
written during Muhammad's lifetime, but an
authoritative text was not produced until c.
A.D. 650.
New Testament (Holy Books of the World)
The second portion of the Christian Bible,
which contains 27 books that form the basis of
Christian belief. These books include the
sayings of Jesus, the story of his life and
work, the death and resurrection of Jesus now
celebrated as Easter, the teachings and
writings of the apostles, and instruction for
converting nonbelievers and for performing
baptisms, blessings, and other rituals. The New
Testament is believed to have been written c.
A.D. 100, some 70 to 90 years after the death
of Jesus.
Old Testament (Holy Books of the World)
The Christian name for the Hebrew Bible. It is
the sacred scripture of Judaism and the first
portion of the Christian Bible. According to
Jewish teachings, it is made up of three parts:
the Law (also known as the Torah or
Pentateuch), comprising the first five books
(Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
Deuteronomy), which describes the origins of
the world, the covenant between the Lord and
Israel, the exodus and entry into the promised
land, and the various rules governing social
and religious behavior; the Prophets, including
the former prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel
1-2, Kings 1-2) and the latter prophets
(Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 12 minor
prophets), which describes the history of the
Israelites, the stories of heroes, kings,
judges, and wars, and the choosing of David as
leader of the Israelites; and the Writings
(including Psalms, Job, Song of Solomon, and
Ruth, among others), which describes the
reactions of the people to the laws and
covenants, as well as prayers and praises of
the covenant. Some books of the Old Testament
regarded as sacred by the Jews are not accepted
as such by Christians; among Christians there
are differences between Roman Catholics and
Protestants about the inclusion of some books,
the order of the books, and the original
sources used in translating them. Scholars
generally agree that the Old Testament was
compiled from c. 1000 B.C. to c. 100 B.C.
Talmud (Holy Books of the World)
A compilation of Jewish oral law and rabbinical
teachings that is separate from the scriptures
of the Hebrew Bible, or Old Testament. It is
made up of two parts: the Mishna, which is the
oral law itself, and the Gemara, a commentary
on the Mishna. The Talmud contains both a legal
section (the Halakah) and a portion devoted to
legends and stories (the Aggada). The
authoritative Babylonian Talmud was compiled in
the sixth century.
Tao-te-ching (The Way and Its Power) (Holy Books)
The basic text of the Chinese philosophy and
religion known as Taoism. It is made up of 81
short chapters or poems that describe a way of
life marked by quiet effortlessness and freedom
from desire. This is thought to be achieved by
following the creative, spontaneous life force
of the universe, called the Tao. The book is
attributed to Lao-tzu, but it was probably
written in the third century B.C.
Upanishads (Holy Books of the World)
The basis of Hindu religion and philosophy that
form the final portion of the Veda. The 112
Upanishads describe the relationship of the
Brahman, or universal soul, to the atman, or
individual soul; they also provide information
about Vedic sacrifice and yoga. The original
texts of the Upanishads come from various
sources and were written beginning c. 900 B.C.
Veda (Holy Books of the World)
The sacred scripture of Hinduism. Four Vedas
make up the Samhita, a collection of prayers
and hymns that are considered to be revelations
of eternal truth written by seer-poets inspired
by the gods. The Rig-Veda, the Sama-Veda, and
the Yajur-Veda are books of hymns; the
Atharva-Veda compiles magic spells. These
writings maintain that the Brahman, or Absolute
Self, underlies all reality and can be known by
invoking gods through the use of hymns or
mantras. The Vedic texts were compiled between
c. 1000 B.C. and c. 500 B.C., making them the
oldest known group of religious writings.
The Greek and Roman Deities
The gods and goddesses of ancient Greece and Rome
have had a lasting impact on Western religious
thought. They have also played an important
part in the development of the arts,
philosophy, and psychology. The following lists
give the names of these ancient deities as well
as the spheres of influence ascribed to them.
Greek Deities
Adonis Symbolizes the death of nature
each autumn and its rebirth in the
spring
Aeolus God of the winds
Aesculapius God of medicine
Aphrodite Goddess of love and beauty
Apollo God of beauty, youth, poetry,
music, prophecy, and archery
Ares God of war
Artemis Goddess of the hunt, the moon, and
nature
Athena Goddess of wisdom
Chaos God of the shapeless void that
preceded creation of the Earth
Chloris Goddess of flowers
Cronus Leader of the Titans who ruled the
heavens after overthrowing his
father, Uranus
Demeter Goddess of the earth, grain, and
harvests
Dionysus God of wine
Eos Goddess of dawn
Eris Goddess of strife and discord
Eros God of love
Gorgones Three winged sisters-Euryale,
Medusa, and Stheno-the sight of
whom turned mortals to stone
Hades God of the underworld
Hephaestus God of fire
Hera Sister and wife of Zeus; queen of
the goddesses
Herakles Son of Zeus; greatest of Greek
heroes, who performed 12 labors and
was eventually granted immortality
Hermaphroditus Son of Hermes and Aphrodite who was
joined forever to the nymph of the
fountain of Salmacis, creating one
body with the sexual
characteristics of both males and
females
Hermes Messenger of the gods; patron of
thieves
Hestia Goddess of the hearth
Hygeia Goddess of health
Hymen God of marriage
Hypnus God of sleep
Metis First wife of Zeus, who helped him
become king of gods;
personification of prudence
Morpheus God of dreams
Muses Nine sisters, daughters of Zeus,
who are goddesses of the arts and
sciences: Clio (history), Euterpe
(lyric poetry), Thalia (comedy),
Melpomene (tragedy), Terpsichore
(dance), Erato (erotic poetry),
Polyhymnia (sacred poetry),
Urania (astronomy), and Calliope
(chief of the Muses)
Nemesis Goddess of vengeance
Nike Goddess of victory
Nymphs Nature spirits who oversee water,
trees, mountains, valleys, and
particular locations
Nyx Goddess of night
Pan God of flocks and shepherds
Persephone Goddess of the underworld; symbol
of the death of nature each autumn
and its rebirth each spring
Plutus God of wealth
Poseidon God of the oceans
Priapus God of fertility
Rhea Wife of Cronus; mother of the
Olympian gods and goddesses
Demeter, Hades, Hera, Hestia,
Poseidon, and Zeus
Satyrs Field and forest gods who represent
nature's bounty Selene Goddess of
the moon Sirens Sea nymphs whose
singing enchanted those who heard
it
Thanatos God of death
Titans Sons and daughters of Uranus, who
took power when Cronus overthrew
their father: Atlas, Coeus, Crius,
Dione, Epimetheus, Eurynome,
Hyperion, Iapetus, Leto, Maia,
Mnemosyne, Oceanus, Ophion,
Pallas, Phoebe, Prometheus, Rhea,
Tethys, Themis, and Thia
Tyche Goddess of fortune or fate
Uranus God of heaven; father of the Titans
Zeus Chief god of Olympus; ruler of
heaven, who wielded thunder and
lightning
Roman Deities
Aurora Goddess of the dawn
Bacchus God of wine
Cerberus Guardian of the gates of hell
Ceres Goddess of the earth, grain, and
harvests
Coelus God of heaven
Cupid God of love
Diana Goddess of the hunt, the moon, and
nature
Dis God of the underworld
Faunus God of fields and shepherds
Flora Goddess of flowers
Graces Three sisters-Aglaia, Euphrosyne, and
Thalia-who were goddesses of banquets,
dances, social enjoyments, and the arts
Hercules Roman name for Herakles
Janus God of beginnings, responsible for the
new year and the seasons
Juno Queen of the gods; wife of Jupiter
Jupiter The supreme god; ruler of heaven
(Jove)
Juventas Goddess of youth
Lares Spirits of ancestors who watch over
homes and cities
Lemures Spirits of the dead, both good and bad
Liber Another name for Bacchus
Luna Goddess of the moon
Mars God of war
Mercury Messenger of the gods
Minerva Goddess of wisdom
Mors God of death
Neptune God of the oceans
Nox Goddess of night
Orcus God of the underworld
Picus God who could foresee the future
Pomona Goddess of fruit trees and gardens
Proserpina Goddess of the underworld
Psyche Goddess of the soul, who was united
with Cupid
Romulus Founder of the city of Rome; raised by
a wolf with his twin brother, Remus
Salacia Goddess of the oceans
Saturn Roman name for the Greek god Cronus
Somnus God of sleep
Tartarus God of the underworld
Venus Goddess of love and beauty
Vesta Goddess of the hearth
Victoria Goddess of victory
The Roman Catholic Popes
The religious head of the Roman Catholic Church is
known as the Pope or the bishop of Rome. He is
elected by the College of Cardinals, who as a group
rank next to the Pope in ecclesiastical authority.
New Popes are elected on the death or retirement of
a current Pope. To be elected, a new Pope must be
named on two-thirds of the ballots cast, and each
member of the College of Cardinals must vote. Once
elected, a Pope must be asked by the dean of
cardinals if he accepts the post. If he does, he is
then asked to choose a name. The custom of a Pope
changing his name upon election originated shortly
before the year 1000.
The following list includes all the Popes of the
Roman Catholic Church, beginning with St. Peter the
Apostle, who is traditionally considered to be the
first Pope because of his appointment by Jesus and
his role in organizing the Church. Also included in
this list are the so-called antipopes, those who
were elected or claimed to be pope at various times
during Church history but whose positions were later
invalidated; their names appear in brackets. The
list gives the names of the Popes, the years of
their papacies, and the original names of those who
changed their names upon election. Alternate
spellings of names are given in parentheses.
Pope Original Name
St. Peter the Apostle Symeon (Simon)
died c. 64
Pope
St. Linus
Reign
c. 66-c. 78
Pope
St. Anacletus (Cletus)
Reign
c. 79-c. 91
Pope
St. Clement I
Reign
c. 91-c. 100
Pope
St. Evaristus
Reign
c. 100-c. 109
Pope
St. Alexander I
Reign
c. 109-c. 116
Pope
St. Sixtus I
Reign
c. 116-c. 125
Pope
St. Telesphorus
Reign
c. 125-c. 136
Pope
St. Hyginus
Reign
c. 136-c. 142
Pope
St. Pius I
Reign
c. 142-c. 155
Pope
St. Anicetus
Reign
c. 155-c. 166
Pope
St. Soter
Reign
c. 166-c. 174
Pope
St. Eleutherius (Eleutherus)
Reign
c. 174-189
Pope
St. Victor I
Reign
189-98
Pope
St. Zephyrinus
Reign
198-217
Pope
St. Callistus (Calixtus) I
Reign
217-222
Pope
[St. Hippolytus]
Reign
217-235
Pope
St. Urban I
Reign
222-30
Pope
St. Pontianus (Pontian)
Reign
July 21, 230-September 29, 235
Pope
St. Anterus
Reign
November 21, 235-January 3, 236
Pope
St. Fabian
Reign
January 10, 236-January 20, 250
Pope
St. Cornelius
Reign
March 251-June 253
Pope
[Novatian]
Reign
March 251-c. 258
Pope
St. Lucius I
Reign
June 25, 253-March 5, 254
Pope
St. Stephen I
Reign
May 12, 254-August 2, 257
Pope
St. Sixtus II
Reign
August 30, 257-August 6, 258
Pope
St. Dionysius
Reign
July 22, 260-December 26, 268
Pope
St. Felix I
Reign
January 3, 269-December 30, 274
Pope
St. Eutychian
Reign
January 4, 275-December 7, 283
Pope
St. Gaius (Caius)
Reign
December 17, 283-April 22, 296
Pope
St. Marcellinus
Reign
June 30, 296-c. 304
Pope
St. Marcellus I
Reign
November/December, 306-January 16, 308
Pope
St. Eusebius
Reign
April 18, 310-October 21, 310
Pope
St. Miltiades (Melchiades)
Reign
July 2, 311-January 11, 314
Pope
St. Silvester I
Reign
January 31, 314-December 31, 335
Pope
St. Mark
Reign
January 18, 336-October 7, 336
Pope
St. Julius I
Reign
February 6, 337-April 12, 352
Pope
Liberius
Reign
May 17, 352-September 24, 366
Pope
[Felix II]
Reign
c. 355-November 22, 365
Pope
St. Damasus I
Reign
October 1, 366-December 11, 384
Pope
[Ursinus]
Reign
September 366-November 367
Pope
St. Siricius
Reign
December 384-November 26, 399
Pope
St. Anastasius I
Reign
November 27, 399-December 19, 401
Pope
St. Innocent I
Reign
December 22, 401-March 12, 417
Pope
St. Zosimus
Reign
March 18, 417-December 26, 418
Pope
St. Boniface I
Reign
December 28, 418-September 4, 422
Pope
[Eulalius]
Reign
December 27, 418-April 3, 419
Pope
St. Celestine I
Reign
September 10, 422-July 27, 432
Pope
St. Sixtus III
Reign
July 31, 432-August 19, 440
Pope
St. Leo I
Reign
August/September, 440-November 10, 461
Pope
St. Hilary (Hilarus)
Reign
November 19, 461-February 29, 468
Pope
St. Simplicius
Reign
March 3, 468-March 10, 483
Pope
St. Felix III (II)
Reign
March 13, 483-March 1, 492
Pope
St. Gelasius I
Reign
March 1, 492-November 21, 496
Pope
Anastasius II
Reign
November 24, 496-November 19, 498
Pope
St. Symmachus
Reign
November 22, 498-July 19, 514
Pope
[Lawrence]
Reign
November 22, 498-February 499; 501-506
Pope
St. Hormisdas
Reign
July 20, 514-August 6, 523
Pope
St. John I
Reign
August 13, 523-May 18, 526
Pope
St. Felix IV (III)
Reign
July 12, 526-September 22, 530
Pope
Boniface II
Reign
September 22, 530-October 17, 532
Pope
[Dioscorus]
Reign
September 22, 530-October 14, 530
Pope Original Name
John II Mercury
Reign
January 2, 533-May 8, 535
Pope
St. Agapitus I
Reign
May 13, 535-April 22, 536
Pope
St. Silverius
Reign
June 8, 536-November 11, 537
Pope
Vigilius
Reign
c. 538-June 7, 555
Pope
Pelagius I
Reign
April 16, 556-March 3, 561
Pope Original Name
John III Catelinus
Reign
July 17, 561-July 13, 574
Pope
Benedict I
Reign
June 2, 575-July 30, 579
Pope
Pelagius II
Reign
November 26, 579-February 7, 590
Pope
St. Gregory I
Reign
September 3, 590-March 12, 604
Pope
Sabinian
Reign
September 13, 604-February 22, 606
Pope
Boniface III
Reign
February 19, 607-November 12, 607
Pope
St. Boniface IV
Reign
September 15, 608-May 8, 615
Pope
St. Deusdedit I
Reign
October 19, 615-November 8, 618
Pope
Boniface V
Reign
December 23, 619-October 25, 625
Pope
Honorius I
Reign
October 27, 625-October 12, 638
Pope
Severinus
Reign
May 28, 640-August 2, 640
Pope
John IV
Reign
December 24, 640-October 12, 642
Pope
Theodore I
Reign
November 24, 642-May 14, 649
Pope
St. Martin I
Reign
July 5, 649-June 17, 653
Pope
St. Eugene I
Reign
August 10, 654-June 2, 657
Pope
St. Vitalian
Reign
June 30, 657-January 27, 672
Pope
Deusdedit III (Adeodadus II)
Reign
April 11, 672-June 17, 676
Pope
Donus
Reign
November 2, 676-April 11, 678
Pope
St. Agatho
Reign
June 27, 678-January 10, 681
Pope
St. Leo II
Reign
August 17, 682-July 3, 683
Pope
St. Benedict II
Reign
June 26, 684-May 8, 685
Pope
John V
Reign
July 23, 685-August 2, 686
Pope
Conon
Reign
October 21, 686-September 21, 687
Pope
[Theodore]
Reign
687
Pope
[Paschal]
Reign
687
Pope
St. Sergius I
Reign
December 15, 687-September 9, 701
Pope
John VI
Reign
October 30, 701-January 11, 705
Pope
John VII
Reign
March 1, 705-October 18, 707
Pope
Sisinnius
Reign
January 15, 708-February 4, 708
Pope
Constantine
Reign
March 25, 708-April 9, 715
Pope
St. Gregory II
Reign
May 19, 715-February 11, 731
Pope
St. Gregory III
Reign
March 18, 731-November 28, 741
Pope
St. Zachary (St. Zacharius)
Reign
December 3, 741-March 15, 752
Pope
Stephen
Reign
March 22 or 23, 752-March 25 or 26, 752
Pope
Stephen II (III)
Reign
March 26, 752-April 26, 757
Pope
St. Paul I
Reign
May 29, 757-June 28, 767
Pope
[Constantine]
Reign
July 5, 767-August 6, 768
Pope
[Philip]
Reign
July 31, 768
Pope
Stephen III (IV)
Reign
August 7, 768-January 24, 772
Pope
Adrian I (Hadrian I)
Reign
February 1, 772-December 25, 795
Pope
St. Leo III
Reign
December 26, 795-June 12, 816
Pope
Stephen IV (V)
Reign
June 22, 816-January 24, 817
Pope
St. Paschal I
Reign
January 24, 817-February 11, 824
Pope
Eugene II
Reign
February 824-August 827
Pope
Valentine
Reign
August 827-September 827
Pope
Gregory IV
Reign
827-January 25, 844
Pope
[John]
Reign
January 844
Pope
Sergius II
Reign
January 844-January 27, 847
Pope
St. Leo IV
Reign
April 10, 847-July 17, 855
Pope
Benedict III
Reign
September 29, 855-April 17, 858
Pope
[Anastasius (Bibliothecarius)]
Reign
August 855-September 855
Pope
St. Nicholas I
Reign
April 24, 858-November 13, 867
Pope
Adrian II (Hadrian II)
Reign
December 14, 867-November or December, 872
Pope
John VIII
Reign
December 14, 872-December 16, 882
Pope
Marinus I
Reign
December 16, 882-May 15, 884
Pope
St. Adrian III (St. Hadrian III)
Reign
May 17, 884-September 885
Pope
Stephen V (VI)
Reign
September 885-September 14, 891
Pope
Formosus
Reign
October 6, 891-April 4, 896
Pope
Boniface VI
Reign
April 896
Pope
Stephen VI (VII)
Reign
May 896-August 897
Pope
Romanus
Reign
August 897-November 897
Pope
Theodore II
Reign
November 897
Pope
John IX
Reign
January 898-January 900
Pope
Benedict IV
Reign
May/June 900-August 903
Pope
Leo V
Reign
August 903-September 903
Pope
[Christopher]
Reign
September 903-January 904
Pope
Sergius III
Reign
January 29, 904-April 14, 911
Pope
Anastasius III
Reign
c. June 911-c. August 913
Pope
Lando
Reign
c. August 913-c. March 914
Pope
John X
Reign
March 914-May 928
Pope
Leo VI
Reign
May 928-December 928
Pope
Stephen VII (VIII)
Reign
December 928-February 931
Pope
John XI
Reign
February or March, 931-December, 935 or January, 936
Pope
Leo VII
Reign
January 3, 936-July 13, 939
Pope
Stephen VIII (IX)
Reign
July 14, 939-October 942
Pope
Marinus II
Reign
October 30, 942-May 946
Pope
Agapetus (Agapitus II)
Reign
May 10, 946-December 955
Pope Original Name
John XII Octavian
Reign
December 16, 955-May 14, 964
Pope
Leo VIII
Reign
December 4, 963-March 1, 965
Pope
Benedict V
Reign
May 22, 964-June 23, 964
Pope
John XIII
Reign
October 1, 965-September 6, 972
Pope
Benedict VI
Reign
January 19, 973-July 974
Pope Original Name
[Boniface VII] Franco
Reign
June 974-July 974; August 984-July 20, 985
Pope
Benedict VII
Reign
October 974-July 10, 983
Pope Original Name
John XIV Peter Canepanova
Reign
December 983-August 20, 984
Pope
John XV
Reign
August 985-March 996
Pope Original Name
Gregory V Bruno
Reign
May 3, 996-February 18, 999
Pope Original Name
[John XVI] John Philagathos
Reign
February 997-May 998
Pope Original Name
Silvester II Gerbert
Reign
April 2, 999-May 12, 1003
Pope Original Name
John XVII John Sicco
Reign
May 16, 1003-November 6, 1003
Pope Original Name
John XVIII John Fasanus
Reign
December 25, 1003-July 1009
Pope Original Name
Sergius IV Peter
Reign
July 31, 1009-May 12, 1012
Pope Original Name
Benedict VIII Theophylact
Reign
May 17, 1012-April 9, 1024
Pope
[Gregory]
Reign
1012
Pope Original Name
John XIX Romanus
Reign
April 19, 1024-October 20, 1032
Pope Original Name
Benedict IX Theophylact
Reign
October 21, 1032-September, 1044;
March 10, 1045-May 1, 1045;
November 8, 1047-July 16, 1048
Pope Original Name
Silvester III John of Sabina
Reign
January 20, 1045-May 10, 1045
Pope Original Name
Gregory VI John Gratian
Reign
May 1, 1045-December 20, 1046
Pope Original Name
Clement II Suidger
Reign
December 24, 1046-October 9, 1047
Pope Original Name
Damasus II Poppo
Reign
July 17, 1048-August 9, 1048
Pope Original Name
St. Leo IX Bruno
Reign
February 12, 1049-April 19, 1054
Pope Original Name
Victor II Gebhard
Reign
April 13, 1055-July 28, 1057
Pope Original Name
Stephen IX (X) Frederick of Lorraine
Reign
August 2, 1057-March 29, 1058
Pope Original Name
[Benedict X] John Mincius
Reign
April 5, 1058-January 24, 1059
Pope Original Name
Nicholas II Gerard
Reign
December 6, 1058-July 19 or 26, 1061
Pope Original Name
Alexander II Anselm
Reign
September 30, 1061-April 21, 1073
Pope Original Name
[Honorius II] Peter Cadalus
Reign
October 28, 1061-May 31, 1064
Pope Original Name
St. Gregory VII Hildebrand
Reign
April 22, 1073-May 25, 1085
Pope Original Name
[Clement III] Guibert
Reign
June 25, 1080; March 24, 1084-September 8, 1100
Pope Original Name
Victor III Daufer (Daufari)
Reign
May 24, 1086; May 9, 1087-September 16, 1087
Pope Original Name
Urban II Odo (Eudes)
Reign
March 12, 1088-July 29, 1099
Pope Original Name
Paschal II Rainerius
Reign
August 13, 1099-January 21, 1118
Pope
[Theodoric]
Reign
September 1100-January 1101
Pope
[Albert (Adalbert)]
Reign
1101
Pope Original Name
[Silvester IV] Maginulf
Reign
November 18, 1105-April 12, 1111
Pope Original Name
Gelasius II John of Gaeta
Reign
January 24, 1118-January 29, 1119
Pope Original Name
[Gregory VIII] Maurice Burdinus
Reign
March 8, 1118-April 1121
Pope Original Name
Calistus II Guido
Reign
February 2, 1119-December 14, 1124
Pope Original Name
Honorius II Lamberto of Ostia
Reign
December 21, 1124-February 13, 1130
Pope Original Name
[Celestine II] Teobaldo Boccapecci
Reign
December 15-16, 1124
Pope Original Name
Innocent II Gregorio Papareschi
Reign
February 14, 1130-September 24, 1143
Pope Original Name
[Anacletus II] Pietro Pierleoni
Reign
February 14, 1130-January 25, 1138
Pope Original Name
[Victor IV] Gregorio Conti
Reign
March 1138-May 29, 1138
Pope Original Name
Celestine II Guido of Citta
di Castello
Reign
September 26, 1143-May 8, 1144
Pope Original Name
Lucius II Gherardo Caccianemici
Reign
March 12, 1144-February 15, 1145
Pope Original Name
Eugene III Bernardo Pignatelli
Reign
February 15, 1145-July 8, 1153
Pope Original Name
Anastasius IV Corrado
Reign
July 8, 1153-December 3, 1154
Pope Original Name
Adrian IV (Hadrian IV) Nicholas Breakspear
Reign
December 4, 1154-September 1, 1159
Pope Original Name
Alexander III Orlando (Roland)
Bandinelli
Reign
September 7, 1159-August 30, 1181
Pope Original Name
[Victor IV] Ottaviano
Reign
September 7, 1159-April 20, 1164
Pope Original Name
[Paschal III] Guido of Crema
Reign
April 22, 1164-September 20, 1168
Pope Original Name
[Calistus III] Giovanni
Reign
September 1168-August 29, 1178
Pope Original Name
[Innocent III] Lando
Reign
September 29, 1179-January 1180
Pope Original Name
Luicius III Ubaldo Allucingoli
Reign
September 1, 1181-November 25, 1185
Pope Original Name
Urban III Umberto Crivelli
Reign
November 25, 1185-October 20, 1187
Pope Original Name
Gregory VIII Alberto de Morra
Reign
October 21, 1187-December 17, 1187
Pope Original Name
Clement III Paolo Scolari
Reign
December 19, 1187-March 1191
Pope Original Name
Celestine III Giacinto Bobo
Reign
March/April 1191-January 8, 1198
Pope Original Name
Innocent III Lotario
Reign
January 8, 1198-July 16, 1216
Pope Original Name
Honorius III Cencio Savelli
Reign
July 18, 1216-March 18, 1227
Pope Original Name
Gregory IX Ugo (Ugolino)
Reign
March 19, 1227-August 22, 1241
Pope Original Name
Celestine IV Goffredo da Castiglione
Reign
October 25, 1241-November 10, 1241
Pope Original Name
Innocent IV Sinibaldo Fieschi
Reign
June 25, 1243-December 7, 1254
Pope Original Name
Alexander IV Rinaldo, Count of Segni
Reign
December 12, 1254-May 25, 1261
Pope Original Name
Urban IV Jacques Pantaléon
Reign
August 29, 1261-October 2, 1264
Pope Original Name
Clement IV Guy Foulques
Reign
February 5, 1265-November 29, 1268
Pope Original Name
Gregory X Tedaldo Visconti
Reign
September 1, 1271-January 10, 1276
Pope Original Name
Innocent V Pierre of Tarentaise
Reign
January 21, 1276-June 22, 1276
Pope Original Name
Adrian V (Hadrian V) Ottobono Fieschi
Reign
July 11, 1276-August 18, 1276
Pope Original Name
John XXI Pedro Juliao (Peter of
Spain)
Reign
September 8, 1276-May 20, 1277
Pope Original Name
Nicholas III Giovanni Gaetano
Reign
November 25, 1277-August 22, 1280
Pope Original Name
Martin IV Simon de Brie (Brion)
Reign
February 22, 1281-March 28, 1285
Pope Original Name
Honorius IV Giacomo Savelli
Reign
April 2, 1285-April 3, 1287
Pope Original Name
Nicholas IV Girolamo Masci
Reign
February 22, 1288-April 4, 1292
Pope Original Name
St. Celestine V Pietro del Morrone
Reign
July 5, 1294-December 13, 1294
Pope Original Name
Boniface VIII Benedetto Caetani
Reign
December 24, 1294-October 11, 1303
Pope Original Name
Benedict XI Niccolò Boccasino
Reign
October 22, 1303-July 7, 1304
Pope Original Name
Clement V Bertrand de Got
Reign
June 5, 1305-April 20, 1314
Pope Original Name
John XXII Jacques Duèse
Reign
August 7, 1316-December 4, 1334
Pope Original Name
[Nicholas V] Pietro Rainalducci
Reign
May 12, 1328-July 25, 1330
Pope Original Name
Benedict XII Jacques Fournier
Reign
December 20, 1334-April 25, 1342
Pope Original Name
Clement VI Pierre of Rosier
d'Egleton
Reign
May 7, 1342-December 6, 1352
Pope Original Name
Innocent VI Etienne Aubert
Reign
December 18, 1352-September 12, 1362
Pope Original Name
Urban V Guillaume de Grimoard
Reign
September 28, 1362-December 19, 1370
Pope Original Name
Gregory XI Pierre Roger de Beaufort
Reign
December 30, 1370-March 27, 1378
Pope Original Name
Urban VI Bartolomeo Prignano
Reign
April 8, 1378-October 15, 1389
Pope Original Name
[Clement VII] Robert of Cambrai
Reign
September 20, 1378-September 16, 1394
Pope Original Name
Boniface IX Pietro Tomacelli
Reign
November 2, 1389-October 1, 1404
Pope Original Name
[Benedict XIII] Pedro de Luna
Reign
September 28, 1394-July 26, 1417
Pope Original Name
Innocent VII Cosimo Gentile de'
Migliorati
Reign
October 17, 1404-November 6, 1406
Pope Original Name
Gregory XII Angelo Correr
Reign
November 30, 1406-July 4, 1415
Pope Original Name
[Alexander V] Pietro Philarghi
(Peter of Candia)
Reign
June 26, 1409-May 3, 1410
Pope Original Name
[John XXIII] Baldassare Cossa
Reign
May 17, 1410-May 29, 1415
Pope Original Name
Martin V Oddo Colonna
Reign
November 11, 1417-February 20, 1431
Pope Original Name
[Clement VIII] Gil Sanchez Muñoz
Reign
June 10, 1423-July 26, 1429
Pope Original Name
[Benedict XIV] Bernard Garnier
Reign
November 12, 1425-?
Pope Original Name
Eugene IV Gabriele Condulmaro
Reign
March 3, 1431-February 23, 1447
Pope Original Name
[Felix V] Amadeus VIII, Duke of
Savoy
Reign
November 5, 1439-April 7, 1449
Pope Original Name
Nicholas V Tommaso Parentucelli
Reign
March 6, 1447-March 24, 1455
Pope Original Name
Callistus III Alfonso de Borja (Borgia)
Reign
April 8, 1455-August 6, 1458
Pope Original Name
Pius II Enea Silvo
Reign
August 19, 1458-August 15, 1464
Pope Original Name
Piccolomini (Paul II) Pietro Barbo
Reign
August 30, 1464-July 26, 1471
Pope Original Name
Sixtus IV Franceso della Rovere
Reign
August 9, 1471-August 12, 1484
Pope Original Name
Innocent VIII Giovanni Battista Cibò
Reign
August 29, 1484-July 25, 1492
Pope Original Name
Alexander VI Rodrigo de Borja y Borja
(Borgia)
Reign
August 11, 1492-August 18, 1503
Pope Original Name
Pius III Francesco Todeschini
Reign
September 22, 1503-October 18, 1503
Pope Original Name
Julius II Giuliano dell Rovere
Reign
November 1, 1503-February 21, 1513
Pope Original Name
Leo X Giovanni de' Medici
Reign
March 11, 1513-December 1, 1521
Pope Original Name
Adrian VI (Hadrian VI) Adrian Florensz Dedal
Reign
January 9, 1522-September 14, 1523
Pope Original Name
Clement VII Giulio de' Medici
Reign
November 19, 1523-September 25, 1534
Pope Original Name
Paul III Alessandro Farnese
Reign
October 13, 1534-November 10, 1549
Pope Original Name
Julius III Giovanni Maria Ciocchi
del Monte
Reign
February 8, 1550-March 23, 1555
Pope Original Name
Marcellus II Marcello Cervini
Reign
April 9, 1555-May 1, 1555
Pope Original Name
Paul IV Giampietro Carafa
Reign
May 23, 1555-August 18, 1559
Pope Original Name
Pius IV Giovanni Angelo Medici
Reign
December 25, 1559-December 9, 1565
Pope Original Name
St. Pius V Michele Ghislieri
Reign
January 7, 1566-May 1, 1572
Pope Original Name
Gregory XIII Ugo Boncompagni
Reign
May 14, 1572-April 10, 1585
Pope Original Name
Sixtus V Felice Peretti
Reign
April 24, 1585-August 27, 1590
Pope Original Name
Urban VII Giambattista Castagna
Reign
September 15, 1590-September 27, 1590
Pope Original Name
Gregory XIV Niccolò Sfondrati
Reign
December 5, 1590-October 16, 1591
Pope Original Name
Innocent IX Giovanni Antonio
Fachinetti
Reign
October 29, 1591-December 30, 1591
Pope Original Name
Clement VIII Ippolito Aldobrandini
Reign
January 30, 1592-March 5, 1605
Pope Original Name
Leo XI Alessandro Ottaviano de'
Medici
Reign
April 1, 1605-April 27, 1605
Pope Original Name
Paul V Camillo Borghese
Reign
May 16, 1605-January 28, 1621
Pope Original Name
Gregory XV Alessandro Ludovisi
Reign
February 9, 1621-July 8, 1623
Pope Original Name
Urban VIII Mafeo Barberini
Reign
August 6, 1623-July 29, 1644
Pope Original Name
Innocent X Giambattista Pamfili
Reign
September 15, 1644-January 1, 1655
Pope Original Name
Alexander VII Fabio Chigi
Reign
April 7, 1655-May 22, 1667
Pope Original Name
Clement IX Giulio Rospigliosi
Reign
June 20, 1667-December 9, 1669
Pope Original Name
Clement X Emilio Altieri
Reign
April 29, 1670-July 22, 1676
Pope Original Name
Innocent XI Benedetto Odescalchi
Reign
September 21, 1676-August 12, 1689
Pope Original Name
Alexander VIII Pietro Ottoboni
Reign
October 6, 1689-February 1, 1691
Pope Original Name
Innocent XII Antonio Pignatelli
Reign
July 12, 1691-September 27, 1700
Pope Original Name
Clement XI Giovanni Francesco Albani
Reign
November 23, 1700-March 19, 1721
Pope Original Name
Innocent XIII Michelangelo dei Conti
Reign
May 8, 1721-March 7, 1724
Pope Original Name
Benedict XIII Pietro Francesco Orsini
Reign
May 29, 1724-February 21, 1730
Pope Original Name
Clement XII Lorenzo Corsini
Reign
July 12, 1730-February 6, 1740
Pope Original Name
Benedict XIV Prospero Lorenzo
Lambertini
Reign
August 17, 1740-May 3, 1758
Pope Original Name
Clement XIII Carlo della Torre
Rezzonico
Reign
July 6, 1758-February 2, 1769
Pope Original Name
Clement XIV Lorenzo Ganganelli
Reign
May 19, 1769-September 22, 1774
Pope Original Name
Pius VI Giovanni Angelo Brachi
Reign
February 15, 1775-August 29, 1799
Pope
Pius VII Luigi Barnabà Chiaramonte
Reign
March 14, 1800-July 20, 1823
Pope Original Name
Leo XII Annibale Sermattei della
Genga
Reign
September 28, 1823-February 10, 1829
Pope Original Name
Pius VIII Francesco Saverio
Castiglione
Reign
March 31, 1829-November 30, 1830
Pope Original Name
Gregory XVI Bartolomeo Albert
Cappellari
Reign
February 2, 1831-June 1, 1846
Pope Original Name
Pius IX Giovanni Maria Mastai-
Ferretti
Reign
June 16, 1846-February 7, 1878
Pope Original Name
Leo XIII Gioacchino Vincenzo Pecci
Reign
February 20, 1878-July 20, 1903
Pope Original Name
St. Pius X Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto
Reign
August 4, 1903-August 20, 1914
Pope Original Name
Benedict XV Giacomo Della Chiesa
Reign
September 3, 1914-January 22, 1922
Pope Original Name
Pius XI Ambrogio Damiano Achille
Ratti
Reign
February 6, 1922-February 10, 1939
Pope Original Name
Pius XII Eugenio Maria Giuseppe
Giovanni Pacelli
Reign
March 2, 1939-October 9. 1958
Pope Original Name
John XXIII Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli
Reign
October 28, 1958-June 3, 1963
Pope Original Name
Paul VI Giovanni Battista Montini
Reign
June 21, 1963-August 6, 1978
Pope Original Name
John Paul I Albino Luciani
Reign
August 26, 1978-September 28, 1978
Pope Original Name
John Paul II Karol Wojtyla
Reign
October 16, 1978-
"THE SEVEN .."(Religions)
The number seven (7) is one of many numbers that
are considered to have mystical properties. It
appears with special frequency in Christian and
other religious writings and doctrines. The
following are some of the more well-known
appearances of this "magic" number.
Seven Apostles of Spain.
Seven missionaries sent by St. Peter in A.D. 64-65
to Betica to found churches.
Seven Churches of Asia.
Seven churches in Asia Minor referred to by St.
John in the Book of Revelation. They are
located in Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira,
Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea.
Seven Churches of Rome.
The basilicas of St. John Lateran, St. Peter,
St. Mary Major, St. Paul-outside-the-Walls, St.
Lawrence-outside-the-Walls, St.
Sebastian-outside-the-Walls, and Holy
Cross-in-Jerusalem. They were visited by early
pilgrims as penance.
Seven Councils.
The first seven ecumenical councils held by the
church before the break between Eastern
churches and Rome.
Seven Days of Creation.
The time, according to the biblical account of
creation, in which God created the universe
from the void.
Seven Deacons.
The first seven assistants ordained by the
Apostles to minister to the poor.
Seven Deadly Sins.
Pride, covetousness, lust, anger, gluttony, envy,
and sloth.
Seven Gifts.
Wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude,
knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord. All are
said to be infused into the soul upon baptism.
Seven Heavens.
Heaven's division into seven levels of
beatitude, a belief popularly held by Roman
Catholics and Jews and forming a part of
Islamic doctrine; seventh heaven is the highest
level.
Seven Last Words.
The seven last statements made by Christ from
the cross: "Father, forgive them for they do
not know what they are doing"; "Indeed, I
promise you, today you will be with Me in
paradise"; "Woman, this is your son"; "This is
your mother"; "My God, my God, why have you
deserted me?"; "I am thirsty"; and "It is
accomplished."
Seven Sacraments.
Baptism, confirmation, the Eucharist, penance,
holy orders, matrimony, and anointing the sick:
the seven rites that confer grace in the Roman
Catholic Church.
Additional Sources of Information (Religions)
Bulfinch's Mythology. Spring Books, 1964.
Cavendish, Richard, ed. Man, Myth and Magic:
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Mythology,
Religion and the Unknown, 2nd ed. Marshall
Cavendish, 1983.
Directory of Religious Organizations in the
United States of America. McGrath, 1977.
Ickis, Marguerite. The Book of Religious
Holidays and Celebrations. Dodd, Mead, 1966.
Kelly, J. N. D. The Oxford Dictionary of Popes.
Oxford University Press, 1986.
Meagher, Paul Kevin, O'Brien, Thomas C., and
Aherne, Sister Consuelo Maria, eds.
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Religion. 3 vols.
Corpus Publications, 1979.
New Catholic Encyclopedia. McGraw-Hill, 1967.
Parrinder, Geoffrey, ed. Religions of the
World. Grosset & Dunlap, 1971.
Walsh, Michael, ed. Bytler's Lives of the
Saints, concise ed. Harper & Row, 1985.
Philosophy
Major World Philosophers
Abelard, Peter (World Philosophers)
(1079 - 1142). French philosopher. One of the most
influential medieval logicians and theologians.
Around 1113, while teaching theology in Paris,
Abelard fell in love with his student Heloise, whom
he secretly married; he was condemned for heresy
a few years later because of his nominalist views
about universals.
Anaxagoras (World Philosophers)
(c. 500 - 428 B.C.). Greek Presocratic philosopher
who is said to have made Athens the center of
philosophy and to have been Socrates' teacher; he
rejected the four elements theory of Empedocles and
posited instead an infinite number of unique
particles of which all objects are composed.
Anaximander (World Philosophers)
(c. 611 - 547 B.C.). Greek Presocratic thinker who
believed the universal substance to be "the
boundless" or "the indefinite," rather than
something resembling familiar objects. Unlike
Thales (his teacher) and Anaximenes, he did not
believe that a single element underlies all things.
Anaximenes (World Philosophers)
(6th century B.C.). One of the Presocratics and an
associate of Anaximander. He agreed with Thales
that one type of substance underlies the diversity
of observable things. Anaximenes believed that air
was that universal substance and that all things
are made of air in different degrees of density.
Anselm, St. (World Philosophers)
(1033 - 1109). Italian monk and Scholastic
theologian who became archbishop of Canterbury. St.
Anselm founded Scholasticism, integrated
Aristotelian logic into theology, and believed that
reason and revelation are compatible. He is most
famous for his influential ontological argument for
God's existence.
Aquinas, St. Thomas (World Philosophers)
(1225 - 74). The greatest thinker of the Scholastic
School. His ideas were, in 1879, made the official
Catholic philosophy. He incorporated Greek ideas
into Christianity by showing Aristotle's thought
to be compatible with church doctrine. In his
system, reason and faith (revelation) form two
separate but harmonious realms whose truths
complement rather than oppose one another. He
presented influential philosophical proofs for the
existence of God.
Aristotle (World Philosophers)
(384 - 322 B.C.). Greek philosopher, scientist,
logician, and student of many disciplines.
Aristotle studied under Plato and became the tutor
of Alexander the Great. In 335 he opened the
Lyceum, a major philosophical and scientific school
in Athens. Aristotle emphasized the observation of
nature and analyzed all things in terms of "the
four causes." In ethics, he stressed that virtue
is a mean between extremes and that man's highest
goal should be the use of his intellect. Most of
Aristotle's works were lost to Christian
civilization from the fifth through the twelfth
centuries.
Augustine of Hippo, St. (World Philosophers)
(354 - 430). The greatest of the Latin church
fathers and possibly the most influential Christian
thinker after St. Paul. St. Augustine emphasized
man's need for grace. His Confessions and The City
of God were highly influential.
Averroes (World Philosophers)
(1126 - 98). Spanish-born Arabian philosopher,
lawyer, and physician whose detailed commentaries
on Aristotle were influential for over 300 years.
He emphasized the compatibility of faith and reason
but believed philosophical knowledge to be derived
from reason. The Church condemned his views.
Avicenna (World Philosophers)
(980 - 1037). Islamic medieval philosopher born in
Persia. His Neoplatonist interpretation of
Aristotle greatly influenced medieval philosophers,
including St. Thomas Aquinas. Avicenna was also a
physician; his writings on medicine were important
for nearly 500 years.
Bacon, Sir Francis (World Philosophers)
(1561 - 1626). English statesman, essayist, and
philosopher, one of the great precursors of the
tradition of British empiricism and of belief in
the importance of scientific method. He emphasized
the use of inductive reasoning in the pursuit of
knowledge.
Bentham, Jeremy (World Philosophers)
(1748 - 1832). English philosopher and lawyer, and
one of the founders of utilitarianism. Bentham was
a highly influential reformer of the British legal,
judicial, and prison systems.
Berkeley, George (World Philosophers)
(1685 - 1753). Irish philosopher and an Anglican
bishop, one of the British empiricists. Berkeley
held to a "subjective idealism." He believed that
everything that exists is dependent on being
perceived by a mind. According to this view,
material objects are simply collections of
sensations or "ideas" in the mind of a person or
of God.
Boethius (World Philosophers)
(c. 475 - 535). Roman statesman, philosopher, and
translator of Aristotle, whose Consolation of
Philosophy (written in prison) was widely read
throughout the Middle Ages; it showed reason's role
in the face of misfortune and was the link between
the ancient philosophers and the Scholastics.
Buber, Martin (World Philosophers)
(1878 - 1965). German-Israeli philosopher
influenced by Jewish mysticism and existentialism,
a major force in twentieth-century Jewish thought
and philosophy of religion. His I and Thou held
that God and man can have a direct and mutual
"dialogue."
Comte, Auguste (World Philosophers)
(1798 - 1857). French founder of Positivism and
social reformer. Comte put forth a "religion of
humanity" that replaced the notion of God with the
notion of mankind as a whole. He invented the term
sociology.
Democritus (World Philosophers)
(c. 460 - c. 370 B.C.). Greek philosopher who
proposed a mechanistic theory of the world that
required no supernatural forces, only the constant
motion of the indestructible atoms of which
everything is composed. He held that perception is
an unreliable source of knowledge and knowledge can
be obtained through reason only.
Descartes, Rene (World Philosophers)
(1596 - 1650). French philosopher and scientist,
considered the father of modern philosophical
inquiry. Descartes tried to extend mathematical
method to all knowledge in his search for
certainty. Discarding the medieval appeal to
authority, he began with "universal doubt," finding
that the only thing that could not be doubted was
his own thinking. The result was his famous
"Cogito, ergo sum," or "I think, therefore I am."
Dewey, John (World Philosophers)
(1859 - 1952). Leading American philosopher,
psychologist, and educational theorist. Dewey
developed the views of Charles S. Peirce (1839 -
1914) and William James into his own version of
pragmatism. He emphasized the importance of inquiry
in gaining knowledge and attacked the view that
knowledge is passive.
Diderot, Denis (World Philosophers)
(1713 - 84). Materialist thinker of the French
Enlightenment and originator of the Encyclopedie.
Diogenes (World Philosophers)
(c. 400 - 325 B.C.). Greek founder of Cynicism who
rejected social conventions and supposedly lived
in a tub in defiance of conventional comforts.
Empedocles (World Philosophers)
(c. 495 - c. 435 B.C.). Greek Presocratic
philosopher who believed the universe to consist
of the four elements, air, fire, water, and earth.
Empedocles held that the interaction between love
and hate causes the mixing of the elements.
Engels, Friedrich (World Philosophers)
(1820 - 95). German socialist thinker and
historian, and the co-founder of Marxism; Marx's
lifelong collaborator; and an originator of the
philosophy of dialectical materialism.
Epictetus (World Philosophers)
(c. 50 - c. 138). Stoic moral philosopher who
established a school of philosophy after being
freed as a slave. His Manual teaches that only by
detaching ourselves from what is not in our power
can we attain inward freedom.
Epicurus (World Philosophers)
(341 - 270 B.C.). Founder of the Epicurean
philosophy and a follower of Democritus, founder
of atomism. Virtually all of Epicurus' writings are
lost.
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (World Philosophers)
(1770 - 1831). German philosopher whose idealistic
system of metaphysics was highly influential; it
was based on a concept of the world as a single
organism developing by its own inner logic through
trios of stages called "thesis, antithesis, and
synthesis" and gradually coming to embody reason.
Hegel held the monarchy to be the highest
development of the state.
Heidegger, Martin (World Philosophers)
(1889 - 1976). German philosopher who studied with
Husserl. Heidegger's own philosophy, which was
influenced by Kierkegaard, emphasized the need to
understand "being," especially the unique ways that
humans act in and relate to the world.
Heraclitus (World Philosophers)
(c. 535 - c. 475 B.C.). Presocratic philosopher
opposed to the idea of a single ultimate reality.
Heraclitus believed that all things are in a
constant state of change.
Hobbes, Thomas (World Philosophers)
(1588 - 1679). English materialist and empiricist,
one of the founders of modern political philosophy.
In the Leviathan, Hobbes argued that because men
are selfish by nature, a powerful absolute ruler
is necessary. In a "social contract," men agree to
give up many personal liberties and accept such
rule.
Hume, David (World Philosophers)
(1711 - 76). British empiricist whose arguments
against the proofs for God's existence are still
influential. Hume held that moral beliefs have no
basis in reason, but are based solely on custom.
Husserl, Edmund (World Philosophers)
(1859 - 1938). German philosopher who founded the
Phenomenology movement. He aimed at a completely
accurate description of consciousness and conscious
experience.
James, William (World Philosophers)
(1842 - 1910). American philosopher and
psychologist, one of the founders of Pragmatism,
and one of the most influential thinkers of his
era. James viewed consciousness as actively shaping
reality, defined truth as "the expedient" way of
thinking, and held that ideas are tools for guiding
our future actions rather than reproductions of our
past experiences.
Kant, Immanuel (World Philosophers)
(1724 - 1804). German philosopher, possibly the
most influential of modern times. He synthesized
Leibniz's rationalism and Hume's skepticism into
his "critical philosophy": that ideas do not
conform to the external world, but rather the world
can be known only insofar as it conforms to the
mind's own structure. Kant claimed that morality
requires a belief in God, freedom, and immortality,
although these can be proved neither scientifically
nor by metaphysics.
Kierkegaard, Soren (World Philosophers)
(1813 - 55). Danish philosopher, religious thinker,
and extraordinarily influential founder of
existentialism. Kierkegaard held that "truth is
subjectivity," that religion is an individual
matter, and that man's relationship to God requires
suffering.
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (World Philosophers)
(1646 - 1716). German philosopher, diplomat, and
mathematician, one of the great minds of all time.
Leibniz was an inventor (with Sir Isaac Newton) of
the calculus and a forefather of modern
mathematical logic. He held that the entire
universe is one large system expressing God's plan.
Locke, John (World Philosophers)
(1632 - 1704). Highly influential founder of
British empiricism. Locke believed that all ideas
come to mind from experience and that none are
innate. He also held that authority derives solely
from the consent of the governed, a view that
deeply influenced the American Revolution and the
writing of the U.S. Constitution.
Lucretius (World Philosophers)
(c. 99 - c. 55 B.C.). Roman Epicurean philosopher
and poet. In De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of
Things), Lucretius depicted the entire world,
including the soul, as composed of atoms.
Machiavelli, Niccolo (World Philosophers)
(1469 - 1527). Italian Renaissance statesman and
political writer. In The Prince, one of the most
influential political books of modern times,
Machiavelli argues that any act of a ruler designed
to gain and hold power is permissible. The term
Machiavellian is used to refer to any political
tactics that are cunning and power-oriented.
Maimonides (World Philosophers)
(1135 - 1204). Spanish-born medieval Jewish
philosopher and thinker. Maimonides tried to
synthesize Aristotelian and Judaic thought. His
works had enormous influence on Jewish and
Christian thought.
Marcus Aurelius (World Philosophers)
(121 - 180). Roman emperor from A.D. 161, and a
proponent of the Stoic philosophy. His Meditations
held that death is as natural as birth and that
the world is rational and orderly. Although a great
humanitarian, Marcus Aurelius persecuted the
Christians of his time.
Marx, Karl (World Philosophers)
(1818 - 83). German revolutionary thinker, social
philosopher, and economist. His ideas, formulated
with Engels, laid the foundation for
nineteenth-century socialism and twentieth-century
communism. Although Marx was initially influenced
by Hegel, he soon rejected Hegel's idealism in
favor of materialism. His Communist Manifesto and
Das Kapital are among the most important writings
of the last 200 years.
Mill, John Stuart (World Philosophers)
(1806 - 73). English empiricist philosopher,
logician, economist, and social reformer. His
System of Logic described the basic rules for all
scientific reasoning. As a student of Jeremy
Bentham, he elaborated on utilitarian ethics; in
On Liberty, he presented a plea for the sanctity
of individual rights against the power of any
government.
Montesquieu, Baron de (Charles-Louis de Secondat)
(1689 - 1755). French political philosopher,
influenced by Locke. In Spirit of the Laws,
Montesquieu put forth the theory of separation of
powers that strongly influenced the writing of the
U.S. Constitution.
Moore, G. E. (George Edward) (World Philosophers)
(1873 - 1958). British philosopher who emphasized
the "common sense" view of the reality of material
objects. In ethics, Moore held that goodness is a
quality known directly by moral intuition and that
it is a fallacy to try to define it in terms of
anything else.
More, Sir Thomas (World Philosophers)
(1478 - 1535). A leading Renaissance humanist and
statesman, Lord Chancellor of England. More was
beheaded for refusing to accept the king as head
of the Church. Influenced by Greek thinking, he
believed in social reform and drew a picture of an
ideal peaceful state in his Utopia.
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (World Philosophers)
(1844 - 1900). German philosopher, philologist,
and poet. As a moralist, he rejected Christian
values and championed a "Superman" who would create
a new, life-affirming, heroic ethic by his "will
to power."
Parmenides (World Philosophers)
(b. c. 515 B.C.). The founder of Western
metaphysics. This Presocratic thinker held that
"being" is the basic substance and ultimate reality
of which all things are composed and that motion,
change, time, difference, and reality are illusions
of the senses.
Pascal, Blaise (World Philosophers)
(1623 - 62). French philosopher, mathematician,
scientist, and theologian. His posthumous Pensees
("Thoughts") argues that reason is by itself
inadequate for man's spiritual needs and cannot
bring man to God, who can be known only through
mystic understanding.
Plato (World Philosophers)
(c. 428 - c. 348 B.C.). Athenian father of Western
philosophy and student of Socrates, after whose
death he traveled widely. On returning to Athens,
he founded an Academy, where he taught until he
died. His writings are in the form of dialogues
between Socrates and other Athenians. Many of
Plato's views are set forth in The Republic, where
an ideal state postulates philosopher kings,
specially trained at the highest levels of moral
and mathematical knowledge. Plato's other works
analyzed moral virtues, the nature of knowledge,
and the immortality of the soul. His views on
cosmology strongly influenced the next two thousand
years of scientific thinking.
Plotinus (World Philosophers)
(205 - 270). Egyptian-born founder of Neoplatonism,
who synthesized the ideas of Plato and other Greek
philosophers. Plotinus believed all reality is
caused by a series of outpourings (called
emanations) from the divine source. Although not
himself a Christian, he was a major influence on
Christianity.
Pythagoras (World Philosophers)
(c. 582 - c. 507 B.C.). Greek philosopher,
mathematician, and mystic, founder of a religious
brotherhood that believed in the immortality and
the transmigration of the soul. Pythagoras may have
been the first thinker to assert that numbers
constitute the true nature of all things; he also
may have coined the term philosophy.
Rousseau, Jean Jacques (World Philosophers)
(1712 - 78). Swiss-French thinker, born in Geneva.
Rousseau has been enormously influential in
political philosophy, educational theory, and the
Romantic movement. In The Social Contract (1762),
he viewed governments as being expressions of the
people's "general will," or rational men's choice
for the common good. Rousseau emphasized man's
natural goodness.
Russell, Bertrand (World Philosophers)
(1872 - 1970). English philosopher and logician
influential as an agnostic and a pacifist. Early
work with Alfred North Whitehead gave birth to
modern logic. Russell changed his views numerous
times but always sought to establish philosophy,
especially epistemology, as a science.
Santayana, George (World Philosophers)
(1863 - 1952). Spanish-born American philosopher
and poet; a student of William James. Santayana
attempted to reconcile Platonism and materialism,
studied how reason works, and found "animal faith,"
or impulse, to be the basis of reason and belief.
Sartre, Jean-Paul (World Philosophers)
(1905 - 80). French philosopher, novelist, and
dramatist; one of the founders of existentialism.
Sartre was a Marxist through much of his life. He
held that man is "condemned to be free" and to bear
the responsibility of making free choices.
Schopenhauer, Arthur (World Philosophers)
(1788 - 1860). German post-Kantian philosopher who
held that although irrational will is the driving
force in human affairs, it is doomed not to be
satisfied. He believed that only art and
contemplation could offer escape from determinism
and pessimism. Schopenhauer strongly influenced
Nietzsche, Freud, Tolstoy, Proust, and Thomas Mann.
Scotus, John Duns (World Philosophers)
(c. 1266 - 1308). Scottish-born Scholastic
philosopher who tried to integrate Aristotelian
ideas into Christian theology. Scotus emphasized
that all things depend not just on God's intellect
but on divine will as well.
Smith, Adam (World Philosophers)
(1723 - 1790). Scottish philosopher and economist.
He believed that if government left the marketplace
to its own devices, an "invisible hand" would
guarantee that the results would benefit the
populace. Smith has had enormous influence on
economists into the present day.
Socrates (World Philosophers)
(464 - 399 B.C.). Athenian philosopher who
allegedly wrote down none of his views, supposedly
from his belief that writing distorts ideas. His
chief student, Plato, is the major source of
knowledge of what is known of his life. Socrates
questioned Athenians about their moral, political,
and religious beliefs, as depicted in Plato's
dialogues; his questioning technique, called
dialectic, has greatly influenced western
philosophy. Socrates is alleged to have said that
"the unexamined life is not worth living." In 399
B.C., he was brought to trial on charges of
corrupting the youth and religious heresy.
Sentenced to die, he drank poison.
Spinoza, Benedict (Baruch) (World Philosophers)
(1623 - 77). Dutch-born philosopher expelled from
the Amsterdam Jewish community for heresy in 1656;
he was attacked by Christian theologians 14 years
later. In Ethics, Spinoza presents his views in a
mathematical system of deductive reasoning. A
proponent of monism, he held-in contrast to
Descartes-that mind and body are aspects of a
single substance, which he called God or nature.
Thales of Miletus (World Philosophers)
(c. 636 - c. 546 B.C.). Regarded as the first
Western philosopher, this Presocratic monist
thinker is said to have believed that the
fundamental principle of all things, or universal
substance, is water. All of his writings are lost.
Unamuno, Miguel de (World Philosophers)
(1864 - 1936). The major Spanish philosophical
thinker of his time. Unamuno criticized
philosophical abstractions such as "man" for
ignoring concrete men. He held that reason by
itself is virtually useless and cannot reveal the
basic fact of human immortality.
Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet) (World Philosophers)
(1694 - 1778). French philosopher, essayist, and
historian; one of the major thinkers of the
Enlightenment. A Deist who was anti-Christian,
Voltaire widely advocated tolerance of liberal
ideas and called for positive social action. His
novel Cyandide is a parody of the optimism of
Leibniz.
Whitehead, Alfred North (World Philosophers)
(1861 - 1947). British philosopher and
mathematician who worked with Bertrand Russell.
Whitehead tried to integrate twentieth-century
physics into a metaphysics of nature.
William of Ockham (Occam) (World Philosophers)
(c. 1285 - c. 1349). Franciscan monk and important
English theologian and philosopher. In his
nominalism, he opposed much of the thought of St.
Thomas Aquinas and of medieval Aristotelianism; he
also rejected the Pope's power in the secular
realm.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig (World Philosophers)
(1889 - 1951). Austrian-born philosopher who spent
the last 20 years of his life in England.
Wittgenstein was one of the most influential
philosophers of the century, primarily through his
emphasis on the importance of the study of
language. His early writings influenced analytic
philosophy. His later views emphasized that
philosophic problems are often caused by linguistic
confusions.
Zeno of Elea (World Philosophers)
(c. 490 - c. 430 B.C.). Presocratic philosopher
and disciple of Parmenides. Zeno argued that
motion, change, and plurality are logical
absurdities and that only an unchanging being is
real. His four arguments against motion (Zeno's
paradoxes) attempted to demonstrate logically that
the notions of time and motion are erroneous.
Zeno (of Citium) the Stoic (World Philosophers)
(c. 334 - c. 262 B.C.). Greek philosopher born in
Cyprus; the founder of Stoicism.
Philosophical Terms
Entries in this glossary include terms used by
philosophers (for instance, a priori); "isms"
that describe philosophical viewpoints or positions
(for example, pantheism); and specific historical
movements (such as Existentialism) and schools
(Cartesianism). Names of philosophers referred to
in the glossary who are listed under "Major World
Philosophers" are marked with an asterisk *.
absolutism (Philosophical Terms)
The doctrine that there is one explanation of all
reality-the absolute-that is unchanging and
objectively true. Absolutists (such as G. W. F.
Hegel*) hold that this absolute, such as God or
mind, is eternal and that in it all seeming
differences are reconciled.
aesthetics (esthetics) (Philosophical Terms)
The philosophical study of art, or of beauty in
general. It attempts to systematically answer such
questions as, What is beauty? How do we evaluate
works of art? Are aesthetic judgments objective or
subjective? How does art embody truth and convey
knowledge? How does beauty in art relate to beauty
in nature?
agnosticism (Philosophical Terms)
The belief that it is impossible to know whether
God exists, or to have any other theological
knowledge. English thinkers T. H. Huxley
(1825-95) and Bertrand Russell* were influential
agnostics.
altruism (Philosophical Terms)
The ethical theory that morality consists of
concern for and the active promotion of the
interests of others. Altruists strongly disagree
with the doctrine of egoism, which states that
individuals act only in their own self-interest.
analytical philosophy (Philosophical Terms)
An influential twentieth-century movement whose
major proponents include Bertrand Russell,* Ludwig
Wittgenstein,* and such logical positivists as
Rudolph Carnap (1891 - 1970) and Willard Van Orman
Quine (1908 - ). This school of thought
emphasizes restating philosophical problems in
highly structured terms based on modern logic.
analytic statement (Philosophical Terms)
A statement true by definition, such as "All
triangles have three sides."
anarchism (Philosophical Terms)
A political philosophy that advocates the abolition
of an organized state as the ruling government. Its
advocates believe that individuals should be free
to organize themselves in the ways that best enable
them to fulfill their needs and ideals. The Russian
thinker Mikhail Bakunin (1814-76) was an
influential anarchist.
angst (Philosophical Terms)
A German word meaning anxiety, anguish, or dread.
The term was used by Heidegger* and other adherents
of Existentialism to express their belief that
anxiety characterizes the human condition and that
dread arises from our realization that we are
totally responsible for all of our choices.
anthroposophy (Philosophical Terms)
The philosophy of Rudolf Steiner (1861 - 1925), an
Austrian-born thinker who held that cultivating
man's spiritual development is humanity's most
important task. His followers founded a large
number of schools worldwide based on his
philosophy.
a posteriori knowledge (Philosophical Terms)
Knowledge based on or derived from sensory
experience.
a priori knowledge (Philosophical Terms)
Knowledge acquired by the mind or reasoning alone,
without any specific basis in experience-for
instance, 2+2=4.
argument (Philosophical Terms)
An attempt to relate one set of statements, called
the premises or the starting point, to another set,
called the conclusion or the end point, by valid
means. Arguments are either inductive or deductive.
See also syllogism.
Aristotelianism (Philosophical Terms)
The thinking and writings of Aristotle,*
influential until the fall of Rome, when all but
his writings on logic were lost to Christian
civilization in Europe. However, his works were
preserved in Syrian and Arabic cultures and were
revived at the end of the twelfth century.
asceticism (Philosophical Terms)
The view that attention to the body's needs is
evil, an obstacle to moral and spiritual
development, and displeasing to God. According to
this view, humans are urged to withdraw into an
inner spiritual world to reach the good life.
associationism (Philosophical Terms)
A philosophical theory of the mind that holds that
all mental states can be analyzed as separate
component items and that all mental activity can
be explained by the combining and recombining of
these items, often called ideas. David Hume* and
John Stuart Mill* were prominent advocates of this
view. See also association of ideas.
association of ideas (Philosophical Terms)
The principles by which the mind connects ideas.
Aristotle* included similarity, contrast, and
closeness; David Hume* held the basic laws to be
resemblance, closeness in time or place, and
causality. Hume and John Stuart Mill* are the two
most prominent philosophers who emphasized
association as the basic principle of the mind. See
also associationism.
atheism (Philosophical Terms)
The rejection of the belief in God. Some atheists
have held that there is nothing in the world that
requires a God in order to be explained. Atheism
is not the same as agnosticism, which holds that
we can have knowledge neither of the existence nor
of the nonexistence of God.
atomism (Philosophical Terms)
The theory that reality is composed of simple and
indivisible units (atoms) that are completely
separate from and independent of one another.
Philosophers have differed as to the nature of
atoms; for instance, the Greek thinkers Leucippus
and Democritus* (fifth century B.C.) held that the
atoms are different-shaped bits of matter.
bad faith (Philosophical Terms)
Term used by Jean-Paul Sartre* for self-deception
and the deception of others caused by denying one's
freedom of choice and one's responsibility for
making decisions.
becoming (Philosophical Terms)
That which changes from one form to another, or,
in Plato,* that which is known only by experience
and exists only temporarily. See also being.
being (Philosophical Terms)
Frequently used in metaphysics to contrast with
appearance or nonexistence; often synonymous with
unchanging substance, ultimate reality, God,
infinity, or all that exists. Aristotle held that
being is the subject matter of metaphysics. See
also becoming.
bioethics (Philosophical Terms)
A branch of philosophy that studies ethical issues
that arise from conflicts between human rights and
medical and biological research and the technology
they use. Areas of concern are genetic
manipulation, euthanasia, and brain control.
British empiricism (Philosophical Terms)
The empiricism of Locke,* Berkeley,* and Hume* in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. They
share the axiom that our knowledge of the world
derives from experience or sensation rather than
from reason. This view is opposed to rationalism,
as well as to the Platonic notion of Forms as the
source of knowledge.
British idealism (neo-Hegelianism)
The philosophy of Hegel* as revived in England and
Scotland in the mid-nineteenth century. The most
prominent members of this school were T. H. Green
(1836-82), Bernard Bosanquet (1848 - 1923), and
F. H. Bradley (1846 - 1924). They were united in
their opposition to empiricism and utilitarianism
and in their emphasis on mind and spirit as
primary.
Buridan's ass (Philosophical Terms)
A story, falsely attributed to the
fourteenth-century thinker John Buridan, in which
an ass, faced with two equally desirable bales of
hay, starves to death because he cannot find a good
reason for preferring one bale to the other.
Cambridge Platonists (Philosophical Terms)
A group of seventeenth-century English
philosophers and theologians who tried to provide
Christian theology with a philosophical defense
based on Platonic and Neoplatonic theories. Ralph
Cudworth (1617 - 88) was the most prominent member.
Cartesianism (Philosophical Terms)
The views of Descartes* as interpreted by
rationalistic, dualistic, and theistic
philosophers. Nicolas Malebranche (1638 - 1715) was
the most prominent of the group.
categorical imperative (Philosophical Terms)
Kant's* term for the absolutely binding law of
morality, in which a rational person must act
whether he or she wishes to or not.
cause (Philosophical Terms)
Whatever is responsible for change, action, or
motion. Historically, Aristotle's* analysis of
cause falls into four types: material cause, the
substance a thing is made of; formal cause, the
design of the thing; efficient cause, the maker of
the thing; and final cause, its purpose or
function. Hume* argued that all knowledge of cause
comes from our actual experience of observed
regularities.
certainty (Philosophical Terms)
According to Descartes,* a condition of knowing
that anything is true; various types of statements
that are certain, for example, 1+1=2, or all
widows are female.
chain of being (Philosophical Terms)
An idea, originating with Plato* and very
influential in Western thought into the
Renaissance, that all possible things are realized
in the world in an ordered chain of diminishing
complexity and richness, from God down to the
tiniest, humblest bit of matter. The view captures
the concept of the universe as an ordered
hierarchy.
conceptualism (Philosophical Terms)
The theory that general ideas, such as the idea of
man or of redness, exist as entities produced by
the human mind and that they can exist in the minds
of all men. This view is typically contrasted with
nominalism and realism.
cosmogony (Philosophical Terms)
A theory or story about the origin of the universe,
either scientific or mythological. Cosmogonies are
also called creation myths.
cosmology (Philosophical Terms)
The systematic study of the origin and structure
of the universe as a whole. In such philosophers
as Plato,* Aristotle,* and Kant,* cosmology was
based on metaphysical speculation; today cosmology
is a branch of the physical sciences.
counterexample (Philosophical Terms)
A specific fact that refutes or negates a
generalization; for instance, a black swan is a
counterexample to the statement "All swans are
white."
Cynics (Philosophical Terms)
A school of Greek philosophers founded by
Diogenes.* According to legend, Diogenes walked
around night and day with a lighted lantern seeking
an honest man but could not find one. The Cynics
held that men should live in a simple state of
nature with as few desires and needs as possible.
They advocated moderation, self-discipline, and
training of the mind as well as the body.
Cyrenaics (Philosophical Terms)
A school of philosophy of the fourth century B.C.
in Athens founded by Cyrene, a disciple of
Socrates. Cyrenaics believed that only momentary
feelings of pleasure or pain can be known; they
held that the good life is one that maximizes
pleasure derived from satisfying one's bodily
desires. See also hedonism.
deductive reasoning (Philosophical Terms)
Reasoning from a general statement to a particular
or specific example; for example, "All cats are
mortal; William is a cat; therefore, William is
mortal." See also syllogism.
deism (Philosophical Terms)
A philosophical viewpoint appearing in England in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and in
France in the eighteenth century. Deists hold that
although God created the universe and its laws, He
then removed Himself from any ongoing interaction
with the material world.
deontology (Philosophical Terms)
The ethical philosophy that makes duty the basis
of all morality. According to deontological
theorists, such as Kant,* some acts-such as
keeping a promise or telling the truth-are moral
obligations regardless of their consequences.
determinism (Philosophical Terms)
The view that every event has a cause and that
everything in the universe is absolutely dependent
on and governed by causal laws. Since determinists
believe that all events, including human actions,
are predetermined, determinism is typically thought
to be incompatible with free will.
dialectic (Philosophical Terms)
A term with different meanings for different
philosophers. It derives from the Greek word
meaning "to converse" and is used to describe
Socrates'* method of teaching by
question-and-answer technique. Plato* used the word
to mean the study of the Forms. In Kant,* it refers
to a method of criticizing claims of knowledge
going beyond experience. Hegel* means by it the
necessary pattern of thinking.
dialectical materialism (Philosophical Terms)
The philosophy of Karl Marx* and many of his
followers. It holds that matter is the primary
reality and that it obeys the dynamic laws of
change. The most fundamental of these laws is that
progress occurs through conflict and struggle
between opposing forces, such as between different
classes and between capitalism and communism. See
also Marxism.
doubt (Philosophical Terms)
According to Descartes,* the argument that nothing
can be considered true unless it can never be
doubted under any conditions. Descartes doubted
everything "systematically" to find out if anything
is indubitable; his "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think,
therefore I am") survived his test.
dualism (Philosophical Terms)
Any philosophical theory holding that the universe
consists of, or can only be explained by, two
independent and separate forces, such as matter and
spirit, the forces of good and evil, or the
supernatural and natural. See also mind-body
problem.
duty (Philosophical Terms)
According to many ethical theories, the basis of
the virtuous life. The Stoics held that man has a
duty to live virtuously and according to reason;
and Kant* held that his categorical imperative is
the highest law of duty, no matter what the
consequences.
egocentric predicament (Philosophical Terms)
The belief that each of us is limited to, and by,
our unique pattern of perceptions. Any knowledge
of the world outside our minds would thus be
colored by our perceptions. See also solipsism.
egoism (Philosophical Terms)
The ethical theory that each person should forward
his or her own self-interest. Egoists sometimes
argue that this is not selfishness, but that
self-interest is compatible with helping others as
well. Some egoists also argue that, psychologically
speaking, human beings always in fact seek their
own well-being.
elan vital (Philosophical Terms)
See vitalism.
Eleatics (Philosophical Terms)
A school of Presocratic philosophers from Elea in
southern Italy, of whom Parmenides* and Zeno of
Elea* are the best known. The Eleatics denied the
reality of what is known to the senses, holding
that the ultimate reality is an undifferentiated
and unchanging "being."
empirical (Philosophical Terms)
Based on experience, observation, or facts-in
short, describing any knowledge derived from or
validated by sensory experience.
empiricism (Philosophical Terms)
The view that all knowledge of the world derives
solely from sensory experience, using observation
and experimentation if needed; empiricism also
holds that reason on its own can never provide
knowledge of reality unless it also utilizes
experience. See also British empiricism.
Encyclopedists (Philosophical Terms)
A group of eighteenth-century French writers who
combined to produce an encyclopedia of philosophy,
art, and science (1751 - 65) edited by Diderot* and
D'Alembert. The work was skeptical about religion
and advocated liberal, democratic political views.
At the time, it was the largest compendium of human
knowledge that had ever been produced.
Enlightenment (Age of Reason) (Philosophical Terms)
A period that stretched from the early seventeenth
to the early nineteenth century, especially in
France, England, and Germany. Its thinkers strove
to make reason the ruler of human life; they
believed that all men could gain knowledge and
liberation. Major Enlightenment figures include
Voltaire,* Rousseau,* Diderot,* and Montesquieu*
in France; Bacon*, Hobbes,* and Locke* in England;
and Leibniz,* Lessing (1729-81), and Herder
(1744 - 1803) in Germany.
Epicureanism (Philosophical Terms)
A school founded by Epicurus* about 306 B.C. that
taught that pleasure and happiness should be man's
supreme goals. Epicureans sought mental pleasures
over bodily ones.
epistemology (Philosophical Terms)
The branch of philosophy that studies how knowledge
is gained, how much we can know, and what
justification there is for what is known.
eschatology (Philosophical Terms)
In theology, the study of "final things," such as
death, resurrection, immortality, the second coming
of Christ, and the day of judgment.
essence (Philosophical Terms)
That which makes a specific thing what it is and
not something else; its nature. While the Greek
philosophers viewed essence and substance as
basically the same, St. Thomas Aquinas* and the
philosophy of Scholasticism held that even
nonexistent things have natures or essences
distinguishable from the fact of their existence.
esthetics (Philosophical Terms)
See aesthetics.
euthanasia (Philosophical Terms)
The act of allowing a terminally ill person to
freely choose when and how he or she will die;
mercy killing.
existentialism (Philosophical Terms)
A philosophy of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. The dogma holds that since there are no
universal values, man's essence is not
predetermined but is based only on free choice; man
is in a state of anxiety because of his realization
of free will; and there is no objective truth.
Major existentialists were Kierkegaard,*
Nietzsche,* Sartre,* Heidegger,* Karl Jaspers (1883
- 1969), and the religious existentialists Martin
Buber* and Gabriel Marcel (1889 - 1973).
fatalism (Philosophical Terms)
The belief that "what will be will be," since all
past, present, and future events have already been
predetermined by God or another all-powerful force.
In religion, this view may be called
predestination; it holds that whether our souls go
to Heaven or Hell is determined before we are born
and is independent of our good deeds.
Forms (Philosophical Terms)
According to Plato,* all existing things are merely
imperfect copies of eternal, unchanging,
immaterial, and perfect archetypes called Forms or
Ideas.
four elements (Philosophical Terms)
According to many early Greek philosophers, the
four basic constituents of the physical world:
earth, air, fire, and water.
free will (Philosophical Terms)
The theory that human beings have freedom of choice
or self-determination; that is, that given a
situation, a person could have done other than what
he did. Philosophers have argued that free will is
incompatible with determinism. See also
indeterminism.
golden mean (Philosophical Terms)
The ethical doctrine, originating with Aristotle,
that virtuous actions fall exactly between too much
of some quality, such as impulsive behavior, and
too little of it, such as timidity. It is
associated with ethics calling for moderation.
golden rule (Philosophical Terms)
The fundamental moral rule of most religions,
especially Christianity, that states, "Do unto
others as you would have others do unto you."
greatest happiness principle (Philosophical Terms)
See principle of utility; Utilitarianism.
hedonism (Philosophical Terms)
A philosophy of ethics holding that pleasure is the
highest or the only good in life, and that men
should strive for pleasure and the avoidance of
pain. Among the chief proponents of hedonism were
the Epicureans and the utilitarians.
Hegelianism (neo-Hegelianism) (Philosophical Terms)
A school of thought associated with Hegel* in the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
especially in England, America, France, and Italy.
F. G. Bradley (1846 - 1924), Josiah Royce (1855 -
1916), and Benedetto Croce (1866 - 1952) were
prominent members; they emphasized the importance
of spirit and the belief that ideas and moral
ideals are fundamental.
Hobson's choice (Philosophical Terms)
A choice offered without any real alternative-
therefore, not really a choice at all.
Humanism (Philosophical Terms)
Any philosophic view that holds that mankind's
well-being and happiness in this lifetime are
primary and that the good of all humanity is the
highest ethical goal. Twentieth-century humanists
tend to reject all beliefs in the supernatural,
relying instead on scientific methods and reason.
The term is also used to refer to Renaissance
thinkers, especially in the fifteenth century in
Italy, who emphasized knowledge and learning not
based on religious sources.
idealism (Philosophical Terms)
A term applied to any philosophy holding that mind
or spiritual values, rather than material things
or matter, are primary in the universe. See also
British idealism.
immortality (Philosophical Terms)
The view that the individual soul is eternal, and
thus survives the death of the body it resides in.
See also transmigration of souls.
indeterminism (Philosophical Terms)
The view that there are events that do not have any
cause; many proponents of free will believe that
acts of choice are capable of not being determined
by any physiological or psychological cause.
inductive reasoning (Philosophical Terms)
Any process of reasoning from something particular
to something general, or from a part to a whole.
Inductive reasoning can be valid or invalid.
innate ideas (Philosophical Terms)
Ideas that are inborn and part of the mind at
birth, rather than based on specific experiences.
Descartes* believed there are "clear and distinct"
ideas that are innate and that form the basis of
all knowledge. Plato* believed that knowledge of
the Forms derives from innate ideas.
instrumentalism (Philosophical Terms)
A theory that holds that ideas and concepts should
be regarded as tools or instruments to be used in
specific situations. As such, they cannot be
described as true or false, but only as effective
or ineffective. This theory was first put forth by
John Dewey.*
intuitionism (Philosophical Terms)
Any philosophy holding that intuition is the basis
of knowledge or of philosophy. French philosopher
Henri Bergson (1859 - 1941) was a prominent
advocate. In particular, intuitionism refers to a
British school of thought that maintains that all
ethical knowledge rests on moral intuition.
justice (Philosophical Terms)
According to most philosophers, starting with
Plato,* the harmonious balance between the rights
of the various members of a society. Justice is
usually understood as including such social virtues
as fairness, equality, and correct and impartial
treatment.
language game (Philosophical Terms)
A concept introduced by Ludwig Wittgenstein,* who
drew an analogy between how we use language and how
we play games: both have rules and moves that make
sense only in the context of a particular game.
Wittgenstein and his followers used this concept
to point out that philosophers frequently try to
make moves in one context that make sense only in
another, as when they try to verify religious
statements as if they were a part of science.
linguistic philosophy (linguistic analysis)
The twentieth-century school of thought whose key
tenet is that philosophical problems are best
approached by asking questions about the use of
words and by analyzing how language works in
specific social contexts.
logic (Philosophical Terms)
The study of the rules and the nature of reasoning
and of valid or sound patterns of thought.
Aristotle* classified many of the rules of
reasoning. In the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, logic was advanced into a
branch of mathematics. Currently, mathematical
logic is a growing field independent of philosophy.
See also syllogism.
logical positivism (Philosophical Terms)
A twentieth-century school founded in the 1920s in
Europe that was extremely influential for American
and English philosophers. It advocated the
principle of verifiability, according to which all
statements that could be validated empirically were
meaningless. Logical positivism held that this
principle showed that all of metaphysics, religion,
and ethics was incapable of being proved either
true or false. See also Vienna Circle.
Manichaeanism (Philosophical Terms)
A religious-philosophical doctrine that originated
in Persia in the third century and reappeared
throughout the next 1300 years. It holds that the
entire universe, especially human life, is a
struggle between the opposing forces of good and
evil (light and darkness).
Marxism (Philosophical Terms)
The political, economic, and philosophical theories
developed by Karl Marx* and Friedrich Engels* in
the second half of the nineteenth century. The
philosophical side of Marxism is called dialectical
materialism; it emphasizes economic determinism.
See also dialectical materialism.
materialism (Philosophical Terms)
The theory that holds that the nature of the world
is dependent on matter, or that matter is the only
fundamental substance; thus, spirit and mind either
do not exist or are manifestations of matter.
mechanism (Philosophical Terms)
The philosophical theory that states that living
organisms, including man, are complex machines,
since they are composed of matter.
meta-ethics (Philosophical Terms)
A branch of philosophy that analyzes ethics. It is
concerned with such issues as, How are moral
decisions justified? What is the foundation of any
ethical view? What language is used to state moral
beliefs?
metaphysics (Philosophical Terms)
The branch of philosophy concerned with the
ultimate nature of reality and existence as a
whole. Metaphysics also includes the study of
cosmology and philosophical theology. Aristotle*
produced the first "system" of metaphysics.
Miletian School (Philosophical Terms)
The Presocratics from Miletus in Greece-Thales* and
his two best-known pupils, Anaximander* and
Anaximenes.*
mind-body problem (Philosophical Terms)
A central problem of modern philosophy that
originated with Descartes.* It asks how the mind
and the body are related.
monad (Philosophical Terms)
According to Leibniz,* the ultimate and indivisible
units of all existence. Monads are not material,
like atoms; each monad is self-activating, a unique
center of force. All monads are in a
"pre-established harmony" with each other and with
God, the supreme monad.
monism (Philosophical Terms)
The theory that everything in the universe is
composed of, or can be explained by or reduced to,
one fundamental substance, energy, or force.
mysticism (Philosophical Terms)
Any philosophy whose roots are in mystical
experiences, intuitions, or direct experiences of
the divine. In such experiences, the mystic
believes that his or her soul has temporarily
achieved union with God. Mystics believe reality
can be known only in this manner, not through
reasoning or everyday experience.
myth of Er (Philosophical Terms)
A parable at the end of Plato's Republic about the
fate of souls after bodily death; according to
Plato,* the soul must choose wisdom in the
afterlife to guarantee a good life in its next
cycle of incarnation.
naturalism (Philosophical Terms)
A philosophic view stating that all there is in
reality is what the physical and human sciences
(for example, physics or psychology) study and that
there is no need to posit any supernatural forces
or being, such as God, mind, or spirit.
naturalistic fallacy (Philosophical Terms)
A belief of many twentieth-century philosophers in
England and America that it is invalid to infer any
statements of morality (for example, "Men ought to
act kindly") from factual statements (for example,
"Kindness is a natural quality"). The notion tries
to derive ought from is and was first described
by Hume.*
natural law (Philosophical Terms)
The theory that there is a higher law than the
manmade laws put forth by specific governments.
This law is universal, unchanging, and a
fundamental part of human nature. Advocates of this
view believe that natural law can be discovered by
reason alone. The theory originated with the Stoics
and was elaborated on by St. Thomas Aquinas,* among
others.
natural rights (Philosophical Terms)
Certain freedoms or privileges that are held to be
an innate part of the nature of being a human being
and that cannot be denied by society. These are
different from civil rights, which are granted by
a specific nation or government. Philosophers have
differed on which rights are natural, but usually
included are life, liberty, equality, equal
treatment under the law, the pursuit of happiness,
and equality of opportunity. Locke's* influential
views on natural rights inspired the writers of the
American Constitution.
necessary and contingent truth (Philosophical Terms)
Terms used by philosophers to contrast two types
of statements, such as "All widowers are male,"
which is necessarily true, and "All widowers are
over 20 years old," which may be true but is not
necessarily true.
Neoplatonism (Philosophical Terms)
A school of philosophy that flourished from the
second to the fifth centuries A.D. It was founded
by Plotinus* and was influential for the next
thousand years.
nihilism (Philosophical Terms)
A term first used in Fathers and Sons (1862) by the
Russian novelist Turgenev. Ethical nihilism is the
theory that morality cannot be justified in any way
and that all moral values are, therefore,
meaningless and irrational. Political nihilism is
the social philosophy that society and its
institutions are so corrupt that their complete
destruction is desirable. Nihilists may, therefore,
advocate violence and even terrorism in the name
of overthrowing what they believe to be a corrupt
social order.
nominalism (Philosophical Terms)
The view that general terms, such as "table," do
not refer to essences, concepts, abstract ideas,
or anything else; "table" makes sense only because
all tables resemble each other. According to this
view, such general terms do not have any
independent existence.
non sequitur (Philosophical Terms)
A Latin phrase meaning "it does not follow"; any
argument where the conclusion drawn has not even
the slightest connection to the premises offered.
objectivism (Philosophical Terms)
The view that there are moral truths that are valid
universally and that it is wrong to knowingly gain
pleasure from causing another pain.
obligation (Philosophical Terms)
In ethics, a moral necessity to do a specific deed.
Some ethicists, following Kant,* hold that moral
obligations are absolute. See also categorical
imperative.
Ockham's razor (Philosophical Terms)
A principle attributed to the fourteenth-century
English philosopher William of Ockham.* It states
that entities should not be multiplied beyond
necessity, or that one should choose the simplest
explanation, the one requiring the fewest
assumptions and principles.
ontology (Philosophical Terms)
A branch of metaphysics that studies the nature of
existence or reality, as such, as opposed to
specific types of existing entities.
operationalism (operationism) (Philosophical Terms)
A philosophy of science according to which any
scientific concept must be definable in terms of
concrete, observable activities or the operations
to which it refers.
optimism (Philosophical Terms)
The philosophic attitude that this is the best of
all possible worlds, that hope and joy are
justified, and that all things are ordered for the
best. According to optimists, such as Leibniz,*
evil either is an illusion or will be compensated
for by an even greater good.
Ordinary Language Philosophy (Philosophical Terms)
The twentieth-century school advocating that we can
best understand and resolve philosophic problems
by analyzing how people other than philosophers
ordinarily use language and the presuppositions
underlying such use; the school holds that everyday
language is adequate for philosophy. Wittgenstein,*
Gilbert Ryle (1900 - 76), and John L. Austin (1911-
60) were the most influential members of this
school.
pantheism (Philosophical Terms)
The belief that God and the universe are identical;
among modern philosophers, Spinoza* is considered
to be a pantheist.
particulars (Philosophical Terms)
See universals.
Pascal's wager (Philosophical Terms)
An argument made by Blaise Pascal* for believing
in God. Pascal said that either the tenets of Roman
Catholicism are true or they are not. If they are
true, and we wager that they are true, then we have
won an eternity of bliss; if they are false, and
death is final, what has the bettor lost? On the
other hand, if one wagers against God's existence
and turns out to be wrong, there is eternal
damnation.
personalism (Philosophical Terms)
A term applied to any philosophy that makes
personality (whether of people, God, or spirit) the
supreme value or the source of reality. Personalism
as a movement flourished in England and America in
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Personalists are usually idealists.
pessimism (Philosophical Terms)
The philosophic attitude holding that hope is
unreasonable, that man is born to sorrow, and that
this is the worst of all possible worlds.
Schopenhauer's* philosophy is an example of extreme
pessimism.
phenomenalism (Philosophical Terms)
The doctrine that the only knowledge we can ever
have is of appearances, and thus that we can never
know the nature of ultimate reality. Major
adherents of the philosophy were John Stuart Mill*
and some members of the Vienna Circle.
Phenomenology (Philosophical Terms)
A school founded by Edmund Husserl,* and an
important influence on Existentialism. This school
developed its own philosophical "method" of using
intuition for describing consciousness and
experience. Phenomenologists claim that this method
can be used to study the inherent qualities of
phenomena as they appear to the mind.
philosopher king (Philosophical Terms)
In Plato's* Republic, a philosopher trained by
formal study in disciplines including mathematics
and philosophy. Plato emphasized that philosopher
kings' leadership would be shown by their ability
to see the Forms, or universal ideals. See also
Forms.
philosophies (Philosophical Terms)
Term applied to eighteenth-century French
Enlightenment thinkers such as Rousseau,*
Diderot,* and Voltaire.*
philosophy of language (Philosophical Terms)
The area of philosophic study whose subject matter
is the nature and workings of language. Detailed
discussions of such topics as meaning, reference,
grammar, and symbols infuse this branch of
philosophy.
philosophy of mathematics (Philosophical Terms)
A branch of philosophy that studies such questions
as, What are mathematical statements about? Why is
mathematics true? How do we come to have
mathematical knowledge? Why is mathematics so
useful in studying reality?
philosophy of mind (Philosophical Terms)
The area of philosophy that studies the mind,
consciousness, and mental functions such as
thinking, intention, imagination, and emotion. It
is not one specific branch of philosophy, but
rather an aspect of most traditional branches, such
as metaphysics, epistemology, and aesthetics.
philosophy of religion (Philosophical Terms)
A branch of philosophy concerned with such
questions as, What is religion? What is God? Can
God's existence be proved? Is there immortality?
What is the relationship between faith, reason, and
revelation? Is there a divine purpose in the world?
philosophy of science (Philosophical Terms)
The branch of philosophy that studies the nature
of science. It is particularly concerned with the
methods, concepts, and assumptions of science, as
well as with analyzing scientific concepts such as
space, time, cause, scientific law, and
verification.
physicalism (Philosophical Terms)
A theory about knowledge that originated within the
Vienna Circle. It holds that all factual statements
can be reduced to observations of physical objects
and events. See also operationalism.
Platonism (Philosophical Terms)
Thoughts and writings developed in the fifth
century B.C. in Athens by Plato,* the greatest
student of Socrates.* Platonism's chief tenet is
that the ultimate reality consists of unchanging,
absolute, eternal entities called Ideas or Forms;
all earthly objects are not truly real but merely
partake in the Forms.
Plato's cave (Philosophical Terms)
An analogy in Plato's* Republic between reality and
illusion. The main image is of men who see on the
walls of a cave only the shadows of the real
objects moving around outside the cave. When these
men leave the cave and see the real objects, they
cannot, upon returning to the cave, convince those
who have never left of the reality of the objects.
pluralism (Philosophical Terms)
The view that there are more than two kinds of
fundamental, irreducible realities in the universe,
or that there are many separate and independent
levels of reality.
political philosophy (Philosophical Terms)
The branch of philosophy that studies man as a
political animal. It is concerned with such
questions as, What obligations do I have to my
government? How is political power justified? Under
what conditions is war justified? It also studies
the nature of property, justice, freedom, liberty,
and political rights.
positivism (Philosophical Terms)
A theory originated by French philosopher Auguste
Comte.* It holds that all knowledge is defined by
the limits of scientific investigation; thus,
philosophy must abandon any quest for knowledge of
an ultimate reality or any knowledge beyond that
offered by science. See also logical positivism.
Pragmatism (Philosophical Terms)
An American philosophy developed in the nineteenth
century by Charles Sanders Peirce* (1839 - 1914)
and William James,* and elaborated on in the
twentieth century by John Dewey.* Its central
precepts are that thinking is primarily a guide to
action and that the truth of any idea lies in its
practical consequences.
Presocratics (Philosophical Terms)
Name given to all Greek "theorists of nature" or
philosophers who lived before Socrates. Among the
Presocratics are Anaximander,* Pythagoras,* and
Thales.*
principle (or law) of noncontradiction
Dating back to Aristotle, this universally accepted
"law of thought" has two parts: a statement cannot
be both true and false; nothing can both have a
quality, like red, and not have it, at the same
time.
principle of sufficient reason (Philosophical Terms)
The philosophical doctrine of Leibniz* that asserts
that for every fact there is a reason for its being
the way it is rather than another way, even though
we may not know that reason.
principle of utility (greatest happiness principle)
The basic tenet of utilitarianism. It states that
the highest ethical good provides the greatest
happiness for the greatest number of people.
psychologism (Philosophical Terms)
A view of philosophy holding that all philosophic
concepts and problems are explainable based on
psychological principles and that they should be
treated by some form of psychological analysis.
Advocates of this view may disagree on the type of
psychological approach that is appropriate.
Pythagoreans (Philosophical Terms)
Followers of Pythagoras.* The group flourished
until about 400 B.C. and were influential in
philosophy, religion, mathematics, and science.
They strongly influenced the thinking of Plato* and
Neoplatonists.
QED (Philosophical Terms)
Latin for quod erat demonstrandum ("that which was
to be demonstrated"). This abbreviation is often
used right before or after stating a conclusion,
as a synonym for therefore, thus, or as was to be
shown.
rationalism (Philosophical Terms)
The philosophic approach that holds that reality
is knowable by the use of reason or thinking alone,
without recourse to observation or experience. See
also seventeenth-century rationalists.
realism (Philosophical Terms)
The major medieval and modern view on the problem
of universals other than nominalism. Extreme
realism, which is close to Plato's* theory of
Forms, holds that universals exist independently
of both particular things and the human mind;
moderate realism holds that they exist as ideas in
God's mind, through which He creates things.
relativism (Philosophical Terms)
The precept that people's ideas of right and wrong
vary considerably from place to place and time to
time; therefore, there are no universally valid
ethical standards.
Scholasticism (Philosophical Terms)
A general term referring to the Christian
philosophy of the Middle Ages, especially at the
medieval universities. The Scholastics basically
followed Aristotle's* empiricism, using highly
analytical logical and linguistic methods of
argumentation, especially with respect to the
problem of universals.
sensationalism (Philosophical Terms)
An empiricist theory of knowledge that holds that
sensations are both the source of all knowledge and
the ultimate verification of any statements.
Hobbes* originated the view; Etienne Condillac
(1715 - 1880) and Ernst Mach (1838 - 1916)
developed it.
sense data (Philosophical Terms)
The sensory qualities or feelings we experience
directly, such as shapes, colors, and smells,
without any interpretation of the material objects
that may be causing them. Some empiricists and
sensationalist philosophers make sense data the
foundation of all factual knowledge.
seventeenth-century rationalists (Philosophy Terms)
A broad term referring to the rationalism shared
by Descartes,* Leibniz,* and Spinoza.* It held that
reason and deduction could provide knowledge of the
world independent of experience.
skepticism (Philosophical Terms)
The philosophic theory that no certain knowledge
can be attained by man. Broadly speaking,
skepticism states that all knowledge should be
questioned and tested, for instance, by the
scientific method.
social contract (Philosophical Terms)
That concept of an agreement between people, or
between people and government or ruler, in which
it is agreed that some personal liberties will be
given up in exchange for the security of stable
political rule. The term is used in the political
philosophy of Hobbes,* Locke,* and Rousseau* to
justify a form of political authority.
solipsism (Philosophical Terms)
The theory that one cannot know anything other than
his or her own thoughts, feelings, or perceptions;
therefore, other people and the real world must be
projections of one's own mind with no existence in
and of themselves. See also egocentric predicament.
Sophists (Philosophical Terms)
Wandering teachers in the fourth and fifth
centuries in ancient Greece who taught any subjects
that their paying students wished to learn, from
grammar to public speaking. They were strongly
ridiculed by Plato,* who held that they were less
interested in truth than in pleasing their students
for a fee.
spiritism (Philosophical Terms)
A term referring to the belief that spirits of the
dead communicate with the living, for instance, at
seances or through a medium.
spiritualism (Philosophical Terms)
The view that the ultimate reality in the universe
is the spirit. Advocates of this view may disagree
about the nature of the spirit.
state of nature (Philosophical Terms)
A term used by seventeenth- and eighteenth-century
social philosophers such as Hobbes,* Locke,* and
Rousseau.* It referred to the condition of man
without political organization, or before
government.
Stoicism (Philosophical Terms)
A Greek school founded by Zeno* in the third
century B.C. Stoics held that men should submit to
natural law and that a man's chief duty is to
conform to his destiny. They also believed the soul
to be another form of matter, and thus not
immortal.
subjectivism (Philosophical Terms)
The theory that all moral values are completely
dependent on the personal tastes, feelings, or
inclinations of the individual and have no source
of validity outside of such human subjective states
of mind.
substance (Philosophical Terms)
A changeless, self-subsistent entity, not dependent
on anything else, that underlies being in all its
forms. It has been identified with God, mind,
matter, and self-contained ultimate realities. See
also monad.
supernaturalism (Philosophical Terms)
The belief that there are forces, energies, or
beings beyond the material world-such as God,
spirit, or occult forces-that affect events in our
world.
syllogism (Philosophical Terms)
A kind of deductive reasoning or argument. As
defined by Aristotle, it was considered the basis
of reasoning for over two thousand years. In every
syllogism, there are two statements (premises) from
which a conclusion follows necessarily. Syllogisms
are of three basic logical types, as illustrated
by these examples:
1. If a broom is new, it sweeps clean; the broom
is new; therefore, it sweeps clean.
2. Either the horse is male or female; the horse
is not female; therefore, it is male.
3. All philosophers are men; all men are mortal;
therefore, all philosophers are mortal.
synthetic statement (Philosophical Terms)
A factual statement describing a state of affairs,
such as "Triangles are used in architectural
studios."
tabula rasa (Philosophical Terms)
A Latin phrase meaning "blank slate," used by
Locke* to describe the state of the human mind at
birth. Locke believed there are no innate ideas and
that the mind gets all of its ideas from
experience.
tautology (Philosophical Terms)
Any statement that is necessarily true merely
because of its meaning, such as "Bachelors are
unmarried males," or "Every green object is
colored." See also necessary and contingent truth.
teleological ethics (Philosophical Terms)
In contrast with deontological ethics, this moral
theory holds that whether an action is morally
right depends solely on its expected consequences.
See also utilitarianism.
Thomism (Philosophical Terms)
The philosophical and theological system developed
by St. Thomas Aquinas* in the thirteenth century.
One of its chief principles is that philosophy
seeks truth through reason while theology seeks it
through revelation from God; therefore, the two are
compatible.
transcendent (Philosophical Terms)
Beyond the realm of sense experience. In many
religious views, God is held to be transcendent.
Transcendentalism (Philosophical Terms)
A nineteenth-century movement developed in New
England and expounded by Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803
- 82) and Henry David Thoreau (1817 - 62). It
maintains that beyond our material world of
experience is an ideal spiritual reality that can
be grasped intuitively.
transmigration of souls (Philosophical Terms)
The belief that the same soul can, in different
lifetimes (incarnations), reside in different
bodies, human or animal. While typically a part of
most Eastern religions, the doctrine came into
Western philosophy from Pythagoras* and his
contemporaries in the sixth century B.C. and
especially through Plato.
universals (Philosophical Terms)
The properties, or the abstract or general words,
that apply to many individual things, called
particulars. Redness, for instance, is a universal
that applies to all red things.
utilitarianism (Philosophical Terms)
A theory of morality holding that all actions
should be judged for rightness or wrongness in
terms of their consequences; thus, the amount of
pleasure people derive from those consequences
becomes the measure of moral goodness. Jeremy
Bentham* and John Stuart Mill,* in the nineteenth
century, were the chief proponents of this view.
See also principle of utility.
utopianism (Philosophical Terms)
The belief in the possibility or desirability of
not just a better but a perfect society. The term
derives from Sir Thomas More's* Utopia (1516),
which depicts an ideal state. Utopian states also
appear in the writings of Plato* and Bacon.*
Vienna Circle (Philosophical Terms)
A major school of Logical Positivism founded by
Moritz Schlick (1882 - 1936) in the 1920s. It was
known for its hostility to metaphysics and theology
and for its belief that physics is the model for
all knowledge of the world. Other leading members
of the school were Rudolph Carnap (1891 - 1970) and
Otto Neurath (1882 - 1945).
vitalism (Philosophical Terms)
The theory that living organisms are inherently
different from inanimate bodies; thus, life cannot
be explained fully by materialistic theories as it
is based on a vital force that is unlike other
physical forces. Aristotle,* Hans Driesch (1867 -
1941), and Henri Bergson (1859 - 1941) were
prominent vitalists. In Bergson's view, the "elan
vital" is the evolutionary force in organisms that
propels life to achieve higher levels of structure.
will to believe (Philosophical Terms)
A phrase made famous by William James.* He held
that in the absence of decisive evidence, the mind
may create belief in order to act, often resulting
in discovery. He also maintained that believing in
such situations is a human right that should not
be backed away from.
will to power (Philosophical Terms)
The view, expounded by Nietzsche,* that power is
the chief motivating force in human nature. The
view was influential in twentieth-century
psychology and social science.
Young Hegelians (Philosophical Terms)
A group of thinkers in Germany in the first half
of the nineteenth century whose views strongly
influenced Karl Marx.* They were followers of
Hegel* who believed that the political conditions
under which they lived were irrational. They held
that the goal of philosophy should be to promote
a revolution of ideas and critical thinking about
the world. Ludwig Feuerbach (1804 - 72) was the
most important of the Young Hegelians.
PROOFS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD (Philosophy)
While theology may take God's existence as
absolutely necessary on the basis of authority,
faith, or revelation, many philosophers-and some
theologians-have thought it possible to demonstrate
by reason that there must be a God.
St. Thomas Aquinas, in the thirteenth century,
formulated the famous "five ways" by which God's
existence can be demonstrated philosophically:
1. The "unmoved mover" argument. We know that there
is motion in the world; whatever is in motion
is moved by another thing; this other thing also
must be moved by something; to avoid an infinite
regression, we must posit a "first mover," which
is God.
2. The "nothing is caused by itself" argument. For
example, a table is brought into being by a
carpenter, who is caused by his parents. Again,
we cannot go on to infinity, so there must be
a first cause, which is God.
3. The cosmological argument. All physical things,
even mountains, boulders, and rivers, come into
being and go out of existence, no matter how
long they last. Therefore, since time is
infinite, there must be some time at which none
of these things existed. But if there were
nothing at that point in time, how could there
be anything at all now, since nothing cannot
cause anything? Thus, there must always have
been at least one necessary thing that is
eternal, which is God.
4. Objects in the world have differing degrees of
qualities such as goodness. But speaking of more
or less goodness makes sense only by comparison
with what is the maximum goodness, which is God.
5. The teleological argument (argument from
design). Things in the world move toward goals,
just as the arrow does not move toward its goal
except by the archer's directing it. Thus, there
must be an intelligent designer who directs all
things to their goals, and this is God.
Two other historically important "proofs" are the
ontological argument and the moral argument. The
former, made famous by St. Anselm in the eleventh
century and defended in another form by Descartes,
holds that it would be logically contradictory to
deny God's existence. St. Anselm began by defining
God as "that [being] than which nothing greater can
be conceived." If God existed only in the mind, He
then would not be the greatest conceivable being,
for we could imagine another being that is greater
because it would exist both in the mind and in
reality, and that being would then be God.
Therefore, to imagine God as existing only in the
mind but not in reality leads to a logical
contradiction; this proves the existence of God
both in the mind and in reality.
Immanuel Kant rejected not only the ontological
argument but the teleological and cosmological
arguments as well, based on his theory that reason
is too limited to know anything beyond human
experience. However, he did argue that religion
could be established as presupposed by the workings
of morality in the human mind ("practical reason").
God's existence is a necessary presupposition of
there being any moral judgments that are objective,
that go beyond mere relativistic moral preferences;
such judgments require standards external to any
human mind-that is, they presume God's mind.
ARGUMENTS AGAINST GOD'S EXISTENCE (Philosophy)
Arguments against God's existence have been given
by philosophers, atheists, and agnostics. Some of
these arguments find God's existence incompatible
with observed facts; some are arguments that God
does not exist because the concept of God is
incoherent or confused. Others are criticisms of
the proofs offered for God's existence.
One of the most influential and powerful"proofs"
that there is no God proceeds from "The Problem
From Evil." This argument claims that the following
three statements cannot all be true: (a) evil
exists; (b) God is omnipotent; and (c) God is
all-loving. The argument is as follows:
- if God can prevent evil, but doesn't, then He
isn't all-loving.
- if God intends to prevent evil, but cannot, then
He isn't omnipotent.
- if God both intends to prevent evil and is
capable of doing so, then how can evil exist?
Another argument claims that the existence of an
all-knowing God is incompatible with the fact of
free will-that humans do make choices. If God is
omniscient, He must know beforehand exactly what
a person will do in a given situation. In that
case, a person is not in fact free to do the
alternative to what God knows he or she will do,
and free will must be an illusion. To take this one
step further, if one chooses to commit a sin, how
can it then be said that one sinned freely?
Hume provided powerful critiques of the main
arguments for God's existence. Against the
cosmological argument (Aquinas' third argument),
he argued that the idea of a necessarily existing
being is absurd. Hume stated, "Whatever we can
conceive as existent, we can also conceive as
nonexistent." He also asked why the ultimate source
of the universe could not be the entire universe
itself, eternal and uncaused, without a God?
Hume also criticized the argument from design
(Aquinas' fifth argument). In particular, he
emphasized that there is no legitimate way we can
infer the properties of God as the creator of the
world from the qualities of His creation. For
instance, Hume questioned how we can be sure that
the world was not created by a team; or that this
is not one of many attempts at creations, the first
few having been botched; or, on the other hand,
that our world is not a poor first attempt "of an
infant deity who afterwards abandoned it, ashamed
of his lame performance."
FAMOUS QUOTES (Philosophy)
Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.): "Man is by nature a
political animal."
Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626): "Knowledge is power."
Jeremy Bentham (1748 - 1832): "The greatest
happiness of the greatest number is the foundation
of morals and legislation."
Confucius (551 - 479 B.C.): "Hold faithfulness and
sincerity as first principles."
Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650): "Cogito, ergo sum"
(Latin for "I think, therefore I am").
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 - 82): "Nature is a
mutual cloud, which is always and never the same."
Friedrich Engels (1820 - 95): "The state is not
`abolished,' it withers away."
Georg Hegel (1770 - 1831): "What experience and
history teach us is this-that people and
governments have never learned anything from
history, or acted on principles deduced from it."
Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679): "The life of a man (in
a state of nature) is solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish, and short."
Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804): "Happiness is not an
ideal of reason but of imagination."
John Locke (1632 - 1704): "No man's knowledge here
can go beyond his experience."
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 - 1527): "God is not
willing to do everything, and thus take away our
free will and that share of glory which belongs to
us."
Karl Marx (1818 - 83): "The proletarians have
nothing to lose (in this revolution) but their
chains. They have a world to win. Workers of the
world, unite!"
"Religion is the opium of the people."
"The class struggle necessarily leads to the
dictatorship of the proletariat."
John Stuart Mill (1806 - 73): "Liberty consists in
doing what one desires."
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 - 1900): "I teach you the
Superman. Man is something to be surpassed."
Thomas Paine (1737 - 1809): "Suspicion is the
companion of mean souls, and the bane of all good
society."
Plato (428 - 348 B.C.): "The life which is
unexamined is not worth living."
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 78): "Man was born
free, and everywhere he is in chains."
Bertrand Russell (1872 - 1970): "It is undesirable
to believe a proposition when there is no ground
whatever for supposing it true."
Seneca (c. 4 B.C. - A.D. 65): "Even while they
teach, men learn."
Socrates (c. 470 - 399 B.C.): "There is only one
good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance."
Voltaire (1694 - 1778): "If God did not exist, it
would be necessary to invent Him."
HOW TO ARGUE LOGICALLY (Philosophy)
We like to think that we speak logically all the
time, but we are aware that we sometimes use
illogical means to persuade others of our point of
view. In the heat of an impassioned argument, or
when we are afraid our disputant has a stronger
case, or when we don't quite have all the facts
we'd like to have, we are prone to engage in faulty
processes of reasoning, using arguments we hope
will appear sound.
Such defective arguments are called fallacies by
philosophers who, starting with Aristotle, have
catalogued and classified these fallacious
arguments. There are now over 125 separate
fallacies, most with their own impressive-sounding
names, many of them in Latin.
Some arguments have easily recognizable defects.
For instance, in the argument ad hominem, a
person's views are criticized because of a
logically irrelevant personal defect: "You can't
take Smith's advice on the stock market; he's a
known philanderer." In the genetic fallacy,
something is mistakenly reduced to its origins: "We
know that emotions are nothing more than
physiology; after all, medical research has shown
emotions involve the secretion of hormones."
Another illogical argument is named for the
erroneous thinking a wagering person may fall prey
to, the gambler's fallacy (also called the Monte
Carlo fallacy): "I'm betting on heads; it's got to
come up since we've just had nine straight tails."
Some fallacies may not be recognized as erroneous
reasoning because they are such commonly used forms
of argument. For instance, if we say, "I'm sure my
cold is due to the weather; I started sneezing
right after it went from 60 degrees to 31 degrees
in three hours," we are committing the fallacy with
the Latin name of post hoc ergo propter hoc ("after
this, therefore because of this"). Many a political
argument exemplifies the fallacy of arguing in a
circle; for instance: "Only wealthy men are capable
of leading the country; after all, leadership can
be learned only if you have had money to exercise
power." Many prejudicial or stereotypical arguments
commit the fallacy of division, or of applying to
the part what may be true of the whole: "North
Dakota has wide-open spaces; since Jack's farm is
there, it must be quite large." The converse of
this is the fallacy of composition, where
properties of the parts are erroneously attributed
to the whole: "Every apple on this tree is rotten;
therefore, the tree itself is hopelessly diseased."
It may be a surprise to realize that some widely
accepted forms of argument are just as fallacious
as the most logically defective reasoning. When we
appeal to the beliefs or behavior of the majority
to prove the truth of something, we are committing
the fallacy of consensus gentium: "Imbibing alcohol
cannot be bad for people, since all cultures
studied have used alcohol." Or consider the person
who argues that "Tragedy is the highest form of
literature; after all, didn't Aristotle consider
it such?" This is a form of the fallacy of arguing
from authority. There is also the fallacy of
ignoratio elenchus, which has nothing to do with
ignorance; its name means that the point made is
irrelevant to the issue at hand, as in the
untenable view of a lawyer who says, "Ladies and
gentlemen of the jury, you cannot convict my client
of manslaughter while driving under the influence;
after all, advertisements for alcohol exist
everywhere in our culture."
MORE THAN JUST PHILOSOPHERS
Before knowledge was as specialized as it is today,
many of the greatest philosophers followed their
other interests while creating or studying
philosophical systems. They did groundbreaking work
in areas as far afield from philosophy proper as
geometry, zoology, literary criticism, and
calculus.
Perhaps Aristotle was the model for some of these
thinkers, since he was regarded not only in his own
time but throughout most of the Middle Ages as a
universal genius whose knowledge on any subject he
had written on could hardly be questioned. His
nonphilosophical writings were astonishingly broad;
even a partial list of his subjects, which include
physics, zoology, botany, sociology, political
theory, and economics, is testimony to one of the
greatest minds of all time.
Even medicine and the law were not too far afield
for some of the great philosophers. Avicenna,
Averroes, and John Locke were trained in medicine;
Avicenna's Canon of Medicine was the most
influential medieval medical treatise. And Jeremy
Bentham, a founder of utilitarianism, was one of
the most influential jurists and lawyers of the
nineteenth century; his work deeply influenced
reform of the British penal, judicial, and
parliamentary systems.
History, too, is a philosopher's domain. History
of England, not his philosophy books, brought David
Hume success and renown in mid-eighteenth-century
England.
Both mathematics and logic were fruitfully
developed by philosophers when they were not
writing philosophical works. Leibniz is the
co-inventor of calculus, along with Sir Isaac
Newton; Pascal is one of the fathers of the modern
theory of probability; and Descartes invented
analytical geometry almost single-handedly.
Logic, although now a separate discipline, was a
part of philosophy until a hundred years ago.
Aristotle was the founder of logic, but many other
philosophers have invented or organized entire
sections of the field. Mill formulated the "rules"
of scientific experimentation that are now called
Mill's methods; and Russell and Whitehead wrote
Principia Mathematica, probably the most important
work in modern logic.
The list of philosophers engaged in other fields
is seemingly endless. Examples include Nietzsche,
whose On the Birth of Tragedy is a classic in Greek
studies and literary criticism; William James,
whose Principles of Psychology deeply influenced
decades of thinking in that field; and John Dewey,
the father of the American progressive education
movement.
Additional Sources of Information (Philosophy)
Organizations and Services
The Philosophy Documentation Center is a key source
of information. Its publications include U.S. and
international directories of philosophers and The
Philosopher's Index, a bibliographic journal and
a series of cumulative bibliographies dating to
1940, arranged by author and subject.
Philosophy Documentation Center
Bowling Green State University
Bowling Green, OH 43403
Books
Copleston, Frederick C. History of Philosophy. 9
vols. Doubleday, 1985.
deGeorge, Richard T. The Philosopher's Guide to
Sources, Research Tools, Professional Life, and
Related Fields. Regents Press of Kansas, 1980.
Durant, Will. The Story of Philosophy. Washington
Square Press, 1969.
Edwards, Paul, ed. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
4 vols. Free Press, 1973.
Ferm, Vergilius. A History of Philosophical
Systems. Philosophical Library, 1950.
Lacey, A. R. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Routledge,
Chapman & Hall, 1976.
Magill, Frank N., ed. Masterpieces of World
Philosophy in Summary Form. Harper & Brothers,
1961.
O'Connor, D. J. A Critical History of Western
Philosophy. Free Press, 1985.
Reese, William L., ed. Dictionary of Philosophy and
Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. Humanities
Press, 1980.
Runes, Dagobert D., ed. Dictionary of Philosophy.
Rowman & Allanhead, 1984.
Urmson, James O. A Concise Encyclopedia of Western
Philosophy and Philosophers. Hutchinson, 1975.
Weiner, Philip P., ed. Dictionary of the History
of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas. 5
vols. Scribner's, 1985.
Libraries and Museums
Major Libraries of the United States and Canada
United States
Arizona (U.S.Libraries)
University of Arizona Library
Tucson, AZ 85721
602-621-2101
Established in 1891, the University of Arizona has
more than 2.7 million volumes, with special
collections on photography as an art form, fine
arts, drama, private presses, Southwestern
Americana, Arizona, science history, science
fiction, and Mexican colonial history.
California (U.S.Libraries)
Los Angeles County Public Library System
7400 East Imperial Highways
Downey, CA 90241
213-922-8131
Founded in 1912, this library system contains more
than 5.1 million volumes, with special collections
on Afro-American studies, Asian-Pacific studies,
California, multimedia, mountaineering,
Hispanic-Americans, Native Americans, and poetry.
The collection is dispersed among 114 community,
mobile, and institutional libraries.
Los Angeles Public Library System
433 S. Spring
Los Angeles, CA 90013
213-612-3200
Founded in 1872, this public library system has 62
branches with more than 5.3 million volumes. Its
special collections are on California studies,
children's literature, cooking, genealogy, North
American Indians studies, modern languages,
orchestral scores, U.S. patents, and standards and
specifications.
Stanford University Libraries
Stanford, CA 94305
415-723-9108
Founded in 1892, Stanford's libraries contain 5.4
million volumes. Its special collections cover
transportation, music, science, California, Irish
literature, engineering mechanics, children's
literature, Chicano studies, theater, and Hebraica
and Judaica.
University of California Los Angeles Library
405 Hilgard Avenue
Los Angeles, CA 90024
213-825-1201
Founded in 1919, the University of California Los
Angeles Library has holdings of more than 5.4
million books. It has special collections on
British Commonwealth history, contemporary Western
writers, early English children's books, folklore,
Latin American studies, Mazarinades,
mountaineering, and Western Americana.
University of Southern California
Edward L. Doheny Memorial Library
University Park
Los Angeles, CA 90089
213-743-2543
Founded in 1880, the University of Southern
California has more than 2.4 million volumes, with
a number of independent departmental libraries
whose subject matter ranges from architecture and
fine arts to gerontology. Its special collections
include American-Indian ethnopharmacology, American
literature, cinema, dentistry, international
relations, Latin American studies, and philosophy.
Colorado (U.S.Libraries)
University of Colorado, Boulder (U.S.Libraries)
University Libraries Campus Box 184
Boulder, CA 80309
303-492-7511
Founded in 1876, the University of Colorado
maintains holdings of more than 2 million volumes,
with special collections on juvenile literature,
the history of silver, mountaineering, and Western
U.S. history.
Connecticut (U.S.Libraries)
Yale University Library
120 High Street
P.O. Box 1603A, Yale Station
New Haven, CT 06520
203-432-1775
The second largest university library in the United
States, Yale has 8.8 million volumes in its
collection. Its rare books total more than 500,000.
Yale's special collections are numerous; they
include works by James Boswell, the Aaron Burr
family, Daniel Defoe, John Dryden, James Joyce, D.
H. Lawrence, the Lindbergh family, Marcus Aurelius,
H. L. Mencken, Napoleon, Mark Twain, and Edith
Wharton. The American Library Directory lists more
than 50 subjects of special strength for Yale,
including Babylonian tablets, futurism, legal
thought, playing cards, sporting books, urban and
regional planning, and Western Americana. Founded
in 1701.
District of Columbia (U.S.Libraries)
The Library of Congress
Washington, DC 20540
202-287-5000
The nation's largest single library, the Library
of Congress, established in 1800, contains over 80
million items, including about 20 million books and
pamphlets. Its collections include over 1 million
volumes on Hispanic and Portuguese culture and the
largest collection of Russian literature outside
the Soviet Union. Special collections include books
for the blind and physically handicapped,
cartography, folk music, law books, manuscripts,
microforms, motion pictures, music, the Orient,
prints and photographs, and more than half a
million rare books. The library's first priority
is service to the Congress of the United States.
It also registers creative work for copyright and
provides services to both the public and libraries
throughout the country.
Florida (U.S.Libraries)
University of Florida Libraries
210 Library West
Gainesville, FL 32611
904-392-0341
Founded in 1905, this system contains more than 2.5
million volumes, with special collections on
Florida history, Latin America, Judaica, aerial
photographs, coastal engineering, New England
literature, Brazilian law, and Florida newspapers.
Georgia (U.S.Libraries)
University of Georgia Libraries
Athens, GA 30602
404-542-2716
Founded in 1800, this library system contains more
than 2.4 million volumes, with special collections
on music, theater, Georgia, Confederate imprints,
Georgia authors, nineteenth- and twentieth-century
politics, and Georgia newspapers.
Hawaii (U.S.Libraries)
Hawaii State Library System
Office of Library Services
Department of Education
Kekuannoa Building, Room B-1, 465 South King Street
Honolulu, HI 96813
808-548-5596
Founded in 1852, Hawaii's libraries contain more
than 2.1 million volumes, with a special collection
devoted to Hawaiian history.
Illinois (U.S.Libraries)
Chicago Public Library
425 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60611
312-269-2900
Founded in 1872, Chicago's libraries offer more
than 4.3 million volumes with special collections
of national, U.S., foreign, and trade
bibliographies; Chicago information; foreign
language encyclopedias; Abraham Lincoln papers;
miniature books; early American newspapers; and
World War I and II posters.
Northwestern University Library
1935 Sheridan Road
Evanston, IL 60201
312-491-7658
Founded in 1856, Northwestern holds more than 2.4
million volumes and bound periodicals, with special
collections on Africa, architecture, contemporary
music scores, feminism, German classics, Italian
futurism, manuscripts, and printing.
University of Chicago Joseph Regenstein Library
1100 East 57th Street
Chicago, IL 60637
312-962-7874
The University of Chicago, founded in 1891,
contains more than 4.6 million volumes. It
maintains special collections of English Bibles,
Lincolniana, modern poetry, anatomical
illustrations, and Kentucky and Ohio River Valley
history; children's books; early theology and Bible
criticism; German fiction, 1790 - 1850; and books
on ophthalmology.
University of Illinois Library at Urbana - Champaign
1408 West Gregory Drive
Urbana, IL 61801
217-333-0790
This library's collection includes more than 7
million volumes, with special collections on
American humor and folklore, freedom of expression,
sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Italian drama,
nineteenth-century publishing, Carl Sandburg, and
H.G. Wells. Founded 1868.
Indiana (U.S.Libraries)
Indiana University at Bloomington
Tenth Street and Jordan Avenue
Bloomington, IN 47405
812-335-3403
Founded in 1824, Indiana University has amassed a
collection of more than 4.2 million volumes, with
special collections of English and American
literature, nineteenth-century British plays,
English history, scientific and medical history,
the works of Aristotle, and nineteenth-century
French opera.
Iowa (U.S.Libraries)
University of Iowa Libraries
Iowa City, IA 52242
319-353-4450
Established in 1855, Iowa's libraries contain more
than 2.5 million volumes, with special collections
on Leigh Hunt and his friends, Abraham Lincoln,
American Indians, Iowa authors, typography, the
Union Pacific Railroad, editorial cartoons, the
French Revolution, and the history of medicine.
Kansas (U.S.Libraries)
University of Kansas Libraries
Watson Library
Lawrence, KS 66045
913-864-3347
Established in 1866, Kansas' libraries contain in
excess of 2.4 million volumes, with special
collections on Anglo-Saxons, botany, children's
books, Chinese classics, Colombia, the Continental
Renaissance, economics, historical cartography,
Irish history and literature, Kansas history,
poetry, opera, ornithology, sound recordings,
travel, and women.
Maryland (U.S.Libraries)
Enoch Pratt Free Library
400 Cathedral Street
Baltimore, MD 21201
301-396-5430
Founded in 1886, Enoch Pratt's 1.9-million-volume
collection has a special H.L. Mencken section and
a Maryland history collection.
Johns Hopkins University Milton S. Eisenhower Library
Baltimore, MD 21218
301-338-8000
Established in 1876, Johns Hopkins has more than
2.4 million volumes, with special collections on
economics, Lord Byron, French drama, modern German
drama, German literature, sheet music, slavery, and
trade unions.
Massachusetts (U.S.Libraries)
Boston Public Library and Eastern Massachusetts
Regional Public Library System
Copley Square
Boston, MA 02117
617-536-5400
Founded in 1852, the Boston library system is
believed to be the oldest free municipal library
system supported by taxation anywhere in the world.
It has 4.1 million volumes, with the following
special collections: the library of John Quincy
Adams; military science, history, and the Civil
War; astronomy, mathematics, and navigation; Robert
and Elizabeth Browning; Daniel Defoe; drama;
genealogy; government documents; heraldry; music;
patents; Christian Science; the Sacco-Vanzetti
papers; Walt Whitman; and World War I.
Harvard University Library
Cambridge, MA 02138
617-495-3650
With more than 11 million volumes, the Harvard
Library, founded in 1638, is the largest university
library in the United States. Its special
collections are numerous. They include the Trotsky
archive; the Theodore Roosevelt collection; and
works by such authors as Dante, T. S. Eliot,
Faulkner, Goethe, Kipling, Longfellow, Milton,
Petrarch, Rousseau, Shakespeare, Steinbeck, and
Thomas Wolfe. Some of its branches are located
outside of Massachusetts, such as the Harvard
Library in New York and the Dumbarton Oaks Research
Library and Collection in Washington, DC. Others
specialize in topics ranging from music to divinity
and include Harvard's famed law library and the
fine arts library at the Fogg Art Museum.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Libraries
Room 14S-216
Cambridge, MA 02139
617-253-5651
Founded in 1862, MIT's library holdings total
approximately 2 million volumes, with special
collections devoted to the early history of
aeronautics, architecture and planning, civil
engineering, nineteenth-century U.S. glass
manufacturers, early works in mathematics and
physics, shipbuilding and naval history, and
spectroscopy.
University of Massachusetts at Amherst Library
Amherst, MA 01003
508-545-0284
Founded in 1865, this university system maintains
holdings in excess of 2 million volumes, with
special collections on slavery and antislavery
pamphlets; county atlases of New England, New York,
and New Jersey; and the French Revolution.
Michigan (U.S.Libraries)
Detroit Public Library
5201 Woodward Avenue
Detroit, MI 48202
313-833-1000
Founded in 1865, Detroit's library contains more
than 2.5 million volumes, with special collections
on automotive history, labor history, and black
music, dance, and drama.
Michigan State University Library
East Lansing, MI 48824
517-355-2344
Established in 1855, Michigan State has holdings
of more than 3 million volumes, with special
collections on American popular culture, American
radical history, apiculture, cookery, criminology,
fencing, illuminated manuscripts in facsimile,
natural science, and veterinary history.
Wayne State University Libraries
Detroit, MI 48202
313-577-4020
Wayne State has more than 2 million volumes, with
special collections on nineteenth-century Spanish
history, social studies, women and the law, law,
and children and young people.
Minnesota (U.S.Libraries)
University of Minnesota Libraries - Twin Cities
499 O. Meredith Wilson Library
309 19th Avenue South
Minneapolis, MN 55455
612-373-3097
Founded in 1851, this university system contains
more than 3.6 million volumes, with special
collections on American and English literature, the
history of quantum physics, ballooning, dime
novels, information processing, Sherlock Holmes,
children's literature, performing arts, private
presses, August Strindberg, and the history of
biology and medicine.
Missouri (U.S.Libraries)
Kansas City Public Library
311 East 12th Street
Kansas City, MO 64106
816-221-2685
Founded in 1873, this library's collection numbers
more than 2 million volumes, with special
collections on black history and Missouri Valley
history and genealogy.
University of Missouri-Columbia Elmer Ellis Library
Columbia, MO 65201
314-882-4701
Established in 1839, this library holds more than
2.2 million volumes, with special collections
devoted to American bestsellers, criminal law,
philosophy, World War I and II posters, cartoons,
and Fourth of July orations.
Washington University Libraries
Skinker and Lindell Boulevards
St. Louis, MO 63130
314-889-5400
Founded in 1853, this system maintains more than
2 million volumes, with special collections on
German language and literature, Romance languages
and literature, classical archeology and
numismatics, architecture, musicology, history of
the Russian Revolution and the Soviet Union,
American and New York Stock Exchange reports,
printing, and early history of
communications\semantics.
New Jersey (U.S.Libraries)
Princeton University Library
Princeton, NJ 08540
609-452-3180
Founded as the College of New Jersey, Elizabeth,
in 1746, the library's principal building is the
Harvey S. Firestone Memorial Library, constructed
in 1948. Princeton has approximately 4 million
volumes, with special collections devoted to the
Brontes, Disraeli, aeronautics, American
historical manuscripts, chess, civil rights, coins,
Emily Dickinson, emblem books, fishing and angling,
graphic arts, Mormon history, mountaineering,
papyrus manuscripts, publishing, sports, women, and
famous individuals.
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
University Libraries
169 College Avenue
New Brunswick, NJ 08903
201-932-7505
Established in 1766, this venerable library
contains more than 2.2 million volumes. It has a
special collection of New Jersey public-sector
collective bargaining contracts.
New York (U.S.Libraries)
Brooklyn Public Library System
Grand Army Plaza
Brooklyn, NY 11238
718-780-7700
Founded in 1896 and consolidated with the Brooklyn
Library in 1902, the library system now has 58
branches with a total of more than 4.1 million
books. Special collections cover Brooklyn history,
chess and checkers, the Civil War, costumes, fire
protection, and Walt Whitman.
Columbia University
University Libraries
535 West 114th Street
New York, NY 10027
212-280-2271
Founded in 1761, Columbia offers more than 5.4
million volumes, with special collections on
anatomy, architecture, cancer research, fine arts,
physiology, and plastic surgery.
Cornell University Libraries
Ithaca, NY 14853
607-255-4144
With approximately 5 million volumes, the Cornell
libraries include special collections on Southeast
Asia, civil engineering, medical dissertations,
field recordings, early sixteenth-century music,
beekeeping, food and beverages, and labor history.
New York Public Library
Fifth Avenue at 42nd Street
New York, NY 10018
212-930-0800
Established in 1895 by the consolidation of the
Astor and Lenox libraries and the Tilden Trust, the
New York Public Library contains more than 30
million catalogued items: books, manuscripts,
microfilm, prints, maps, recordings, photographs,
and sheet music. It has special collections on
black history and culture, performing arts, English
and American literature, bindings and illustrated
books, Japanese prints, tobacco, early Bibles
including the Gutenberg, voyages and travels, and
Jewish, Oriental, Slavonic, and local history and
genealogy. The Library's 82 branches have 3.2
million circulating volumes and 5 million nonbook
items.
New York State Library
State Department of Education, Cultural Education
Center
Empire State Plaza
Albany, NY 12230
518-474-5930
Founded in 1818, New York State's library contains
more than 1.9 million volumes, with special
collections on Dutch colonial records, New York
State political and social history, and the
Shakers.
New York University
Elmer Holmes Bobst Library
70 Washington Square South
New York, NY 10012
212-598-2484
Established in 1831, New York University's holdings
total approximately 2 million volumes, with special
collections on Lewis Carroll, Robert Frost, rare
Judaica and Hebraica, mathematics, and the history
of dentistry.
Queens Borough Public Library System
8911 Merrick Boulevard
Jamaica, NY 11432
718-990-0700
Organized in 1896, this library system contains
more than 4.6 million volumes and has 59 branches.
It maintains special collections of Long Island
history and genealogy and a collection of over 1.5
million pictures.
State University of New York at Buffalo
University Libraries
432 Capen Hall
Buffalo, NY 14260
716-636-2965
Founded in 1922, the State University libraries
hold more than 1.8 million volumes, with special
collections of poetry, the works of J. Frank Dobie,
New York State governors' autographs, and books on
science and engineering and the history of
medicine.
Syracuse University Libraries E.S. Bird Library
222 Waverly Avenue
Syracuse, NY 13244
315-423-2573
Established in 1871, Syracuse University has
holdings of more than 1.3 million volumes, with
special collections on Stephen Crane, Loyalists in
the American Revolution, economic history, Margaret
Bourke-White, Rudyard Kipling, and cartoonists;
science fiction books and manuscripts; and the
papers of Averell Harriman, Dorothy Thompson, and
Benjamin Spock.
University of Rochester Rush Rhees Library
Rochester, NY 14627
716-275-4461
Founded in 1850, the Rochester library's holdings
include more than 2 million volumes, with special
collections on nineteenth- and twentieth-century
public affairs, nineteenth-century botany and
horticulture, American literature, regional
history, and Leonardo da Vinci.
North Carolina (U.S.Libraries)
Duke University William R. Perkins Library
Durham, NC 27706
919-684-2034
Founded in 1838, Duke's library contains more than
2.9 million volumes, with special collections on
American almanacs, architecture, city directories,
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Confederate imprints,
Ralph Waldo Emerson, Latin American history,
manuscripts, the Methodist Church, newspapers, the
Philippines, utopias, and Wesleyana.
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Walter Royal Davis Library
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
919-962-1301
Founded in 1795, North Carolina's library contains
more than 3.1 million volumes, with special
collections on North Carolina and Southern history.
Ohio (U.S.Libraries)
Cleveland Public Library
325 Superior Avenue
Cleveland, OH 44114
216-623-2800
Founded in 1869, the Cleveland Public Library
contains 2.5 million volumes. Its special
collections are devoted to folklore, the Orient,
and chess.
Ohio State University Libraries
William Oxley Thompson Memorial Library
1858 Neil Avenue Mall
Columbus, OH 43210
614-422-6151
Established in 1873, Ohio State offers
approximately 4 million volumes and bound
periodicals. Special collections include those on
the American Association of Editorial Cartoonists,
American fiction to 1925, American sheet music,
Australia, daguerreotypes and ambrotypes, dance
notation, Reformation history, and science fiction
magazines.
Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County
800 Vine Street
Library Square
Cincinnati, OH 45202
513-369-6900
Founded in 1853, Cincinnati's library has more than
3.5 million volumes, with 139,337 maps and special
collections on local history, genealogy, theology,
art, music, theater, and oral history.
Oklahoma (U.S.Libraries)
University of Oklahoma University Libraries
410 West Brooks
Norman, OK 73019
405-325-2611
Founded in 1895, the University of Oklahoma's
library holds more than 2.2 million volumes, with
special collections devoted to early science,
Western history, Indian papers, political speeches,
theater, film, and dance.
Pennsylvania (U.S.Libraries)
Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh
4400 Forbes Avenue
Pittsburgh, PA 15213
412-622-3100
Founded in 1895, the Carnegie Library collection
contains more than 2.4 million volumes, with
approximately 69,000 in foreign languages. It
maintains special collections on architecture and
design, the Atomic Energy Commission, cartoons,
local history, U.S. patents, World War I, and
nineteenth-century American and German music
journals.
Free Library of Philadelphia
Logan Square
Philadelphia, PA 19103
215-686-5322
Founded in 1891, the Free Library contains 3.1
million volumes, with special collections on
orchestral music, common law, automobile history,
Americana, cuneiform tablets, Charles Dickens,
Edgar Allan Poe, Beatrix Potter, Arthur Rackham,
theater, and maps (including over 130,000
single-sheet maps, atlases, and geographies).
Pennsylvania State University
Fred Lewis Pattee Library
University Park, PA 16802
814-865-0401
Established in 1857, Penn State's library has
approximately 2 million volumes, with special
collections on American sociology, anthropology,
art, architecture, Australia, Bibles, black
literature, the Columbus family papers, English
literature, photography, Pennsylvania, science
fiction, Surrealism, and the United Steelworkers
of America.
University of Pennsylvania Libraries
Van Pelt Library
3420 Walnut Street-CH
Philadelphia, PA 19104
215-898-7091
Founded in 1749, the University of Pennsylvania's
libraries hold more than 3.2 million volumes, with
special collections on church history, the Spanish
Inquisition, canon law, witchcraft, Shakespeare,
alchemy and chemistry, Aristotle, Bibles, Jonathan
Swift, Sanskrit manuscripts, Theodore Dreiser,
Washington Irving, and the Spanish Golden Age of
literature, as well as Benjamin Franklin imprints.
University of Pittsburgh University Libraries
Pittsburgh, PA 15260
412-624-4437
Founded in 1873, the University of Pittsburgh has
holdings of more than 2.5 million volumes, with
special collections on ballet, nineteenth- and
twentieth-century American and English theater,
popular culture, early history and travel,
children's literature, Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood
videos, and ethnic organizations.
South Carolina (U.S.Libraries)
University of South Carolina
Thomas Cooper Library
Columbia, SC 29208
803-777-3142
Founded in 1801, South Carolina's system contains
more than 1.8 million volumes, with special
collections on archeology, ornithology, aerial
photography, and rare medical books.
Texas (U.S.Libraries)
Dallas Public Library
1515 Young Street
Dallas, TX 75201
214-749-4100
Founded in 1901, Dallas' library contains over 3
million volumes. Special collections cover business
histories, children's literature, classical
literature, classical recordings, Dallas black
history, diaries and manuscripts on dance, fashion,
genealogy, grants, printing, and Texas.
Houston Public Library
500 McKinney Avenue
Houston, TX 77002
713-224-5441
Founded in 1901, the Houston Public Library has
more than 3.1 million volumes, with special
collections of Bibles; books on the Civil War,
genealogy, Texas, and petroleum; Salvation Army
posters; early Houston photographs; early printing
and illuminated manuscripts; juvenile literature;
and sheet music.
University of Texas Libraries
Box P
Austin, TX 78713
512-471-3811
Founded in 1883, this university library system
serves a student body of more than 46,000. With
more than 5.5 million volumes, its holdings are
divided among individual libraries devoted to Asia;
film; the Middle East; Latin America; public
affairs; architecture and planning; chemistry;
classics; engineering; fine arts; geology; physics,
math, and astronomy; science; business research;
humanities; population research; and law. Its
special collections cover Southern history, Canada,
British Commonwealth literature, the U.S.
Volleyball Association, and oral histories.
Utah (U.S.Libraries)
University of Utah Marriott Library
Salt Lake City, UT 84112
801-581-8558
Founded in 1850, Utah's library contains in excess
of 2 million volumes, with special collections on
the Middle East, Western Americana, and the history
of medicine.
Virginia (U.S.Libraries)
University of Virginia Alderman Library
Charlottesville, VA 22903
804-924-3026
Established in 1819, Virginia's library holds more
than 2.6 million volumes, with special collections
devoted to American literature, the American
Revolution, Americana, the Civil War and
Reconstruction, political cartoons, Ceylon,
classical studies, Stephen Crane, Oliver
Cromwell,John Dos Passos, evolution, William
Faulkner, finance, Robert Frost, Gothic novels, Bret
Harte, Nathaniel Hawthorne, international law,
Washington Irving, Thomas Jefferson, modern art,
Mark Twain, typography and printing, Virginia,
voyages and travels, and Walt Whitman.
Washington (U.S.Libraries)
University of Washington Libraries
FM-25
Seattle, WA 98195
206-543-9153
Founded in 1862, this university's holdings exceed
4.3 million volumes, with special collections
devoted to East Asia, fisheries, forest resources,
oceanography, and the Pacific Northwest.
Wisconsin (U.S.Libraries)
Milwaukee Public Library
814 West Wisconsin Avenue
Milwaukee, WI 53233
414-278-3000
Founded in 1878, the Milwaukee Public Library has
more than 2.3 million volumes, with special
collections on the Great Lakes, H. G. Wells,
British and American authors, genealogy, and
cookbooks.
University of Wisconsin - Madison Memorial Library
728 State Street
Madison, WI 53706
608-262-3521
The University of Wisconsin has amassed a
collection of more than 4.5 million volumes since
its founding in 1850. Special collections include
those on alchemy, American gifts, book plates,
Brazilian positivism, Buddhism, children's
literature, C. S. Lewis' letters, Calvinist
theology and Dutch history, chess, early American
women authors, history of chemistry, medieval
history, Mexican pamphlets, Polish literature and
history, Tibetan studies, Mark Twain, and Welsh
theology.
Canada
Alberta (Canada, Libraries)
University of Alberta University Library
Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2J8
403-432-3790
Established in 1909, Alberta's university system
contains more than 2.8 million volumes, with
special collections on literature, South American
and North American Indians, Victorian book arts,
western Canada, and theology and canon law.
British Columbia (Canada, Libraries)
University of British Columbia Library
1956 Main Mall
Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Y3
604-228-3871
Established in 1915, British Columbia's library
holds more than 2.4 million volumes, with special
collections on Pacific Northwest history, Canada,
the Orient, the history of science, English
literature, and Canadian and Japanese maps.
Ontario (Canada, Libraries)
University of Toronto Library System
Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A5
416-978-2282
Founded in 1827, the University of Toronto has
holdings of more than 6.3 million volumes, with
extensive sections of sheet music, films, slides,
maps, and photographs. Its special collections
include those on Shakespeare, the history of
science, Darwin, Victorian natural history,
ornithology, medical and related sciences, Italian
plays, juvenile drama, Canada, and Canadian
authors.
Quebec (Canada, Libraries)
McGill University Libraries
3459 McTavish Street
Montreal, Quebec H3A 1Y1
514-392-4948
Founded in 1821, this university system serves an
enrollment of about 24,000 students and has
holdings of 1.3 million volumes. Its special
collections cover architecture, William Blake,
Canada, entomology, early geology, the history of
science and medicine, natural history and
ornithology, printing, Shakespeare, and sixteenth-
and seventeenth-century tracts.
Major Museums of the United States and Canada
United States
Arizona (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Arizona State University Art Collections
Matthews Center, Arizona State University
Tempe, AZ 85287
602-965-2874
Founded in 1950, Arizona State's collection
includes American paintings of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries; a fine print collection with
Rembrandts, Whistlers, and Durers; fine
Americana and decorative arts, particularly
pottery; European painting and sculpture; Latin
American arts; and crafts.
California (U.S.) (Major Museums)
California Palace of the Legion of Honor
Lincoln Park
San Francisco, CA 94121
415-221-4811
The Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco
Golden Gate Park
San Francisco, CA 94118
415-558-2887
These museums are run by a joint administration,
although they are not located near each other.
Founded in 1924 and 1895, respectively, each museum
has extensive collections. The deYoung includes the
Hearst collection of Flemish Gothic tapestries;
fine primitive pre-Columbian artifacts; Northwest
Coast Indian, African, and Oceanic arts
collections; and Renaissance and Baroque art. The
California Palace is noted for its
eighteenth-century French furniture and decorative
arts; its French paintings, including those of
Monet, Renoir, Fragonard, Boucher, Manet, and
Corot; Rodin sculptures; and an extraordinary
collection of prints and drawings of all periods.
J. Paul Getty Museum
17985 Pacific Coast Highway,
Malibu, CA 90265
213-459-2306
The world's best-endowed museum, the Getty was
created in 1953. This popular museum is housed in
a re-creation of the first-century B.C. Villa dei
Paryri at Herculaneum, complete with elaborate
gardens. The Getty has acquired extraordinary
classical collections, including illuminated
manuscripts and French decorative arts.
Huntington Library, Art Gallery, and Botanical Garden
1151 Oxford Road
San Marino, CA 91108
818-405-2100
In the Huntington complex, established in 1919, a
beautiful garden setting enhances the extraordinary
collections of eighteenth-century British
paintings, including Gainsborough's Blue Boy and
Lawrence's Pinkie; Renaissance bronzes and
eighteenth-century marbles; early editions of
Shakespeare and Chaucer in the extensive library;
and prints and drawings. The setting includes a
Japanese garden and sixteenth-century samurai's
house.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art
5905 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90036
213-857-6111
Established in 1910, this museum houses a general
collection in three pavilions surrounded by a
sculpture garden with works from Rodin's time to
the present. Its acquisitions include early Near
and Middle Eastern antiquities; Roman, Greek,
Western, and modern art; Far Eastern collections;
textiles; costumes; Indian arts; pottery; Italian
mosaics; pre-Columbian, African, and Oceanic arts;
and nineteenth- and twentieth-century American and
European paintings.
Norton Simon Museum
Colorado and Orange Grove Boulevards
Pasadena, CA 91106
213-449-6840
Established in 1924 as the Pasadena Museum of
Modern Art, this museum has developed worldwide
prominence through the loans of collector Norton
Simon. His collections include European art from
the Renaissance to recent times, with Old Masters
of the highest quality.
Colorado (U.S.) (Major Museums)
The Denver Art Museum
100 West 14th Avenue Parkway
Denver, CO 80204
303-575-2793
The Denver Art Museum is noted for its collection
of primitive African, Oceanic, American, Native
American, and Northwest Indian arts; its Peruvian
art; its collection of the arts of China, Japan,
Korea, India, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and the Middle
and Near East; period rooms; Impressionist,
Post-Impressionist, and modern paintings; prints,
drawings, and photographs; and the Neusteter
Institute of Fashion, Costume, and Textiles.
Connecticut (U.S.) (Major Museums)
The New Britain Museum of American Art
56 Lexington Street
New Britain, CT 06052
203-229-0257
The New Britain collection, established in 1903,
focuses on outstanding American paintings from
colonial times to the present. It includes Hudson
River School painters and the Low memorial
collection of American illustration, with N. C.
Wyeth classics.
Yale Center for British Art
1080 Chapel Street
Box 2120
New Haven, CT 06520
203-432-4594
This collection of British watercolors, drawings,
paintings, books, and prints is the largest of its
kind outside of Great Britain. Established in 1977,
the center was the gift of Paul Mellon, a lifelong
collector of British art.
Yale University Art Gallery
1111 Chapel Street
New Haven, CT 06520
203-436-0574
This outstanding world art collection has been
built up since the gallery's founding in 1832. It
includes the Jarves collection of early Italian
paintings; collections of American silver,
painting, and decorative arts; modern art; Greek
and Roman vases; manuscripts; prints and drawings;
and primitive arts.
Delaware (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Delaware Art Museum
2301 Kentmere Parkway
Wilmington, DE 19806
302-571-9590
The Delaware Art Museum, founded in 1912,
specializes in American paintings, with examples
by Hudson River School painters such as John Sloan,
Howard Pyle, and the Wyeth family. There is an
extensive collection of English Pre-Raphaelites;
a research library on American arts; and prints and
drawings.
Henry Francis Du Pont Winterthur Museum
Kennett Pike (Route 52)
Winterthur, DE 19735
302-888-4600
Founded in 1930, Winterthur has an outstanding
collection of American furniture, furnishings, and
decorative arts from the colonial period to the
mid-nineteenth century. Period rooms display
extensive collections of ceramics, glass, Chinese
porcelain, fabrics, lighting fixtures, and carpets.
District of Columbia (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution
12th Street and Jefferson Drive, SW
Washington, DC 20560
202-357-2104
Established in 1906, the Freer has one of the
world's best collections of Oriental art and a
comprehensive collection of Whistler paintings (his
close friend Charles Freer gathered the collection
and donated it).
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden,
Smithsonian Institution
Independence Avenue at 8th Street, SW
Washington, DC 20560
202-357-3091
Created in 1966 to specialize in modern art, the
Hirshhorn's collection is so vast that only a small
portion can be displayed at any time.
National Air and Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution
Sixth Street and Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20560
203-357-2700
Founded in 1946, this museum houses a definitive
collection of aeronautical and astronautical items;
air and space craft; and instruments, equipment,
art, uniforms, and personal memorabilia related to
air and space.
National Gallery of Art
Constitution Avenue and 4th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20565
202-737-4215
The National Gallery was endowed by Andrew Mellon
in 1937 and continues to benefit from his
children's donations. It includes paintings and
sculptures of all schools of Western art,
decorative arts, and drawings and prints, with all
the classic masters represented.
National Museum of American Art,
The Smithsonian Institution
8th and G Streets, NW
Washington, DC 20560
202-357-3176
Housed in the historic Greek Revival Old Patent
Office, the museum has a definitive collection of
American arts, including graphic and decorative
arts, from colonial times to the present.
Hawaii (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Honolulu Academy of Arts
900 South Beretania Street
Honolulu, HI 96814
808-538-3693
The academy, founded in 1927, has a general
collection representing everything from ancient
Near Eastern and Mediterranean arts to European and
American arts. Medieval art, the Michener
collection of Japanese prints, Monet's Water
Lilies, and the arts of Africa, Oceania, and the
Americas are also included.
Illinois (U.S.) (Major Museums)
The Art Institute of Chicago
Michigan Avenue at Adams Street
Chicago, IL 60603
312-443-3600
Founded in 1879, the Art Institute of Chicago has
excellent collections in all areas of art. It is
noted for the works of Old Masters, Impressionists,
and American and Far Eastern artists; graphics; and
Thorne miniature rooms. Famed works include
Seurat's Sunday Afternoon on the Island of la
Grande Jatte, Rembrandt's Young Girl at an Open
Half-Door, and Mary Cassatt's The Bath.
The Field Museum of Natural History
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605
312-922-9410
Founded in 1893, the Field Museum contains
definitive collections on anatomy, anthropology,
costumes, ethnology, geology, Indian artifacts,
science, textiles, and zoology. Among its
highlights are a full-scale replica of a Pawnee
Earth Lodge and a herbarium.
University of Chicago Oriental Institute Museum
1155 East 58th Street
Chicago, IL 60637
312-962-9520
Founded in 1919, the Oriental Institute houses a
top collection of archeology and art of the ancient
Near East, Babylonia, Egypt, early Christian
cultures, and Islamic civilization.
Indiana (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Indiana University Art Museum
Fine Arts Building
Bloomington, IN 47405
812-335-5445
This fine general collection, founded in 1941,
includes everything from ancient to contemporary
art, with Egyptian, Greek, and Roman sculpture;
coins and glass; Western fine and decorative arts
from the fourteenth to the twentieth centuries; and
Far Eastern arts.
Indianapolis Museum of Art
1200 West 38th Street
Indianapolis, IN 46208
317-923-1331
Noted for its Chinese, primitive, and American art,
this museum, founded in 1883, has an outstanding
general collection of Old Masters, Turner
watercolors, and European and American decorative
arts.
Kansas (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Wichita Art Museum
619 Stackman Drive
Wichita, KS 67203
316-268-4621
Established in 1935, this museum's outstanding
collection ranges from art of the Old West by
Charles M. Russell to Eakins' Starting Out After
Rail. It is noted for its American paintings,
sculptures, prints, and drawings.
Kentucky (U.S.) (Major Museums)
J.B. Speed Art Museum
2035 South Third Street
Louisville, KY 40208
502-636-2893
This extensive collection, founded in 1925,
includes European painting, sculpture, and
decorative arts from the Middle Ages to the
present; French and Flemish tapestries; and
Kentuckiana.
Maryland (U.S.) (Major Museums)
The Baltimore Museum of Art
Art Museum Drive
Baltimore, MD 21218
301-396-7101
Best known for its classic modern collections, this
outstanding museum, established in 1914, displays
contemporary drawings, period rooms illustrating
stylistic development in Maryland, Old Masters
paintings, and Far Eastern art.
Walters Art Gallery
600 North Charles Street
Baltimore, MD 21201
301-547-9000
Assembled by father and son, the Walters Art
Gallery opened in 1931 with exquisite medieval
treasures and Byzantine and Islamic art; early
Christian liturgical vessels, Renaissance enamels,
and jewelry; paintings from various periods; and
Greek, Roman, and Etruscan art.
Massachusetts (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum
280 The Fenway
Boston, MA 02115
617-566-1401
This personal collection, founded in 1900, covers
a wide range of world art, with masterpieces such
as Titian's The Rape of Europa, Giotto's
Presentation of the Child Jesus in the Temple, and
Botticelli's Madonna of the Eucharist.
Museum of Fine Arts
465 Huntington Avenue
Boston, MA 02115
617-267-9300
This collection, founded in 1870, includes
masterpieces from around the world. It is noted for
its Far Eastern, ancient, Egyptian, Greek, and
Roman collections, as well as Old Masters,
Impressionist, and Post-Impressionist works, and
American paintings and decorative arts. It also has
American silver, prints and drawings, ancient
musical instruments, and ship models. Famed works
include Paul Revere's Liberty Bowl, Renoir's Le Bal
a Bougival, and a Greek marble Head of
Aphrodite.
Fogg Art Museum
32 Quincy Street
Harvard University
Cambridge, MA 02138
617-495-7768
With the largest and most extensive art collection
of any university in the United States, the Fogg,
opened in 1895, is particularly noted for its
drawings and prints of all periods. It also has a
fine collection of Chinese sculptures, stones and
bronzes, jades, and ceramics.
Old Sturbridge Village
Sturbridge, MA 01566
508-347-3362
Set up in 1938 as a living history museum, Old
Sturbridge has a considerable collection of tools,
crafts, arts and artifacts, decorative arts, and
more than 100 period buildings of the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries.
Michigan (U.S.) (Major Museums)
The Detroit Institute of Arts
5200 Woodward Avenue
Detroit, MI 48202
313-833-7900
Founded in 1885, this institute is renowned for its
comprehensive collection of world arts, especially
its Old Master paintings of Northern Europe, French
eighteenth-century decorative arts, art of the
ancient world, period rooms, prints and drawings,
and American arts since colonial times.
Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village
20900 Oakwood Boulevard
Dearborn, MI 48121
313-271-1620
Described as a "Disneyland of Americana," the
indoor/outdoor facilities, established in 1929, of
the museum and village offer demonstrations of
crafts and manufacturing techniques that complement
its extensive collections of arts, crafts,
artifacts, and technology. Activities include
everything from antique car rallies to country
fairs on its 14 acres.
Minnesota (U.S.) (Major Museums)
The Minneapolis Institute of Arts
2400 Third Avenue
South Minneapolis, MN 55404
612-870-3046
This outstanding general collection is strongest
in European paintings from Old Masters to the
present. Founded in 1912, the institute also houses
the Pillsbury collection of Chinese bronzes,
Japanese prints and paintings, textiles, and
photographs.
New Jersey (U.S.) (Major Museums)
The Art Museum
Princeton University
Princeton, NJ 08544
609-452-3788
Opened in 1882, this comprehensive collection
contains a wide spectrum of world art, including
Chinese paintings and bronzes, classical
antiquities, and French paintings and sculptures.
New Mexico (U.S.) (Major Museums)
The University of New Mexico Art Museum
Fine Arts Center
Albuquerque, NM 87131
505-277-4001
Established in 1963, the museum has important
collections of nineteenth- and twentieth-century
prints and photographs and American painting of the
twentieth century, with emphasis on artists who
worked in New Mexico.
New York (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Albany Institute of History and Art
125 Washington Avenue
Albany, NY 12210
518-463-4478
Founded in 1791, the institute's collection focuses
on the fine and decorative arts of Albany and
Hudson River artists, with portraits, silver,
furniture, and period rooms.
American Museum of Natural History
Central Park West at 79th Street
New York, NY 10024
212-873-1300
One of the world's largest natural history museums,
opened in 1869, it has exceptional collections on
American Indians, Eskimos, dinosaurs, wildlife,
minerals, and fossil specimens.
The Brooklyn Museum
188 Eastern Parkway
Brooklyn, NY 11238
718-638-5000
The Brooklyn Museum was founded in 1823 and has
amassed comprehensive collections of Egyptian and
classical arts; American arts; European and
American graphics; and Pre-Columbian, African,
American Indian, and other primitive arts.
The Cloisters
Fort Tryon Park, NY
212-973-3700
A branch of the Metropolitan Museum devoted
exclusively to medieval art, the Cloisters was
built on a four-and-a-half acre site overlooking
the Hudson. It was opened in 1938 and incorporates
four medieval cloisters, an arcade, a chapel, and
exhibition rooms. The museum features 12th- and
13th-century Byzantine and Romanesque art from
France and Spain.
Cooper-Hewitt Museum, The Smithsonian Institution's
National Museum of Design
2 East 91st Street
New York, NY 10128
212-860-6868
Established in 1897, the Cooper-Hewitt is housed
in the Carnegie mansion. Its excellent collection
of decorative arts includes furniture, fabrics,
wallpaper, ceramics, drawings, prints, architecture
and design publications, and metalwork. It boasts
the world's largest collection of Winslow Homer
drawings and sketches by other late
nineteenth-century artists.
The Frick Collection
1 East 70th Street
New York, NY
212-288-0700
The former home of Henry Clay Frick, built in 1914
as an eighteenth-century model, still has most of
its original furnishings intact, including
excellent European paintings from the fourteenth
through the eighteenth centuries.
Guggenheim Museum
See Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Fifth Avenue at 82nd Street
New York, NY 10028
212-879-5500
One of the world's major museums, founded in 1870,
the Metropolitan houses definitive collections
covering about 5,000 years of art. A few of the
highlights include medieval armor collections,
Tiffany stained-glass windows, the complete Temple
of Dendur (an early Christian structure from
Egypt), extensive painting collections, sculpture,
decorative arts, and a re-creation of a classic
Ming dynasty Chinese garden court.
Museum of American Folk Art
2 Lincoln Square
New York, NY 10023
212-977-7170
This museum, established in 1961, elevates the
crafts of the past to fine-art status. It includes
collections of quilts, weathervanes, folk
paintings, sculptures, weavings, and needlework
from the colonial period to the early twentieth
century.
The Museum of Modern Art
11 West 53rd Street
New York, NY 10019
212-708-9400
Begun in 1929, this exceptional collection traces
the evolution of art from the Impressionist period
forward. It represents a variety of disciplines,
including drawings and prints, industrial design,
architecture, paintings, sculpture, and decorative
arts.
The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum
1071 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10028
212-360-3500
Founded in 1937, this excellent collection of
modern drawings, prints, paintings, and sculpture
emphasizes abstract and nonobjective subjects. It
is housed in a stunning Frank Lloyd Wright
building.
Whitney Museum of American Art
Madison Avenue at 75th Street
New York, NY
212-530-3676
Opened in 1966, the Whitney houses New York's
largest collection of twentieth-century art, with
changing exhibitions of drawings, paintings,
sculpture, and architecture. It shows contemporary
avant-garde film and video and holds the Biennial
of Contemporary American Art, a major showcase of
the best recent work.
Ohio (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Cincinnati Art Museum
Eden Park, OH 45202
513-721-5204
Founded in 1886, this major museum has an
excellent, comprehensive general collection noted
for its Near Eastern and American arts, Old
Masters, medieval art, musical instruments, and
drawings and prints. It includes works by Corot,
Titian, Grant Wood, Gainsborough, Goya, and
Velazquez.
Cleveland Museum of Art
11150 East Boulevard
Cleveland, OH 44106
216-421-7340
This excellent museum, founded in 1913, has a
wide-ranging collection representing the artistic
accomplishments of cultures throughout the world.
It is recognized for one of the best Far Eastern
collections and for its medieval art, Old Masters,
classical antiquities, and American arts from the
colonial time forward.
Oklahoma (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Thomas Gilcrease Institute of American History, Art
1400 North 25 West Avenue
Tulsa, OK 74127
918-482-3122
This exceptional art collection, founded in 1942,
captures the saga of America from prehistoric to
modern times; the Gilcrease's art of the Old West
is rivaled only by that of the Smithsonian. The
institute also has maps, books, documents,
artifacts, and manuscripts.
Oregon (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Portland Art Museum
1219 South West Park Avenue
Portland, OR 97205
503-226-2811
The Portland, founded in 1892, focuses on Native
American arts of the Northwest. It also includes
a unique collection of Cameroon art, Pre-Columbian
arts, Renaissance painting and sculpture, Ethiopian
crosses, and European and American painting and
sculpture.
Pennsylvania (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Franklin Institute Science Museum and Planetarium
20th and Benjamin Franklin Parkway
Philadelphia, PA 19103
215-448-1200
Founded in 1824, this comprehensive museum offers
collections featuring science, history, industry,
technology, aeronautics, astronomy, space
exploration, and stamps and coins.
Museum of Art, Carnegie Institute
4400 Forbes Avenue
Pittsburgh, PA 15213
412-622-3200
This museum, founded in 1896, displays art from
around the world, including American art since the
colonial period; ancient and classical art;
African, Pre-Columbian, and Native American art;
and European painting, sculpture, and decorative
arts from the Renaissance forward. Works by Van
Gogh, Cezanne, and Monet are included.
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
Broad and Cherry Streets
Philadelphia, PA 19102
215-972-7600
Founded in 1805, the Pennsylvania Academy offers
an excellent collection of American art from the
eighteenth century to the present, with major works
by Thomas Eakins, Charles Willson Peale, and
William Rush.
Philadelphia Museum of Art
26th Street and Benjamin Franklin Parkway
Box 7646
Philadelphia, PA 19101
215-763-8100
This museum, established in 1876, is noted for its
masterpieces from the twelfth to the nineteenth
centuries; Barberini tapestries designed by Rubens;
arms and armor; glass; European and American period
rooms; folk, decorative, and primitive art; and the
Stieglitz Center collection of photographs.
The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania
33rd and Spruce Streets
Philadelphia, PA 19104
215-898-4000
Founded in 1887, the museum is renowned for its
worldwide acquisitions of ancient and primitive
art, its collection of Native American gold, and
the largest grouping of West African art in the
Americas. It has sponsored more than 275
expeditions to gather outstanding artifacts from
the ancient Near, Middle, and Far East, Southeast
Asia, the Mediterranean, the Pacific, Europe,
Africa, and the Americas.
Texas (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Amon Carter Museum of Western Art
3501 Camp Bowie Boulevard
Fort Worth, TX 76107
817-738-1933
Housed in an impressive building designed by Philip
Johnson since its founding in 1961, this museum
concentrates on American paintings and sculptures
from the nineteenth century forward, specializing
in the works of the Old West. It also has a fine
print collection and excellent Remingtons and
Russells.
Kimbell Art Museum
3333 Camp Bowie Boulevard
Box 9440
Fort Worth, TX 76107
817-332-8451
Noted for its masterpieces from around the world,
this collection, founded in 1972, ranges from
twelfth-century panel paintings to J.M.W. Turner
landscapes, Gainsboroughs, and Goyas.
The Museum of Fine Arts
1001 Bissonet Street
Box 6826
Houston, TX 77265
713-526-1361
This wide-ranging collection of world art,
established in 1900, is especially strong in
contemporary art; Pre-Columbian and American Indian
art; Old Masters; and later European and American
paintings and sculptures.
Virginia (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Colonial Williamsburg
P.O. Box C
Williamsburg, VA 23187
804-220-7285
This village-style museum, founded in 1926,
showcases American arts from colonial times
forward. Colonial Williamsburg has 88 preserved and
restored buildings dating from 1693 to 1837 and 50
reconstructed eighteenth-century buildings
surrounded by gardens.
Wisconsin (U.S.) (Major Museums)
Elvehjem Museum of Art, University of Wisconsin
800 University Avenue
Madison, WI 53706
608-263-2246
Established in 1962, this is one of the three
largest university museums in the United States.
Its wide-ranging collection of world art dates back
to ancient times, with fine examples of classical
coins and marbles; American painting, sculpture,
and decorative arts from the eighteenth century
forward; Indian miniatures; and Socialist Realist
(propagandist) paintings from Russia.
Canada
Ontario (Canada) (Major Museums)
Art Gallery of Hamilton
123 King Street West
Hamilton, Ontario L8P 4S8
416-527-6610
A major North American museum, this gallery was
established in 1914. It is noted for its collection
of Canadian art; twentieth-century British and
American painting, sculpture, drawings, and prints;
and French Impressionist works.
Museum of Civilization
Victoria Memorial Museum Building
Metcalfe and McLeod Streets
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0M8
613-992-3497
Opened in 1845, this museum specializes in history
and folk culture, with excellent collections of the
arts and crafts of Native Americans, particularly
Eskimos and Northwest Coast Indians.
Children's Museums
There are more than 90 museums located throughout
the United States devoted to children. While most
museums offer at least a few special programs for
children, those listed here focus almost
exclusively on young visitors. A representative
group is described in detail. For additional
information, see the listing "Children's and Junior
Museums" in The Official Museum Directory,
published annually by the American Association of
Museums.
Brooklyn Children's Museum
145 Brooklyn Avenue
Brooklyn, NY 11213
718-735-4400
Founded in 1899, this was the world's first
children's museum. Its teaching collection includes
more than 50,000 items, with exhibits on cultural
history, natural history, and technology. It houses
a greenhouse, a steam engine, and a gristmill.
Children may attend workshops in school classes or
groups. A portable loan collection and children's
resource library is also available.
Capital Children's Museum
800 Third Street NE
Washington, DC 20002
202-543-8600
Founded in 1974, Capital Children's International
Hall has a hands-on exhibit on Mexico where
children learn to make their own tortillas, weave,
and do other Mexican arts and crafts. Additional
facilities include a living room, a metric exhibit,
a simple machines display, a computer classroom,
a communications exhibit, and a futuristic center.
Children's Museum
Museum Wharf
300 Congress Street
Boston, MA 02210
617-426-6500
Located on Boston's picturesque waterfront,
Children's Museum was founded in 1913. It offers
special collections of Native American and Japanese
art; Americana; games, toys, dolls, and doll
houses; and bird, insect, shell, and mineral
specimens. The Exhibit Center presents
participatory and cased exhibitions on child
development, natural history, science and
technology, careers, handicaps, and cross-cultural
understanding. Its Resource Center makes available
over 10,000 books, games, and other items to
teachers, parents, students, and visitors.
Eugene Field House and Toy Museum
634 South Broadway
St. Louis, MO 63102
314-421-4689
Founded in 1936, this museum is housed in the
birthplace of Eugene Field. It contains a
collection of antique toys and dolls, along with
a library on the works of Field.
The Exploratorium
3601 Lyon Street
San Francisco, CA 94123
415-563-7337
Housed in the Palace of Fine Arts, this science
museum offers 500 participatory exhibits and art
works illustrating the physical nature of the world
and the sensory mechanisms through which we
perceive it. Founded in 1969, it hosts field trips,
concerts, lectures, and school groups.
Kidspace-A Participatory Museum
390 South El Molino
Pasadena, CA 91101
213-449-9143
Kidspace offers creative learning experiences for
children, as in a mock television studio that
children operate, a radio booth for broadcasting,
and a medical clinic. There is even a robot who
talks to visitors. Parents may host birthday
parties in the museum.
Los Angeles Children's Museum
310 North Main Street
Los Angeles, CA 90012
213-687-8801
Children participate in a variety of activities at
this museum in such places as Sticky City, with
giant foam blocks for construction fun; City
Streets, with city vehicles and street signs; TV
Studios, where children create their own news
broadcasts; and Workshop Place, which fosters
creativity in arts and crafts.
Perelman Antique Toy Museum
270 South 2nd Street
Philadelphia, PA 19106
215-922-1070
Founded in 1962, Perelman's toy museum was first
housed in 1758 in the Abercrombie House. Its
special collections include antique toys,
mechanical banks, toy pistols, and automatic toys.
Please Touch Museum
210 North 21st Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103
215-963-0667
Founded in 1976, the Please Touch Museum issues a
children's newspaper and offers special exhibits
on cultural artifacts of daily life, folk art and
sculpture, natural science, technology, musical
instruments, games, registered toys, costumes,
masks, foot gear, and hats.
Reference Works for General Information
The following lists are not meant to be
comprehensive but are intended to serve as
wide-ranging sources for the subjects. A library
will provide further reference materials and works
on each of the subjects.
General Reference Works (General Information)
American Reference Books Annual. Libraries
Unlimited, 1970-. This annual volume covers 1,300
to 1,800 new titles each year, reviewing about 300
categories of reference books. The most recent
works in many disciplines are listed.
Bartlett's Familiar Quotations: A Collection of
Passages, Phrases and Proverbs Traced to Their
Sources in Ancient and Modern Literature, 15th ed.
Little Brown, 1980. This work lists more than
22,500 familiar and world-famous quotations along
with a 600-page keyword subject index.
Books in Print. Bowker, 1947-. This annual
listing of books now in print or slated for
publication by January 31 of the following year
currently contains well over 700,000 titles.
Carruth, Gorton, ed. The Volume Library. The
Southwestern Company, 1917-. This two-volume,
2.5-million-word family encyclopedia is revised
annually. It covers subjects of interest to
students and their families and is illustrated and
thoroughly indexed.
Chambers's Biographical Dictionary, rev. ed.
Cambridge University Press, 1986. Introduced in
1897, Chambers's currently lists more than 15,000
biographies spanning the history of the world.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 17th ed. Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 1987. A major comprehensive reference
tool for any library.
Ethridge, James M., ed. The Directory of
Directories: An Annotated Guide to Business and
Industrial Directories, Professional and
Scientific Rosters, and Other Lists and Guides of
All Kinds, 2nd ed. Information Enterprises, 1982.
The work lists 5,200 directories with categories
such as business, education, and leisure,
providing full details on each publication.
Guinagh, Kevin, ed. Dictionary of Foreign Phrases
and Abbreviations, 3rd ed. H. W. Wilson, 1982.
This helpful dictionary defines more than 5,000
French, German, Greek, Italian, Latin, and Spanish
abbreviations, phrases, proverbs, and quotations.
Guinness Book of World Records. Sterling, 1955-.
An annual guide to "the biggest, largest, longest,
most" achieved all-time records.
Information Industry Market Place: An
International Directory of Information Products
and Services. Bowker, 1978 - 79-. This
international directory describes information
collection centers, database and abstract
publishers, information brokers, support services
and suppliers, conferences, associations,
periodicals, and reference books.
Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. H. W.
Wilson, 1900. The Readers' Guide provides a quick
overview of current events through indexing of 174
general-interest U.S. magazines in a range of
subject areas.
Sheehy, Eugene P., ed. Guide to Reference Books.
American Library Association, 1986. Found on
nearly every reference librarian's basic
bookshelf, Sheehy's Guide is grouped into five
main categories: general reference works;
humanities; social and behavioral sciences;
history and area studies; and science, technology,
and medicine.
Who's Who in America. Marquis Who's Who. 1899-.
The individuals listed in Who's Who provide the
data to be included, so entries vary in
completeness and accuracy. The work includes
biographical details on approximately 72,000
Americans and others prominently linked to
America.
World Almanac and Book of Facts. Newspaper
Enterprise Association, 1868-. A handy and
easy-to-use reference, the World Almanac is
updated annually. It provides statistics
and factual data on economic, educational,
industrial, political, religious, and social
issues.
World Book Encyclopedia. World Book-Childcraft
International, 1983. Easy to use, the World Book
is targeted at elementary through high school
students, providing general reference information.
Anthropology and Ethnology (General Information)
Brace, C. Loring, et al. Atlas of Human Evolution,
2nd ed. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1979. This book
offers a discussion of the evolution of man for
high school students and adults, using drawings
and text to chronicle the important discoveries in
this field.
Hawkes, Jacquetta. The Atlas of Early Man. St.
Martin's, 1976. This well-written and
well-organized atlas covers developments in the
ancient world from 35,000 B.C.to A.D. 500. It
provides a complete description of the
architecture, art, people, important events,
and religions of each period.
Hunter, David E., and Whitten, Philip, eds.
Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Harper & Row, 1976.
The first English-language encyclopedia in
anthropological studies, this volume is compact,
comprehensive, and accessible. It includes some
1,400 articles on pertinent topics, supplemented
by generous illustrations, maps, diagrams, and
photographs.
Applied Arts (General Information)
Bernasconi, John R. Collectors' Glossary of
Antiques and Fine Arts, 3rd ed. Transatlantic Arts,
1971. A guide for the collector, layperson, and
professional to terminology of the antiques and
fine arts worlds. A thorough explanation of
classical, heraldic, and religious symbols is
provided.
Bond, Harold Lewis. An Encyclopedia of Antiques.
Gale Research, 1975. This classic reference
reprints the 1945 original edition to offer
definitions, history, and a field guide to
furniture, glass, metals, pottery and porcelain,
and textiles. It includes biographical information
on important individuals in the field and
bibliographic references.
Liman, Ellen. The Collecting Book. Penguin, 1980.
This book thoroughly describes individual
collecting areas such as advertising memorabilia,
comic books, tobacco items, clothing, boxes and
tins, pottery, glass, and toys. It includes
chapters on buying, preserving, and displaying
collectibles, as well as numerous black-and-white
photographs and extensive references to related
publications and organizations.
Art and Architecture (General Information)
American Art Directory. Bowker, 1898-. A biennial
guide to the thousands of art councils, museums,
art libraries, and art schools in the United
States, Canada, and abroad.
Artist's Market. Writer's Digest, 1974-. This
annual publication details names, addresses,
contacts, payments, and other data for 4,000
purchasers of cartoons, illustrations, and
photographs. It is considered a standard in its
field.
Bell, Doris L. Contemporary Art Trends: A Guide to
Sources, 1960 - 1980. Scarecrow Press, 1981. This
work identifies 41 contemporary art trends with
listings of appropriate books and museum catalogs.
It also contains a listing of 200 contemporary art
journals and a bibliography.
Gardner, Helen. Art Through the Ages, 6th ed.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980. A standard
resource for librarians, students, and art
aficionados, this volume surveys Western art
from ancient through modern works.
Mayer, Ralph. A Dictionary of Art Terms and
Techniques. Crowell, 1969. This book defines more
than 3,200 terms used in the fields of ceramics,
drawing, painting, printmaking, and sculpture.
Phaidon Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Art, 2nd
ed. Dutton, 1977. This concise and thorough survey
covers international art movements and artists in
depth from 1900.
Richards, J. M., ed. Who's Who in Architecture from
1400 to the Present. Holt, Rinehart & Winston,
1977. With more than 600 entries, this compendium
describes the history of Western architecture. It
lists important architects, engineers, landscape
architects, and town planners whose works have
advanced the field of architecture.
Astronomy (General Information)
Menzel, Donald H. A Field Guide to the Stars and
Planets: Including the Moon, Satellites, Comets and
Other Features of the Universe, 2nd ed.
Houghton-Mifflin, 1983. This guide contains
detailed sets of star maps for the southern and
northern hemispheres as seen through amateur
telescopes; 12 maps of the moon; and more than 50
photographic atlas charts. It also provides a
helpful index of Latin and English names of stars,
a bibliography, and a glossary.
Communications (General Information)
Barnouw, Eric, ed. International Encyclopedia of
Communications. 4 vols. Oxford University Press,
1988. This comprehensive, illustrated encyclopedia
covers the entire spectrum of communications
studies. Most articles are followed by brief
bibliographies, and the work is extensively
cross-referenced.
Brown, Les. Les Brown's Encyclopedia of Television.
Zoetrope, 1982. This reference work covers
television terminology, notable television
programs, and profiles of important television
personalities, including actors, directors,
producers, and writers.
Representative American Speeches Series. H. W.
Wilson, 1967-. This annual publication includes
selected major speeches with biographical notes on
the speaker.
Writers Market: Where to Sell What You Write.
Writer's Digest, 1929-. An essential annual
reference for freelance writers that gives the
pertinent data on more than 4,500 publishers of
books, periodicals, audiovisual materials, greeting
cards, plays, and other materials. It includes
basics of copyright law and authors' rights.
Economics and Business (General Information)
Brownstone, David M., and Carruth, Gorton. Where
to Find Business Information: A World Guide for
Everyone Who Needs the Answers to Business
Questions (A Hudson Group book), 2nd ed. Wiley,
1982.
More than 5,000 English-language publications from
around the world are listed and briefly described,
with concentration on current periodical
publications and services, especially magazines,
newsletters, computerized databases, printouts,
and microforms. The compendium deals with all
subjects of interest to business.
Business Periodicals Index: A Cumulative Subject
Index to Periodicals in the Fields of Accounting,
Advertising, Banking and Finance, Business,
Insurance, Labor and Management, Marketing and
Purchasing, Office Management, Public
Administration, Taxation, Specific Businesses,
Industries, and Trades. H. W. Wilson, 1958-.
This monthly index provides data on approximately
250 periodicals and certain U.S. government
documents.
Consumers Index to Product Evaluations and
Information Sources. Pierian Press, 1973-.
Quarterly; annual cumulation. A quarterly guide
to consumer magazine articles in 14 subject areas.
Consumer Reports Buying Guide. Consumers Union,
1936-. Issued annually as the December issue of
Consumer Reports, this guide is a starting point
for a comparative analysis of all types of
products. It contains test results, brand and
model ratings and rankings, and general buying
advice on products as diverse as stereos and
orange juice. It also provides a subject index to
evaluations from the previous five years of
Consumer Reports.
Dow Jones - Irwin Business Almanac. Dow
Jones-Irwin, 1977-. This annual almanac provides
business, financial, and tax statistics. It
includes a short business directory and a review
of the previous year's significant business news.
Dun and Bradstreet Million Dollar Directory. Dun
and Bradstreet, 1959-. This annual directory
offers alphabetical listing of industries and
businesses with a net worth of at least $1
million. It includes the name, address,
corporate officers, Standard Industrial
Classification (SIC) number, approximate sales,
and number of employees for approximately 39,000
U.S. companies.
Dun and Bradstreet's Guide to Your Investments.
Crowell, 1973-. An introductory guide for amateur
stock market investors, this annual explains basic
concepts for all types of investments: common and
preferred stocks; bonds; real estate; stock
options; small business investment companies; and
formula investing.
Fortune World Business Directory. Time, Inc.,
1957-. Taken from the annual listing in the May
issue of Fortune magazine ranking the 500 largest
U.S.industrial corporations, this directory
includes the "Fortune 500" plus the 50 largest
banks.
Franchise Opportunities Handbook. U.S. Bureau of
Industrial Economics and Minority Business
Development Agency, 1972-. One of the best
publications on franchising, this, annual guide
provides details on equity capital needed to buy
specific franchises, available training, and
support services.
Garcia, F. L., ed. Encyclopedia of Banking and
Finance, 7th ed. Bankers Publishing, 1973.
This classic volume's 4,000 entries are arranged
alphabetically. They describe basic terms as well
as the mechanics and philosophy of banking
practices, credit, insurance, investment, and
money management.
Help: (Washington): The Useful Almanac. Everest
House, 1977-. This annual almanac offers
up-to-date information for consumers. It is
arranged topically, with material on health, real
estate, nutrition, energy, education, insurance,
and numerous other subjects.
Lesko, Matthew. Something for Nothing. Associated
Press, 1980. This book describes hotlines,
consumer groups and agencies, government and
private information resources, and various other
free and inexpensive information sources.
Moody's Handbook of Common Stocks. Moody's
Investors Service, 1965-. Described as a
quick-reference tool, Moody's quarterly publishes
data on approximately 1,000 stocks, outlining
capitalization, earnings, and projected outlook
for each.
Moskowitz, Milton, ed. Everybody's Business: An
Almanac: The Irreverent Guide to Corporate
America. Harper & Row, 1980. This almanac
describes the inner workings of 317 major American
businesses with details on the founding and
reputation of each.
Standard and Poor's Register of Corporations,
Directors and Executives. Standard and Poor's,
1928-8. A standard in the field, Standard and
Poor's Register offers three volumes each year
with current information on about 46,000 U.S. and
Canadian companies. The volumes include
biographies of executives as well as separate
listings of newly added individuals and companies,
obituaries for the previous year, and complete
data on each company.
Standard Directory of Advertisers. National
Register Publishing, 1907-. This annual directory
lists over 17,000 companies that advertise
nationally through various media. The directory
provides details on officers and sales personnel,
product lines, advertising agencies, and media.
Thomas Register of American Manufacturers and
Thomas Register Catalog File. Thomas Publications,
1905-. This annual authoritative listing of
manufacturers is grouped by more than 70,000
product classifications. Its 17 volumes contain
lists of products and services; company names,
addresses, and phone numbers; names of executives;
and ratings, as well as a brand-name index and
company catalogs.
U.S. Master Tax Guide. Commerce Clearing House,
1917-. Using information on the Internal Revenue
Code regulations and court and tax court
decisions, this annual handbook covers all aspects
of preparing federal income taxes for
corporations, estates and trusts, individuals, and
partnerships. It is considered a standard in its
field.
Education (General Information)
American Council on Education. American
Universities and Colleges, 13th ed. Walter de
Gruyter, 1987. This comprehensive directory
provides information about the structure of higher
education in the United States, as well as complete
details on each of the more than 1,700 institutions
granting baccalaureate or higher degrees.
Durnin, Richard G. American Education: A Guide to
Information Sources. Gale, 1982. This bibliography
covers books relating to American education, with
107 topical chapters listing works on childhood
through higher education. Most works included are
recent publications, but classic works also are
described.
Weber, J. Sherwood, ed. Good Reading: A Guide for
Serious Readers, 21st ed. Bowker, 1978. This
volume covers historical and regional works,
literary forms (biography, the novel, drama,
criticism), and the humanities (social sciences
and sciences). It is helpful in its listing of
classic works and important works on contemporary
issues.
The World of Learning. Europa Publications, 1947-.
This annual directory of international institutions
includes educational and scientific institutions
and organizations listed by country.
Ethnic Studies (General Information)
Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of
American Ethnic Groups. Harvard University Press,
1980. Essays describe the cultural, economic,
political, religious, and social history of
approximately 100 American ethnic groups.
Wynar, Lubomyr R. Encyclopedic Directory of Ethnic
Organizations in the United States. Libraries
Unlimited, 1975. Some 73 ethnic groups are
represented in the 1,475 organizations listed in
this directory. They include major cultural,
educational, fraternal, political, professional,
religious, and scholarly groups.
Film (General Information)
Halliwell, Leslie. Halliwell's Complete Guide to
Film. Macmillan, 1987. This regularly revised
comprehensive work covers a wide range of popular
film lore.
Michael, Paul, ed. The Great American Movie Book.
Prentice-Hall, 1980. This alphabetical listing of
1,000 of the most popular films of the sound era
includes data on cast, credits, and running time,
with black-and-white photographs. It also lists
Academy Award winners and indexes of players,
directors, and producers.
Genealogy and Heraldry (General Information)
Doane, Gilbert H., and Bell, James B. Searching for
Your Ancestors: The How and Why of Genealogy, 5th
ed. University of Minnesota Press, 1980. This
introductory guide to genealogical research
covers both techniques and sources for locating
genealogical data.
Fox-Davies, Arthur Charles. A Complete Guide to
Heraldry. Barnes & Noble, 1969. This guide
includes information on how to apply for a coat of
arms, as well as comprehensive details on the
history of armory. It discusses regalia, seals,
badges, cadency, and the law of armorial bearings.
Geography and Travel Guides (General Information)
Rand McNally Cosmopolitan World Atlas. Rand
McNally, rev. ed., 1987. This atlas includes 350
color maps and map inserts, with individual maps
of each U.S. state and Canadian province. It also
provides a list of 1980 census totals for about
20,000 U.S. political subdivisions. The main index
contains 82,000 entries.
Rand McNally Road Atlas, 1989: United States,
Canada, and Mexico. Rand McNally. This annual
publication offers maps of all 50 states, each
Canadian province, Central America, Mexico, and
Puerto Rico, plus a 23,000-item place-name index.
It also includes information on population,
national park areas, mileage, recreational and
historical sites, area codes, time zones, and how
to compute miles per gallon.
Stamp, Dudley, and Clark, Audrey N., eds. A
Glossary of Geographical Terms, 3rd ed. Longman,
1979. This glossary is useful to both the
specialist and layman with its generous
cross-referencing and concise definitions.
History (General Information)
Barraclough, Geoffrey, ed. The Times Atlas of World
History, rev. ed. Hammond, 1984. Seven sections
detail the history of the world, beginning with
"The World of Early Man" and concluding with "The
Age of Global Civilizations." This work contains
approximately 600 maps and illustrations depicting
the rise and fall of major civilizations, as well
as significant religious and historical events.
Barzun, Jacques, and Graff, Henry G. The Modern
Researcher, 4th ed. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
1985. This essential reference stresses historical
research and provides methodologies useful to those
in the humanities and social sciences. New material
for the 4th edition covers the use of computers,
word processors, and databases.
Carruth, Gorton. The Encyclopedia of American Facts
& Dates. Harper & Row, 1987. This chronologically
arranged encyclopedia of American history has
become a standard reference book for students and
others seeking basic information. It covers
explorations, treaties, battles, politics,
literature, and science, among other topics.
Palmer, Alan. Who's Who in Modern History, 1860 -
1980. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1980. Biographies
of approximately 600 prominent individuals from
the fields of politics, society, and literature.
Law (General Information)
Black, Henry Campbell. Black's Law Dictionary:
Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American
and English Jurisprudence, Ancient and Modern, 5th
ed. West, 1979. A standard reference in the field,
Black's gives detailed definitions in all aspects
of law, including criminal procedure, estate
planning, accounting, taxes, and commercial
transactions.
Cohen, Morris L., and Berring, Robert C. How to
Find the Law, 7th ed. West, 1985. A basic text
for law students, as well as a helpful tool for
the layman investigating resources and
methodologies of legal research.
Dobelis, Inge N., ed., Reader's Digest Family Legal
Guide: A Complete Encyclopedia of Law for the
Layman. Reader's Digest, 1981. Cross-referenced
definitions give the layman an understanding of
legal situations commonly encountered in everyday
life, such as writing a will or buying a house.
Linguistics (General Information)
Guinagh, Kevin, ed. Dictionary of Foreign Phrases
and Abbreviations, 3rd ed. H. W. Wilson, 1983.
This dictionary contains definitions for more than
5,000 French, German, Greek, Italian, Latin, and
Spanish abbreviations, phrases, quotations, and
proverbs that appear in the English language.
Similar expressions are cross-referenced.
Roget's International Thesaurus, 4th ed. Crowell,
1977. Topical listings of more than 250,000 words
are provided, with an alphabetical index for easy
use.
Strunk, William, Jr., and White, E. B. The Elements
of Style, 3rd ed. Macmillan, 1979. A classic book
noted for its simplicity and directness, Elements
consists of only five chapters: "Elementary Rules
of Usage," "Elementary Principles of Composition,"
"A Few Matters of Form," "Words and Expressions
Commonly Misused," and "An Approach to Style."
Webster's New World Dictionary, 3rd College
Edition. Simon & Schuster, 1988. This
authoritative dictionary provides over 170,000
entries, with in-depth etymologies, pronunciations,
foreign expressions, a syllabification system, and
over 11,000 Americanisms.
Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. G. & C.
Merriam, 1983. Almost 160,000 entries are
offered, with pronunciations, functional labels,
inflected forms, word histories, usage, and word
divisions. Also included are first known date of
use for each word. The dictionary contains sections
with biographical and geographical entries, foreign
words and phrases, degree-granting colleges and
universities, signs and symbols, and a style
manual.
Literature (General Information)
Carrier, Warren, ed. Guide to World Literature.
National Council of Teachers of English, 1980.
This work focuses on cultures and literary works
outside the Anglo-American tradition for American
literature students. It discusses some 200 literary
classics and their authors in the context of their
contribution to world literature and their
relationship to classics of other cultures.
Granger, Edith. Granger's Index to Poetry. Columbia
University, 1986. This standard work is indexed
by title, first line, author, and subject.
MLA International Bibliography of Books and
Articles on the Modern Languages and Literatures.
Modern Language Association of America, 1921-.
Annual. This useful reference covers articles and
books in English, French, German, Spanish, Italian,
Portuguese, Rumanian, and other languages.
Reader's Adviser. 6 vols. Bowker, 1986. This basic
guide to literature covers the best in English and
American fiction, poetry, essays, biographies, and
other areas in the fields of reference, history,
philosophy, and science.
Medical Science (General Information)
Physicians' Desk Reference to Pharmaceutical
Specialties and Biologicals. Medical Economics,
1947-. This compendium, commonly referred to as
the PDR, is a standard reference work for
physicians and other health professionals. It
offers details on dosage, contraindications, side
effects, precautions, and undesirable interactions
of pharmaceutical products.
Music (General Information)
Abraham, Gerald. The Concise Oxford History of
Music. Oxford University Press, 1980. This
scholarly survey of Western music from ancient
to modern times is presented chronologically. It
describes the musical styles of each period and
region, with extensive bibliographies.
Bayne, Pauline S., ed. A Basic Music Library:
Essential Scores and Books. American Library
Association, 1978. Created as a buying guide for
small and medium-sized libraries, this reference
work emphasizes books and music scores necessary
to a core collection.
Havlice, Patricia Pate. Popular Song Index.
Scarecrow Press, 1975. Supplement, 1978.
More than 300 songbooks from the period 1940 to
1972, including children's songs, folk songs,
hymns, and popular music, are anthologized. The
Supplement includes another 72 anthologies from
the period 1970 to 1975.
Randel, Don Michael. New Harvard Dictionary of
Music. Harvard University Press, 1986. This
comprehensive dictionary includes definitions
and brief articles on music history, aesthetics,
and theory.
Sadie, Stanley, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of
Music and Musicians, 6th ed. 20 vols. Grove's
Dictionaries of Music, 1980. This comprehensive
dictionary includes entries and articles on
composers, performers, theorists, music publishers,
scholars, terminology, genres, and orchestras, with
exhaustive bibliographies.
Mythology, Folklore, and Popular Customs (General)
Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. University of
California Press, 1977. Considered a standard in
the field, this work discusses the form and
development of folk stories, with summaries of the
most popular folk tales of Europe, western Asia,
and the North American Indians. It also covers
various methods of researching and studying folk
tales and folklore.
Philosophy (General Information)
Magill, Frank N., ed. Masterpieces of World
Philosophy in Summary Form. Harper & Row, 1961.
This volume comprises more than 200 classic works,
each described briefly in chronological order. It
covers Western philosophy from ancient to modern
times and includes a summary of each important
philosopher's principal ideas and the important
influences on his development.
The Philosopher's Index: An International Index to
Philosophical Periodicals and the Philosophy
Research Archives. Bowling Green State University,
1967-. This international quarterly index to
philosophical periodicals provides listings in
English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and
Spanish.
Political Science (General Information)
Congressional Quarterly's Guide to Congress, 3rd
ed. Congressional Quarterly, 1982. This accurate,
nonpartisan guide to the history, power, structure,
and workings of Congress includes the texts of the
Articles of Confederation, Constitution,
Declaration of Independence, and important
pre-Constitutional documents.
Lesko, Mathew. Information U.S.A. Viking Press,
1983. This book bills itself as "the ultimate
guide to the largest source of information on
earth," the U.S. government. It includes names,
addresses, and phone numbers to locate information
about hundreds of subjects, including consumer
products, child care, medical services, educational
opportunities, grants and loans, databases,
marketing surveys, and government services.
Robert, Henry M. Robert's Rules of Order, rev. ed.
Power Books, 1980. This completely revised edition
provides the authoritative guide to parliamentary
procedure.
Washington Information Directory. Congressional
Quarterly, 1975-. This annual publication
describes 5,000 congressional, executive, and
nongovernmental agencies, committees, and
organizations. It is considered an indispensable
guide to both official and unofficial Washington.
Recreation and Sports (General Information)
Carruth, Gorton, and Eugene Ehrlich. Facts and
Dates of American Sports. Harper & Row, 1988.
Arranged chronologically, this thoroughly indexed
reference book covers the main events in more than
90 sports from colonial times to the present.
Records and statistics and biographies of
well-known sports figures are included.
McWhirter, Norris. Guinness Book of Sports Records
Winners and Champions. Sterling, 1982. A handy
reference to record-setting facts and figures for
men's and women's sports.
Webster's Sports Dictionary. G. & C. Merriam, 1976.
This authoritative sports reference book defines
terms for all popular spectator sports (baseball,
basketball, football), international games
(cricket, soccer), and recreational pursuits
(hunting, mountain climbing). Diagrams and drawings
further illuminate the subject.
Religion (General Information)
Adams, Charles J., ed. A Reader's Guide to the
Great Religions, 2nd ed. The Free Press, 1977.
Through bibliographic essays, this work covers
major religions as well as ancient beliefs,
religions of Mexico and Central and South America,
the Sikh religion, and the Jains. It includes a
subject index and an index of authors, compilers,
translators, and editors for the serious
researcher.
Attwater, Donald. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints.
Penguin, 1975. This book provides brief
biographical sketches of 750 of the best-known
saints. The selections are worldwide but emphasize
those in Great Britain.
Brandon, S. G. F., ed. Dictionary of Comparative
Religions. Scribner's, 1970. Thorough and concise,
this volume defines anthropology, iconography,
philosophy, and the psychology of primitive,
ancient, Asian, and Western religions. Articles
describe practices and philosophies of specific
religions, with terminology for each and pertinent
bibliographies.
The Illustrated Bible Dictionary. 3 volumes.
Tyndale House, 1980. Comprehensive and well
organized, this dictionary is based on the revised
standard version. It offers definitions from all
aspects of books of the Bible; major works and
doctrines; and history, geography, customs, and
cultures of biblical times. Extensive photographs,
charts, diagrams, cross-references, and a useful
index are included.
Morrison, Clinton. An Analytical Concordance to the
Revised Standard Version of the New Testament.
Westminster Press, 1979. This massive work
contains both a concordance and an index-lexicon.
Entries give the English word followed by a
subtitle line with three elements: definition,
Greek word, and an English transliteration of the
Greek word. Included are complete listings of each
passage in which the subject word appears, with an
explanation of its use in context.
Science and Technology (General Information)
Chambers Science and Technology Dictionary. W.R.
Chambers Ltd and Cambridge University Press, 1988.
A revision and expansion of a classic work, the
Chambers Dictionary provides 45,000 understandable,
alphabetical definitions of terms used in a variety
of scientific disciplines.
Social Science. See also History; Sociology.(General)
UNESCO Dictionary of the Social Sciences. Julius
Gould and William L. Kolb, eds. The Free Press,
1964. This excellent reference includes about
2,000 signed articles defining terminology in
anthropology, economics, political science,
sociology, and other social science specialties.
Sociology (General Information)
Directory of Counseling Services. International
Association of Counseling Services, 1969-. This
annual publication lists members of the American
Personnel and Guidance Association who offer public
and private counseling dealing with education,
family, marriage, personal problems,rehabilitation,
and vocational guidance.
Statistics and Demography (General Information)
Bureau of the Census Catalog. U.S. Bureau of the
Census, 1946-. This catalog provides listings of
all published and unpublished material (tape,
cards, or microform) created by the Census Bureau
during the period covered.
United Nations Statistical Yearbook. United
Nations, 1949-. This annual publication is
considered the best source for international
statistics. It offers data on such topics as
agriculture, balance of payments, communications,
construction, energy, population, transport, and
wages and prices in 150 countries and territories.
Theater and Performing Arts (General Information)
Encyclopedia of World Theater: With 420
Illustrations and an Index of Play Titles.
Scribner's, 1977. Based on the German compendium
Friedrichs Theaterlexicon (1969), this one-volume
work outlines both the history of theater and its
contemporary state.
Guide to the Performing Arts. Scarecrow Press,
1960-. This compendium contains an index to
periodical reviews and articles pertaining to all
areas of the performing arts.
Hughes, Catherine. American Theater Annual. Gale
Research, 1976-. All plays opening on and off
Broadway during the year are listed, with details
of cast members, opening and closing dates, plot
summaries, and review excerpts.
Koegler, Horst. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Ballet, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 1982.
This book contains more than 5,000 alphabetically
arranged entries covering all areas of ballet:
choreographers, composers, dancers, history,
schools and companies, and basic definitions.
Notable Names in the American Theater. James T.
White, 1976. This major work is divided into nine
sections: "New York Productions"; "Premieres in
America"; "Premieres of American Plays Abroad";
"Theater Group Biographies"; "Theater Building
Biographies"; "Awards"; "Bibliographical
Biography"; "Necrology"; and, most valuable,
"Notable Names in the American Theater." The
sections cover administrators, agents, archivists,
authors, casting directors, composers, conductors,
critics, designers, directors, educators,
historians, lyricists, performers, playwrights,
producers, and teachers.
The Dewey Decimal System and How to Use It
Melvil Dewey (1851 - 1931) was a man who believed
in organization. Even as a child he was busy
devising a way to arrange his family's pantry to
make it more efficient. Before his system of
classifying library books was adopted, many
libraries relied on systems that filed books by
size or color-cumbersome and not very useful
methods at best. While working as a librarian at
Amherst College, Dewey developed a system that is
used by most school and small public libraries
today. Published anonymously in 1876, his
classifications divide nonfiction books into ten
broad categories:
000 - 099 General works (encyclopedias and
similar works)
100 - 199 Philosophy (how people think and
what they believe)
200 - 299 Religion (including mythology and
religions of the world)
300 - 399 Social sciences (folklore and
legends, government, manners and
customs, vocations)
400 - 499 Language (dictionaries, grammars)
500 - 599 Pure science (mathematics,
astronomy, chemistry, nature
study)
600 - 699 Technology (applied sciences -
aviation, building, engineering,
homemaking)
700 - 799 Arts (photography, drawing,
painting, music, sports)
800 - 899 Literature (plays, poetry)
900 - 999 History (ancient and modern,
geography, travel)
Each of these sections is further divided for
accuracy in classification. For example, the
numbers 500 - 599 cover the pure sciences, such as
astronomy, chemistry, mathematics, paleontology,
and physics. Each of these areas has its own
division and section number. All books on
mathematics are assigned numbers in the 510 to 519
range; mathematics is then broken down into types,
such as algebra, arithmetic, and geometry.
Geometry's specific number is 513, which can be
subdivided through the use of decimal points to
provide ten basic categories. Additional digits
can be added, creating an ever more precise
categorization system.
Books are arranged alphabetically within each
classification by the first letters of the author's
last name. Therefore, a library that has several
books on American history of the colonial period
will assign the same basic number (973.2) to all
the books and shelve them alphabetically.
Dewey's aim was to create a system that would be
simple enough for even casual users to understand,
but complex enough to meet a library's expanding
needs. His system was developed to meet the needs
of many libraries. A second popular system was
created to fit the requirements of a specific
library, the Library of Congress. This system, now
in wide use, is even more detailed and has the
advantage of being able to accommodate growth of
knowledge in unexpected areas.
The Library of Congress Classification System
The Library of Congress Classification System is
used in most large public and university libraries
today. A Library of Congress (LC) classification
number contains three lines, a letter at the top,
a number in the middle, and a letter/number
combination at the bottom.
The Library of Congress went through several
systems before devising its own method. Because
the Library of Congress contains almost every book
ever published in the United States, as well as
valuable tapes and research materials, it needs a
highly flexible system. The Library of Congress
Classification System contains 20 classes:
A: General works
B: Philosophy and religion
C: History-auxiliary sciences
D: History and topography (except America)
E-F: American history
G: Geography, anthropology, folklore, manners
and customs, recreation
H: Social sciences
J: Political sciences
K: Law of the United States
L: Education
M: Music and books on music
N: Fine arts
P: Language and literature
Q: Science
R: Medicine
S: Agriculture and plant and animal industry
T: Technology
U: Military science
V: Naval science
Z: Bibliography and library science
Each of these classes can be divided into a
subclass with the addition of a second letter. By
adding numbers, the category becomes even more
specific. The flexibility of the system becomes
apparent when one sees that the alphabet permits
26 subdivisions of any one class. Each of the
subdivisions can be broken down further by using
the numbers 1 to 9999.
Librarians recommend that researchers turn to
Subject Headings Used in the Dictionary Catalog of
the Library of Congress for assistance. Because
the LC system groups related topics together, a
researcher may discover unexpected, related avenues
to pursue.
GETTING STARTED IN GENEALOGY
The search for a greater understanding of our
ancestors has boomed in the United States since
the American Bicentennial celebration and the
publication of Alex Haley's immensely popular
Roots. Genealogists lament that too many of us live
in historical vacuums, unable to name more than a
generation or two of our closest relatives. To join
this search for a history that extends beyond the
last few generations, experts offer several tips:
1. Begin with your closest family members,
recording basic information that is already
known to you and working backward. This part of
the investigation can be quite far-reaching if
you contact distant relatives and check sources
that they suggest. You may be fortunate enough
to have access to family Bibles, letters, and
diaries. Vital records such as birth and death
certificates can yield a wealth of information
at this stage.
2. Consult popular references for research
techniques. Some of the best follow. Andereck,
Paul A., and Pence, Richard A. Computer
Genealogy: a Guide to Research Through High
Technology. Ancestry, 1985.
Crandall, Ralph. Shaking Your Family Tree.
Yankee Publishing, 1986.
Doane, Gilbert Harry, and Bell, James B.
Searching for Your Ancestors: The How and Why
of Genealogy, 5th ed. University of Minnesota
Press, 1980.
Jacobus, Donald Lines. Genealogy as Pastime and
Profession, 2nd ed. Genealogical Publishing Co.,
1978.
3. Check out the libraries. Extensive genealogical
collections exist at the Library of Congress,
the New York Public Library, the Los Angeles
Public Library, the Newberry Library in Chicago,
and the Allen County Public Library in Fort
Wayne, Indiana. Specialized libraries, such as
the famed Genealogical Library of the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints in Salt Lake
City, Utah, can be extremely helpful. This
particular library offers more than 1.3 million
reels of microfilm of all types of documents
useful to genealogists. Also visit or contact
local libraries in areas where your ancestors
are known to have lived.
Major Genealogical Libraries
Burton Collection, Detroit Public Library, 5201
Woodward Avenue, Detroit, MI 48202
Dallas Public Library, 1515 Young Street,
Dallas, TX 75201
Daughters of the American Revolution Library,
1776 D Street NW, Washington, DC 20006 (to be
used with the Library of Congress and National
Genealogical Society Library, 4527 17th Street
N, Arlington, VA 22207)
Genealogical Society Library, 50 East North
Temple Street, Salt Lake City, UT 84150
Los Angeles Public Library, 630 West 5th Street,
Los Angeles, CA 90071
Newberry Library, 60 West Walton Street,
Chicago, IL 60610
New England Genealogical Society, 101 Newbury
Street, Boston, MA 02116
New York Genealogical and Biographical Society,
122-6 East 58th Street, New York, NY 10022
New York Public Library, 5th Avenue and 42nd
Street, New York, NY 10018
Public Library of Fort Wayne and Allen County,
301 West Wayne Street, Fort Wayne, IN 46802
State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 816 State
Street, Madison, WI 53703
Western Reserve Historical Society, 10825 East
Boulevard, Cleveland, OH 44106
Consider contacting the American Archives
Association if your search involves identifying
and locating missing and unknown heirs to
estates. The association charges a percentage
fee for successful searches. Call any weekday
between 8:30 A.M. and 4:30 P.M., EST.
American Archives Association
1350 New York Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20005
202-737-6090
Additional Sources of Information
Organizations and Services (Information Sources)
American Crafts Council Library
44 West 53rd Street
New York, NY 10019
212-869-9462
Questions about the history of crafts, or about
learning how to pursue a particular craft, such as
weaving or pottery, are answered. Calls may be made
Tuesday through Friday between 10 A.M. and 5 P.M.,
EST.
American Museum of Natural History Library
79th Street and Central Park West
New York, NY 10024
212-873-4225
Founded in 1869, this special library has 400,000
volumes devoted to subjects ranging from
anthropology to travel and expedition, with
sections on biology, ethology, entomology, geology,
herpetology, history of science, ichthyology,
living and fossil invertebrates, mammalogy,
mineralogy, museology, ornithology, and
paleontology. Its special collections are devoted
to astronomical instruments, rare books and
manuscripts, rare films, and many other areas. The
museum's librarians offer assistance in all areas.
Consumer Information Center
Pueblo, CO 81009
This federal government agency provides a wide
selection of free publications such as its monthly
National Consumer Buying Alert and guides to solar
energy, tire buying, nutrition, budgeting, housing,
and gardening. Write for a free catalog, or specify
your area of interest.
Educational Film Library Association
45 John Street
New York, NY 10038
212-227-5599
Information is provided about animation, business
films, documentary and educational films, films as
art, and independent films. Questions about film
schools and film vocabulary can also be answered.
The library contains over 1,300 books and has
special files on film festivals, library
administration, grants, filmmakers, and film
centers in the United States. Calls may be made
weekdays, from 2 P.M. to 6 P.M., EST.
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)
1200 19th Street NW
Washington, DC 20208
202-254-5500
The National Institute of Education within the U.S.
Department of Education sponsors ERIC, the
educational information system, to provide
literature pertaining to various aspects of
education. General questions about education are
also answered. If a computer search is necessary,
a charge will be imposed; otherwise, the
information is free. ERIC also provides referrals
to other organizations, including its own
clearinghouses on adult, career, and vocational
education; counseling and personnel services;
educational management; elementary and early
childhood education; handicapped and gifted
children; higher education; information resources;
junior colleges; languages and linguistics; reading
and communications skills; rural education and
small schools; science, mathematics, and
environmental education; social studies/social
science education; teacher education; tests,
measurements, and evaluation; and urban education.
Calls are accepted 8 A.M. to 5:30 P.M., EST,
weekdays.
Federal Information Center
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10278
212-264-4464
This government-sponsored answer center will
respond to general information questions or will
refer you to a likely source of information. It
also provides names, addresses, and telephone
numbers of various government agencies and offers
a free brochure listing all Federal Information
Centers across the country.
Museum of Broadcasting
1 East 53rd Street
New York, NY 10022
212-752-4690
Founded in 1976, this museum has collected more
than 10,000 radio and 8,000 TV tapes from the 1920s
to the present and 2,400 radio scripts, with 1,600
available on microfiche. Its staff is knowledgeable
about all aspects of broadcasting and has access
to a thousand-volume library of books and
magazines.
The National Archives
Central Reference Service Division
Washington, DC 20408
202-523-3218
This federal government agency is responsible for
keeping the permanent records of the U.S.
government. Its holdings include maps, photographs,
films, U.S. Census records, and all types of
correspondence generated and received by government
officials. The archives also contain ship passenger
records dating as far back as 1820 and military
records from the Revolutionary War. Some of its
holdings occasionally overlap those of the Library
of Congress. Call between 8:45 A.M. and 5:15 P.M.,
EST, weekdays.
Nutrition Information Center
The New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center
Room 904
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center
515 East 71st Street
New York, NY 10021
212-472-6958
Advice is provided on clinical nutrition, nutrition
research, and general nutrition. The staff will
also furnish educational materials, make referrals,
and assist in program planning. Calls may be made
weekdays between 9 A.M. and 5 P.M., EST.
The Performing Arts Library
Roof Terrace Level
John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts
Washington, DC 20566
202-287-6245 or 202-254-9803
Both the public and professional artists may call
the library for information and reference
assistance on broadcasting, dance, film, music,
theater, and related areas. The library is a joint
project of the Kennedy Center and the Library of
Congress.
United Nations
United Nations Publications
Room 1059
New York, NY 10017
212-963-1234
This international organization's publications
cover a wide range of topics, including human
rights, public finance, atomic energy, treaties,
and international statistics. The UN makes
materials available in hardbound and paperback
books, pamphlets, bulletins, periodicals, and
official record-all in English, and frequently also
in Spanish, French, and Russian. Write for a
catalog and details of current offerings.
United States Military Academy Library
West Point, NY 10996
914-938-2209
Founded in 1802, the academy's library contains
400,000 volumes pertaining to the history of the
military as well as government documents.
Data Banks Available for Computer Research (Sources)
BRS Information Technologies
1200 Route 7
Latham, NY 12110
800-345-4BRS
518-783-1161
BRS provides online access to bibliographic and
full-text databases covering diverse subjects,
among them agriculture, books in print, chemistry,
energy, medicine, dentistry, mental health, and
social sciences. Its clients represent Canada,
Europe, and the Middle East, as well as the United
States.
CompuServe, Inc.
Information Services
P.O. Box 20212
5000 Arlington Centre Boulevard
Columbus, OH 43220
800-848-8199
614-457-0802 in Ohio or Canada
This online system offers forums for users of
various computers, with electronic editions of
newspapers and computer magazines, an international
newswire, conferences, and message boards.
CompuServe provides remote computing services, a
videotex information service, and a value-added
network service, as well as games, entertainment,
and personal finance services.
DIALOG Information Services, Inc.
3460 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, CA 94304
800-334-2564
415-858-2700
This online system provides access to approximately
280 databases, making it possible to search through
thousands of newspapers, general-interest and trade
magazines, and other publications in seconds. It
includes databases compiled by Dun & Bradstreet,
Moody's Investor's Service, and Standard & Poor's.
Dow Jones News/Retrieval
P.O. Box 300
Princeton, NJ 08534
609-452-2000
This online computer service offers an interactive
information service with up-to-the-minute news and
information to the business and financial
community. Stories from the Wall Street Journal,
Barron's, and the Dow Jones News Service appear as
quickly as 90 seconds after filing and go back as
far as 90 days. Dow Jones also offers online stock
trading and portfolio management services.
ORBIT Search Service
800 Westpark Drive
McLean, VA 22102
800-421-7229
703-442-0900
This bibliographic database provides online
services. Users may request copies of full-text
documents from any of the available services.
WILSONLINE
The H. W. Wilson Company
950 University Avenue
Bronx, NY 10452
212-588-8400
WILSONLINE provides online access to The Readers'
Guide to Periodical Literature, the Business
Periodicals Index, the Index to Legal Periodicals,
the Education Index, and numerous other periodical
resources. It is used widely by corporations,
government agencies, libraries, schools, and
universities. Its database covers more than 3,000
periodicals and 500,000 books.
Words
Common Abbreviations (Words)
Note: See also Acronyms section.
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or
phrase. Some abbreviations, such as Mr. and
Mrs., always substitute for the longer form.
Abbreviations are not limited to, but frequently
are used for, titles, academic degrees,
organizations, measurements, and scientific
words.
a acre
AAA American Automobile Association
A.B. artium baccalaureus (Latin, bachelor
of arts)
A.D. anno domini (Latin, in the year of our
Lord)
ae. aetate (Latin, aged)
AEF American Expeditionary Force (World
War I)
AFL American Federation of Labor
AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome
A.M. ante meridiem (Latin, before noon)
AMA American Medical Association
anon. anonymous
A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy
ASAP as soon as possible
B.A. bachelor of arts
Bart., Bt. baronet
BBB Better Business Bureau
bbl. barrel(s)
B.C. before Christ
B.C.E. before the Christian era
B.D. bachelor of divinity
B.P.O.E. Benevolent and Protective Order of
Elks
B.S. bachelor of science
B.S.A. Boy Scouts of America
bu. bushel
B.V.M. Blessed Virgin Mary
C centigrade, Celsius
c., ca. circa (Latin, about)
CAB Civil Aeronautics Board
Cantab. Cantabrigiensis (Latin, of Cambridge)
CARE Cooperative for American Relief
Everywhere
CCC Civilian Conservation Corps
CEO chief executive officer
cf. confer (Latin, compare)
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CIO Congress of Industrial Organizations
cm centimeter
c/o in care of
COD cash on delivery
COO chief operating officer
CORE Congress of Racial Equality
CP Communist Party
C.P.A. certified public accountant
CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation
CPU central processing unit (computers)
C.S.A. Confederate States of America
CST Central Standard Time
cu. cubic
D.A. district attorney
D.A.R. Daughters of the American Revolution
D.D. doctor of divinity
D.D.S. doctor of dental surgery
DOA dead on arrival
doz. dozen
D.S.M. Distinguished Service Medal
D.S.O. Distinguished Service Order
DST daylight saving time
DTs delerium tremens
D.V.M. doctor of veterinary medicine
EEO equal employment opportunity
e.g. exempli gratia (Latin, for example)
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
Esq. esquire
EST eastern standard time
et. al. et alii (Latin, and others)
etc. et cetera (Latin, and others)
F Fahrenheit
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
ff. and following
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FDIC Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
FHA Federal Housing Administration
f.o.b. freight on board
FRS Federal Reserve System
F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society
f/t full time
ft. foot
FTC Federal Trade Commission
f/x special effects (movies)
FYI for your information
GAO General Accounting Office
G.A.R. Grand Army of the Republic
GMT Greenwich mean time
GOP Grand Old Party (Republican party)
GPO Government Printing Office; general
post office
G.S.A. Girl Scouts of America
H.M.S. his/her majesty's ship
HQ headquarters
H.R. House of Representatives
H.R.H. his/her royal highness
HUD (Department of) Housing and Urban
Development
ibid. ibidem (Latin, in the same place)
ICC Interstate Commerce Commission
i.e. id est (Latin, that is)
IHS Jesus (Greek contraction)
in. inch
I.N.R.I. Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum (Latin,
Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews)
INS Immigration and Naturalization Service
I.O.U. I owe you
I.Q. intelligence quotient
IRS Internal Revenue Service
ISBN international standard book number
J.D. jurum doctor (Latin, doctor of laws)
K 1,000
k. karat
kg kilogram
K.G.B. Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti
(Russian, State Security Committee)
km kilometer
kt. knight
kw. kilowatt
kwh. kilowatt-hour
l liter
lat. latitude
lb. pound
l.c. lower case (printing)
L.C. Library of Congress
L.H.D. litterarum humaniorum doctor (Latin,
doctor of humane letters)
Litt.D. litterarum doctor (Latin, doctor of
literature)
LL.B. legum baccalaureus (Latin, bachelor of
laws)
LL.D. legum doctor (Latin, doctor of laws)
long. longitude
L.P.N. licensed practical nurse
m meter
m. married
MC master of ceremonies
M.D. medicinae doctor (Latin, doctor of
medicine)
mi. mile
ml milliliter
mm millimeter
M.O. money order; modus operandi (Latin,
mode of operation)
M.P. member of Parliament; military police
mph miles per hour
M.S. master of science
ms., mss. manuscript, manuscripts
MSG monosodium glutamate
N/A not applicable
N.A. North America
NAACP National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People
NASA National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
N.B. nota bene (Latin, note well)
NOW National Organization for Women
NP notary public
NRA National Recovery Administration;
National Rifle Association
NRC National Regulatory Commission
N.S. New Style (Russian dating)
NSC National Security Council
O.B.E. Order of the British Empire
op. cit. opere citato (Latin, in the work
cited)
O.S. Old Style (Russian dating)
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health
Administration
o/t overtime
Oxon. Oxoniensis (Latin, of Oxford)
oz. ounce
PA public address
PC personal computer
P & I principal and interest
pk. peck
P & L profit and loss
P.M. post meridiem (Latin, after noon);
prime minister
pro tem. pro tempore (Latin, for the time
being)
P.S. postscript
p/t part time
pt. pint
PTA Parent-Teacher Association
PX post exchange (commissary)
Q.E.D. quod erat demonstrandum (Latin, which
was to be proved)
qt. quart
q.v. quod vide (Latin, which see)
R. rex, regina (Latin, king, queen)
R.A. Royal Academy
rbi runs batted in (baseball)
R & D research and development
REM rapid eye movement
RFD rural free delivery
RIP requiescat in pace (Latin, rest in
peace)
RN registered nurse
ROTC Reserve Officers' Training Corps
rpm revolutions per minute
RR railroad
R & R rest and relaxation (military)
R.S.V. Revised Standard Version (Bible)
R.S.V.P. repondez s'il vous plait (French,
respond if you please)
Rx prescription
s seconds
S.A. South America; Salvation Army
SAC Strategic Air Command
S.A.S.E. self-addressed stamped envelope
s.c. small capitals (printing)
SDI Strategic Defense Initiative
SDS Students for a Democratic Society
SEC Securities and Exchange Commission
Sen. Senate
seq. sequentes (Latin, the following)
S.J. Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
S.O.S. international distress signal, often
wrongly thought to stand for "Save Our
Ship"
SPCA Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals
SPQR Senatus Populusque Romanus (Latin, the
Senate and the Roman people)
sq. square
SS. saints
SS Social Security; steamship
T ton
TD touchdown (football)
T.N.T. trinitrotoluene
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
u.c. upper case (printing)
U.K. United Kingdom
UFO unidentified flying object
U.N. United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations International
Children's Emergency Fund
U.S. United States
U.S.A. United States of America; United
States Army
U.S.A.F. United States Air Force
U.S.C.G. United States Coast Guard
U.S.I.A. United States Information Agency
U.S.M.C. United States Marine Corps
U.S.N. United States Navy
U.S.S. United States ship
U.S.S.R. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
VA Veterans Administration
V.F.W. Veterans of Foreign Wars
V.I.P. very important person
viz. videlicet (Latin, namely)
V.P. vice-president
w watt
WAC Women's Army Corps
WAVES Women Appointed for Volunteer
Emergency Service (U.S. Navy)
W.C.T.U. Women's Christian Temperance Union
Xmas Christmas
yd. yard
Y.M.C.A., Young Men's (Women's) Christian
Y.W.C.A Association
Y.M.H.A., Young Men's (Women's) Hebrew
Y.W.H.A., Association
yr. year
U.S. Postal Service Abbreviations
Two-Letter State and Territory Abbreviations (Words)
Alabama..........AL
Alaska...........AK
American Samoa...AS
Arizona..........AZ
Arkansas.........AR
California.......CA
Colorado.........CO
Connecticut......CT
Delaware.........DE
District of
Columbia.........DC
Federated States
of Micronesia....FM
Florida..........FL
Georgia..........GA
Guam.............GU
Hawaii...........HI
Idaho............ID
Illinois.........IL
Indiana..........IN
Iowa.............IA
Kansas...........KS
Kentucky.........KY
Louisiana........LA
Maine............ME
Marshall Islands.MH
Maryland.........MD
Massachusetts....MA
Michigan.........MI
Minnesota........MN
Mississippi......MS
Missouri.........MO
Montana..........MT
Nebraska.........NE
Nevada...........NV
New Hampshire....NH
New Jersey.......NJ
New Mexico.......NM
New York.........NY
North Carolina...NC
North Dakota.....ND
Northern
Mariana Islands..MP
Ohio.............OH
Oklahoma.........OK
Oregon...........OR
Palau............PW
Pennsylvania.....PA
Puerto Rico......PR
Rhode Island.....RI
South Carolina...SC
South Dakota.....SD
Tennessee........TN
Texas............TX
Utah.............UT
Vermont..........VT
Virginia.........VA
Virgin Islands...VI
Washington.......WA
West Virginia....WV
Wisconsin........WI
Wyoming..........WY
Mississippi......MS
Geographic Directional Abbreviations (Words)
North................N
East.................E
South................S
West.................W
Northeast............NE
Southeast............SE
Southwest............SW
Northwest............NW
Street Designators (Street Suffixes) (Words)
Word Abbreviation
Alley..........ALY
Annex..........ANX
Arcade.........ARC
Avenue.........AVE
Bayou..........BYU
Beach..........BCH
Bend...........BND
Bluff..........BLF
Bottom.........BTM
Boulevard......BLVD
Branch.........BR
Bridge.........BRG
Brook..........BRK
Burg...........BG
Bypass.........BYP
Camp...........CP
Canyon.........CYN
Cape...........CPE
Causeway.......CSWY
Center.........CTR
Circle.........CIR
Cliffs.........CLFS
Club...........CLB
Corner.........COR
Corners........CORS
Course.........CRSE
Court..........CT
Courts.........CTS
Cove...........CV
Creek..........CRK
Crescent.......CRES
Crossing.......XING
Dale...........DL
Dam............DM
Divide.........DV
Drive..........DR
Estates........EST
Expressway.....EXPY
Extension......EXT
Fall...........FL
Falls..........FLS
Ferry..........FRY
Field..........FLD
Fields.........FLDS
Flats..........FLT
Ford...........FRD
Forest.........FRST
Forge..........FRG
Fork...........FRK
Forks..........FRKS
Fort...........FT
Freeway........FWY
Gardens........GDNS
Gateway........GTWY
Glen...........GLN
Green..........GRN
Grove..........GRV
Harbor.........HBR
Haven..........HVN
Heights........HTS
Highway........HWY
Hill...........HL
Hills..........HLS
Hollow.........HOLW
Inlet..........INLT
Island.........IS
Islands........ISS
Isle...........ISLE
Junction.......JCT
Key............KY
Knolls.........KNLS
Lake...........LK
Lakes..........LKS
Landing........LNDG
Lane...........LN
Light..........LGT
Loaf...........LF
Locks..........LCKS
Lodge..........LDG
Loop...........LOOP
Mall...........MALL
Manor..........MNR
Meadows........MDWS
Mill...........ML
Mills..........MLS
Mission........MSN
Mount..........MT
Mountain.......MTN
Neck...........NCK
Orchard........ORCH
Oval...........OVAL
Park...........PARK
Parkway........PKY
Pass...........PASS
Path...........PATH
Pike...........PIKE
Pines..........PNES
Place..........PL
Plain..........PLN
Plains.........PLNS
Plaza..........PLZ
Point..........PT
Port...........PRT
Prairie........PR
Radial.........RADL
Ranch..........RNCH
Rapids.........RPDS
Rest...........RST
Ridge..........RDG
River..........RIV
Road...........RD
Row............ROW
Run............RUN
Shoal..........SHL
Shoals.........SHLS
Shore..........SHR
Shores.........SHRS
Spring.........SPG
Springs........SPGS
Spur...........SPUR
Square.........SQ
Station........STA
Stream.........STRM
Street.........ST
Summit.........SMT
Terrace........TER
Trace..........TRCE
Track..........TRAK
Trail..........TRL
Trailer........TRLR
Tunnel.........TUNL
Turnpike.......TPKE
Union..........UN
Valley.........VLY
Viaduct........VIA
View...........VW
Village........VLG
Ville..........VL
Vista..........VIS
Walk...........WALK
Way............WAY
Wells..........WLS
Common Crossword Puzzle Words (Words)
Certain words frequently appear in crossword
puzzles. Following is a list of such words,
particularly ones not used regularly in
everyday speech. Many of these words will be
recognized by avid crossword puzzle solvers.
People new to crosswords will find familiarity
with the list helpful in checking and building
a crossword vocabulary.
aalii tree; wood
Aare Swiss river
abbe monk; cleric
abele white poplar
abet aid; assist
abou father (Arabic)
acer maple genus
Acre Israeli city
acta deeds
Adah wife of Lamech
Adak Alaskan island
Adar Jewish month
adit mine entrance
adze shaping tool
Aeolus Greek god of wind
aga Muslim chief
agar moss; culture medium
agee awry; askew
agha Muslim leader
agora assembly
Agra site of Taj Mahal
aile winged (heraldry)
Aino, Ainu Japanese aborigine
Aire French river
ait river island
alae winglike part
alar winged
alef Hebrew letter
alen Danish length
Aleut Alaskan Indian
Alma Crimean river
aloe bitter herb; lily
alop askew
ama cup; candlenut
amah Oriental nurse
ameer Arab chieftain
amir Arab chieftain
Amos biblical prophet
ana collection; anthology
anas duck genus
ani blackbird; cuckoo
anil indigo shrub
anile old-womanish; feeble
anion ion; particle
anise fragrant seed
anoa wild Celebes ox
ans Belgian commune
ansa loop; handle
ante poker stake; before
anti opposed
A one first-rate; tops
apa wallaba tree
apis bee; Egyptian sacred bull
apod footless
Apollo sun god
Aral Soviet sea
Aran Irish island
Ares Greek god of war
aria opera solo
aril seed covering
artel union; cooperative
arum cuckoopint; flowering plant
Asgard abode of Norse gods
Astarte Phoenician love goddess
atap palm; nipa
ates sweetsop
Atka Aleutian tribe
atle Tamarisk salt tree
Atli Norse king
Aton Egyptian solar deity
atri Italian commune
Attica Greek district; New York State
prison
Attu Alaskan island
Aude French river
Auk diving bird
aune French length
aux French commune
ava Pepper shrub; hummingbird
avocet bird; plover
awn beard on grain
axil leaf angle
axon nerve-cell process
Baal god; idol
baft astern
Bahia Brazilian state; bay
baht Siamese coin
Baku Caspian harbor
Bali Indonesian island
Balt Lett; Lithuanian
banc judge's bench
bane evil; scourge
bani Rumanian money
Bann Irish river
Barre Vermont city
Baya Bantu tribe
Beda Arabian city
beka biblical money; Hebrew weight
Belem Brazilian city
Benares Indian city
Bera Arabian city
berm bank; lodge
Berne Swiss city
bes ancient Roman weight
besa Abyssinian money
besant old French money
bezant circle (heraldry)
bhar Indian weight
bilk cheat
binh Annam weight
bisse snake (heraldry)
Blanc peak in Alps
boa feathered scarf; constrictor
bole friable clay
bolo knife; machete
Bonn West German city
brae Scottish hillside
brut dry wine
cabal secret group; junta
Caen French city
Caddo Indian tribe
cadi Muslim judge
Cain Abel's brother
calp limestone
cam gear
Carib South American Indian
carr pool
cava pepper shrub; vein
Cayuga Iroquoian tribe
cere wax; wrap
Ceres grain goddess
Clare Irish county
Clio muse of history
Comus god of mirth
Coos Oregon tribe
copa Spanish measure
cor heart; brightest star
corium dermis; layer
cos lettuce
Cree Indian tribe
Crimea Russian peninsula
cuir leather (French)
cull choose; assort
cuya Cuban timber tree
dace carplike fish
Dade Florida county
dado groove
Dail Irish parliament
daler Dutch money
Davos Swiss resort
Dee English river
dhai Midwife
dhak East Indian dye tree
dhal lentil
dhan cattle; property
dhow Oriental sailing ship
dinar Bulgarian or Yugoslav money
dop diamond holder
dopp dip
Duma Russian council
durn gatepost
dyad pair
Dyak Borneo tribe
dyne unit of force
ebon black
Edda Icelandic saga; Norse prose
ede Dutch commune
Eder German river
Edo Tokyo
Eger German river
Ela highest note; Guido's note
Elam biblical kingdom
elan dash; ardor
Elbe German river
Elul Jewish month
emir Muslim chieftain
emu ostrichlike bird
Enna Sicilian city
Enns Austrian river
Enos Seth's son
ente grafted (heraldry)
ento inner (prefix)
Enyo Ares' mother
Eolus Colorado mountain
epee fencing blade
ephah Hebrew measure
epi finial; spire
Erda Norse earth goddess
eri silkworm
Eris goddess of discord
Erlau Hungarian commune
ern sea eagle
erne sea eagle; Irish river
Erse Gaelic
esker glacial ridge
esne serf
esse existence; abstract being
Este Italian commune
Estes Colorado park
estop prevent by law
et al and others (Latin abbreviation)
etui vanity case; needle case
evoe bacchanals' cry
ewer pitcher
exe English river
fane temple
fanon cape; orale
faro card game
Faroe danish islands
fass Austrian measure
faun satyr; Roman half goat
Faunus rural deity
fels Indian money
fete festival
fiat command; decree
fief feudal estate
fils son (French)
flak antiaircraft bursts
flan custard
flay skin
fosse moat; pit
Frey Norse god
Frigg Odin's wife
gad rove
Gael Celt
gam mouth; leg
gaol prison
gar needlefish
gard French department
gare railway station (French)
Gaspe Canadian peninsula
gata shark
Gaza biblical city
Gerd Frey's wife
Geri Odin's wolf
ghat range; pass
gila lizard
Gilead biblical mountain
gnu antelope; wildebeest
Goa former Portuguese colony
Golo Bantu tribe
Goshen biblical land of plenty
gowl monster
gradus ancient Roman length
graf German count
grao Portuguese weight
gulden Dutch money
Hades Greek underworld
hadj pilgrimage
haft handle
ha ha laugh; sunken fence
haka dance
Hamar city in Norway
Hamite biblical tribe
Han river in China
hart stag
hemo blood (prefix)
Hera queen goddess
Herat Afghanistan city
Hermes Greek god
Herod biblical ruler
Herr Mister (German)
Hesse German state
Hilo Hawaiian city
hin Hebrew measure
Hiram biblical ruler
hiro Japanese length
Hler Norse god
hoar frost
hod brick tray; coal scuttle
Hood Oregon mountain
hora Israeli dance
Horeb biblical mountain
Hosea biblical prophet
Hoth Norse god
huk Philippine guerrilla
hula Hawaiian dance
Hun barbarian; vandal
Hydra nine-headed monster
iamb verse foot
ibex wild goat
ibid. same place (abbreviation)
ibis wading bird
Ibo West African tribe
ici here (French)
icon religious image
Ida Asia Minor range; Crete mountain
Idas killer of Castor
ideo idea (prefix)
ides Roman date
iglu Eskimo hut
ilex holly
ilia hip bones
imam caliph
immi Swiss measure
Indus Indian river
inee arrow poison
Inez Don Juan's mother
Inga shrub genus
Iole Hercules' captive
Iona Scottish isle
Ionia Asia Minor district
iota Greek letter; bit
Irra Babylonian god
Isar Bavarian river
Iser Czech river
Isere French river
Isis Egyptian goddess; sister and wife
of Osiris
itea Virginia willow
ixia iris
jako parrot
jama tunic
jami mosque
jann genie
jara palm
Jebu West African tribe
Jehu biblical ruler
Jena German city
jete ballet jump
jhow Tamarisk shrub
jib triangular sail
jilt cheat; reject
jinn demon
Joad English philosopher
Joshua biblical ruler
Jove chief Roman god
juba African dance
Jung psychiatrist
Juno Roman queen of gods
junu charm
jura French department
kabul Indian river
kadi judge
Kafir Bantu tribe
kana Japanese writing
Kano Nigerian walled city
kaph Hebrew letter
Kara Arabian sea
kava Polynesian beverage
kawa Pepper shrub
kela Arabian weight
keno lotto; bingolike game
Kent English county
kepi military cap
kerf notch
khat Turkish length
Kiel German canal
Kiev Russian city
kil monk's cell; Irish church;
kilometer (abbreviation)
kiln oven
Kiowa Indian tribe
kipe basket
kiri Kaffir war club
kiwi flightless bird
Kobe Honshu port
Koko Lord High Executioner
kola nut
kopek Russian money
koss Indian length
kraal Enclosure
kris dagger
Krishna Hindu god
krona Icelandic money
Kronos Titan
kudu African antelope
Kurd Turkish tribe
kvas Russian sour beer
lac resin
lact milk (prefix)
Lagos capital of Nigeria
lait milk (French)
lama Buddhist monk; Tibetan priest
Lamech biblical patriarch
lar gibbon
lath strip of wood
lave bathe
lea meadow
Leda Castor's mother; swan
lees dregs
Lena Asian river
Lenape Indian tribe
Leto Apollo's mother
Levi Jacob's son; Hebrew tribe
Leyte Pacific island
libra Mexican weight
Lido Adriatic resort
limn portray
limu edible seaweed
Linz Austrian city
liss fleur-de-lis
lobo timber wolf
loch Scottish lake
Loki Norse god
loup half-mask (French)
luff sail into wind
Luna moon goddess
Lys Belgian river
Maas Dutch river
mage magician
Maia Hermes' mother
Main German river
mani peanut
mano hand grinding stone
marl clayey soil
Maui Hawaiian island
Mayo Irish county; mayonnaise
Mede ancient Persian
Medusa Gorgon
mega great (prefix)
meld declare, in cards
Melos Aegean island
merl blackbird
Metz French city
mil wire measure
Milo Greek island
Minos Greek king
moa flightless bird; ostrich
Moab biblical tribe
moho honey-eating bird
mohr gazelle
mojo voodoo charm
moki New Zealand raft
Moro Philippine Muslim
Mors Roman god of death
Morta goddess of fate
Muir Alaska glacier
mumm disguise
nacre mother-of-pearl
nae no (Scottish)
Nahor biblical patriarch
naif lustrous
Namur Belgian commune
nard anoint; spice
neap tide
neb beak; nose
Nebo biblical mountain
nee born (French)
Nene English river
nep catnip
Nereid sea nymph
ness promontory
Nestor Greek king
neve glacier; snow
newt eft
nez nose (French)
nimb halo
nipa drink; East Indian palm
oast kiln; oven
obi Oriental sash
obit death notice
oca edible tuber
octo eight (prefix)
oda harem room
odea music hall
Oder Baltic river
oeuf egg (French)
ogee arch; molding
Okie migratory worker
okra gumbo
ola palm leaf
olay palm leaf
olio medley
olla jar; meat dish
Olor swan genus
Omei China mountains
omni all (prefix); Atlanta arena
Omsk Russian city
oner individual; corker
onus burden
opah colorful fish
ope unlock (poetic)
orca killer whale
Orel Russian port
orle heraldic bearing
Orly French airport
orne French department
ort morsel; leftover
osier willow tree
Ossa reek mountain
otic pertaining to the ear
Otoe Oklahoma tribe
oyez attention; court cry
paal Javanese length
pac boot, moccasin
paca rodent
padre priest; cleric
pala Indian weight
palp tentacle; feeler
Panay Philippine island
pard leopard
parr young fish
pas dance step
pavis shield; cover
Pelee Martinique volcano
pelu hardwood tree
peri fairy
phon loudness
phot light unit
pica type measure
Pico Azores volcano
rale rattle; breathing noise
Rama incarnation of Vishnu
rame branch
rana Indian prince
rani Indian queen
rati Indian weight
Remi ancient people of Gaul
rena rockfish
ret soak flax
rete network
Rhea Titan; Cronos' wife
Rhus Sumac genus
ria narrow inlet; estuary
rial Iranian coin
rien nothing (French)
Riga Baltic city
rime frost
ripa riverbank
rom gypsy husband
rood crucifix
Rosa shrub genus
Ross Antarctic sea
roti roasted (French)
rotl Muslim weight
Ruhr German river; industrial area
rune mysterious sign; old alphabet
character
rupee Indian money
Saar European river
Sac Algonquin Indian; pouch
sago starch; pudding
samp cereal; maize; pudding
sans without (French)
sari Indian dress
sego edible bulb
sera antitoxins; evening (Italian)
serac glacial ridge; white cheese
sere dry; parched
serif part of printer's letter
seta bristle
Seth biblical patriarch; Adam's son
shay carriage
Shem biblical patriarch
shiv knife
Sikh Hindu soldier
sine trigonometry function
sire lord; father; beget
Siva Hindu god
skag part of ship's keel
skew twist
Skye Hebrides island
sloe plum; blackthorn
Smee Captain Hook's assistant; pintail
duck
snee dirk; knife
soir evening (French)
Sol sun god
sora marsh bird
Spad biplane; nail
Spes Roman goddess of hope
Sri Hindu goddess
SRO box-office sign
stere dry measure
stet let it stand
stile wall step; set of steps
stoa portico
suet hard fat
Suva Fiji capital
Taal Afrikaans
Tabor biblical mountain
tabu forbidden
tace body armor
tael Oriental weight
tamp pack; ram
Taos New Mexico town
tapa bark cloth
Tara Irish capital; plantation in Gone
with the Wind
tare biblical weed; allowance
tarn lake; pool
taro edible root
tat make lace; crochet
tec detective
tela membrane; tissue
tele from a distance (prefix)
tern gull
Terra earth goddess
Thalia One of the Graces
Thetis Achilles' mother
tia aunt (Spanish)
tic spasm
tio uncle (Spanish)
Tioga New York county
toga Roman cloak
tole lacquered metalware
Toltec Mexican tribe
tome large volume
tong Chinese secret society
tor craggy hill; pea
tort civil wrong
torte rich cake
tret waste allowance
Triton Greek god of sea
Truk Island in Carolines
tsar Russian despot
tsun Chinese length
tun vat; cask
tutu New Zealand shrub; ballet skirt
tyro novice
uber over (German)
uca crab
uke ukelele
ule rubber tree
ulex spine shrub
Ulm German city
ulna elbow bone
unde lines (heraldry)
ungula hoof; claw
Ural Russian river; range
Urd Norse goddess of destiny
urde key-shaped (heraldry)
Uri Swiss commune
Uria Bathsheba's husband
ursa bear
urus ox; aurochs
Ute Colorado Indian
Utu Babylonian god
uvea iris layer
uvic grapelike
Vaal South African river
vair heraldic tincture
vale valley; glen; farewell
vari diverse (prefix)
vasa ducts
Veda Hindu bible
vega meadow
veld South African grassland
Venus Roman goddess of love
vert green
Vesta goddess of hearth
Vishnu Hindu god
vita life (Latin)
vite quick (French)
vivo lively (music)
viz namely
voce voice (Italian)
vole rodent
WAC female GI
Waco Texas city
wadd black ocher
wadi dry river bed
wale cloth ridge
wang Dutch East Indies weight
weel fish trap
weft web; yarn
wen cyst; old English letter
woad dyestuff
Wodan Norse god
Woden Norse god
Wotan Norse god
xema Arctic gull
Xenia Ohio city
xeno foreign (prefix)
xeres wine; sherry
Xosa Kaffir tribe
Xtian Christian
yaba cabbage tree
yak ox
Yalu Korean river
yamp tuber
yapa palm-leaf mat
yegg burglar
Yemen Arabian state
yen Japanese money; urge
yin Chinese weight
Ymir Norse giant
Yser Belgian river
zak Dutch measure
zany nutty; crazy
Zara Italian province
zee final letter; zed
Zen Buddhist sect
zero nothing; cipher
zeta Greek letter
Zeus chief Olympian god
Zion hill; heaven
Zulu Bantu tribe
Zuni Pueblo Indian
zwei two (German)
Commonly Misspelled Words (Words)
abscess
accept/except
accessory
accidentally
accommodate
accompany
accrue
acquaintance
acquire
address
affect/effect
aisle/isle
allege
all right
already
amateur
analogous
antarctic
antecedent
apparent
arctic
argument
arithmetic
asparagus
asthma
athletic
attendance
attorney
auxiliary
banana
baptize
bargain
battalion
bazaar
beginning
believe
benign
biscuit
bizarre
bookkeeper
buoyant
bureau
burglar
calendar
cantaloupe
capital/capitol
cashmere
caterpillar
ceiling
cellar
cemetery
cereal/serial
chamois
chandelier
changeable
chaperon(e)
chauffeur
chief
cinnamon
circuit
circumference
cocoa
colonel/kernel
committee
compliment/complement
comptroller
concede
conceive
conscientious
conscious
consensus
consignment
convenient
coquette
corduroy
correspondent
cough
counterfeit
crucifixion
debt
definite
dependent
design
desirable
desperately
dessert/desert
devise
diaphragm
diarrhea
dictionary
diphtheria
disappear
disappoint
dispel
dissatisfied
effect/affect
eighth
embarrass
embezzle
environment
equipped
erroneous
especially
etiquette
exaggerate
exceed
excel
existence
expense
familiar
fascinate
fatigue
February
fiance
fiancee
financier
foreclosure
forehead
foreign
foreword/forward
formerly/formally
forth/fourth
fragile
freight
gauge
gingham
glacier
government
grammar
grease
guarantee
guess
guest
handkerchief
harass
height
heir
hemorrhage
hygiene
hypocrisy
idol/idle
incite/insight
independence
indict
indispensable
infinitesimal
irresistible
isthmus
its/it's
judgment
khaki
laboratory
larynx
laugh
league
library
license
licorice
literature
lose/loose
lying
mackerel
maintenance
malign
maneuver
manual
mathematics
mattress
minuscule
mischief
missionary
misspell
misstate
molasses
mortgage
mosquitoes
necessary
neighbor
niece
noticeable
nuisance
obedience
occasion
occur
occurred
o'clock
offense
omitted
parallel
parliament
phenomenon
physician
plaid
pneumonia
politically
porcelain
possess
potatoes
prairie
precede/proceed
preferred
principle/principal
privilege
probably
protege
protegee
pseudonym
psychology
ptomaine
quiet/quite
rarefy
raspberry
receipt
receive
recess
recognize
recommend
reference
remittance
rendezvous
repellent
repentance
resemblance
reservoir
resume
reverence
rhythm
ridiculous
sacrilege
sacrilegious
sandwich
satire/satyr
scissors
secretary
seize
separately
siege
sieve
similar
sincerely
soliloquy
special
squirrel
stationary/stationery
straight/strait
strengthen
succeed
success
suit/suite
superintendent
supersede
susceptible
synagogue
syringe
tariff
temperance
tenement
than/then
their/there
threshold
tobacco
tomatoes
to/too/two
tragedy
truly
Tuesday
usually
vaccinate
vacuum
villain
vinegar
warrant
Wednesday
weird
wholly
whose/who's
withhold
yolk
your/you're
zephyr
Common Phrases: Major European Languages (Words)
English French German
Hello/good day Bon jour Guten tag
Italian Spanish
Buon giorno Buenas dias
English French German
Please S'il vous plaît Bitte
Italian Spanish
Prege per favere Con su permiso; por favor
English French German
Thank you Merci Danke schön
Italian Spanish
Grazie Gracias
English French German
Excuse me/pardon me Excuser moi/ Entschuldigen sie
pardonner moi mir
Italian Spanish
Perdonne me Perdóname
English French German
Yes Oui Ja
Italian Spanish
Si Sí
English French German
No Non Nein
Italian Spanish
No No
English French German
Goodbye/so long Au révoir/ Auf wiedersehen
à bientôt
Italian Spanish
Arrivederci Adiós; hasta la vista
Frequently Used Foreign Words and Phrases (Words)
à bas (F)
down with
ab initio (L)
from the beginning
ab ovo usque ad mala (L)
from soup to nuts (lit., from the egg to
apples")
ab urbe condita (L)
from the founding of the city (Rome,
753 B.C.)
a capella (It)
in the church style (vocally)
ad astra per aspera (L)
to the stars through difficulties
adagio (It)
slowly
ad eundum (L)
to the same degree
ad hoc (L)
for a particular purpose (lit., "to this")
ad infinitum (L)
forever
ad libitum (L)
ad lib, freely (lit., "to pleasure")
ad nauseum (L)
to the point of disgust
aere perennius (L)
more durable than bronze
aficionado (Sp)
enthusiast, fan
alea jacta est (L)
the die is cast
alfresco (It)
in the open air
alma mater (L)
old school (lit., "fostering mother")
alaha (HW)
greeting or farewell
amor con amor se paga (Sp)
one good turn deserves another (lit., "love
is repaid with love")
amor vincit omnia (L)
love conquers all
ancien régime (Fr)
the old regime (pre-French revolution)
anno domini; A.D. (L)
in the year of the Lord
annus mirabilis (L)
wonderful year
a posteriori (L)
inductive (lit., "from what comes after")
apprès moi, le déluge (Fr)
after me, the deluge
a priori (L)
deductive (lit., "from what comes before")
arma virumque cano (L)
I sing of arms and the man (Virgil)
ars gratia grats (L)
art for art's sake
ars longa, vita brevis (L)
art is long, life is short
au contraire (Fr)
on the contrary
au courant (Fr)
up to date, contemporary
au naturel (Fr)
nude, plain
aurea mediocritas (L)
golden mean
autre temps, autre moeurs (Fr)
other times, other customs
avant-garde (Fr)
forward, advanced; vanguard
ave atque vale (L)
hail and farewell
beau geste (Fr)
noble gesture
beau idéal (Fr)
highest ideal
bête noire (Fr)
pet peeve (lit., "black beast")
bienséance (Fr)
decorum, mannerliness
billet doux (Fr)
love letter
Blitzkrieg (Gr)
lightning war
bon marché (Fr)
inexpensive (lit., "good market")
bon mot (Fr)
clever turn of phrase
bonne chance (Fr)
good luck
bon vivant (Fr)
partygoer; one who enjoys life
bon voyage (Fr)
good journey
campesino (Sp)
peasant, farmer
canard (Fr)
insult, hoax (lit., "duck")
carpe diem (L)
seize the day
carte blanche (Fr)
free hand, no restrictions (lit., "white
card")
cayse célèbre (Fr)
scandal; notorious incident
caveat emptor (L)
let the buyer beware
c'est la vie (Fr)
that's life
ceteris paribus (L)
other things being equal
chacun à son gout (Fr)
each to his own taste
chef d'oeuvre (Fr)
masterpiece
cherchez la femme (Fr)
look for the women
chutzpah (Y)
gall, daring
ciao (It)
goodbye, so long
circa (c., ca.)
about, approximately
cogito ergo sum (L)
I think, therefore I am
cognoscenti (It)
intellectuals, those in the know
comédie de moeurs (Fr)
comedy of manners
comme it faut (Fr)
proper, appropriate
con mucho gusto (Sp)
with pleasure
corpus delicti (L)
evidence (lit., "body of the crime")
coup de grâce (Fr)
final blow
coup d'état (F)
overthrow of government
credo quia absurdum (L)
I believe because it is absurd
cui bono? (L)
to whose benefit?
cul de sac (Fr)
dead end (lit., "end of the bag")
cum grano salis (L)
with a grain of salt
de capo (It)
from the top
déclassé (Fr)
fallen in social standing
décolletage (Fr)
low-cut style
de facto (L)
in fact
de gustibus non est disputandum (L)
there is no arguing about taste
de jure (L)
in law
demi-monde (Fr)
underworld; other side of the tracks
de mortuis nil nisi bonum (L)
of the dead [say nothing] but good
Deo gratias (L)
thank be to God
Deo volente (L)
God willing
dernier cri (Fr)
the last word
déshabillé (Fr)
disheveled, slovenly
deus ex machina (L)
desperate or contrived solution (lit., "god
from the machine")
Ding an sich (Gr)
the thing in itself
dolce far niente (It)
sweet idleness
Doppelgänger (Gr)
phantom double
Drang nach Osten (Gr)
drive toward the east
dum spiro spero (L)
while there's life, there's hope
embarras de richesse (Fr)
embarrassment of riches
enfant terrible (Fr)
prodigy
en passant (Fr)
in passing; by the way
entre nous (Fr)
privately, between us
épater le bourgeois (Fr)
shock the middle class
e pluribus unum (L)
from many, one
ersatz (Gr)
fake, imitation
et cetera (etc.) (L)
and others
Eureka! (Gk)
I've found it!
ex cathedra (L)
with high authority (lit., "from the chair")
exempli gratia (e.g.) (L)
by way of example
ex post facto (L)
after the fact
fait accompli (Fr)
accomplished fact
faute de mieux (Fr)
for want of something better
faux pas (Fr)
social error (lit., "false step")
femme fatale (Fr)
alluring, dangerous woman
fin de siècle (Fr)
end of century; decadent
flagrante delicto (L)
caught in the act (lit., "with the crime
blazing")
gaudeamus igitur (L)
let us therefore rejoice
glasnost (R)
openness
gnothi seaton (Gk)
know yourself
gonif (Y)
thief
goy (Y)
gentile
habeas corpus (L)
writ requiring a court appearance (lit.,
"[that] you have the body")
haut monde (Fr)
high society
hoi polloi (Gk)
common people, mob
homo lupus homini (L)
man is a wolf to man
honi soi qui mal y pense (Fr)
shame to him who thinks evil of it
hubris (Gk)
overweening pride, arrogance
idée fixe (Fr)
fixed idea, obsession
id est (i.e.) (L)
that is
infra dignitatem (infra dig.) (L)
beneath one's dignity
in loco parentis (L)
in the place of parents
in medias res (L)
in the middle of things
in vino veritas (L)
in wine, truth
ipso facto (L)
by the fact itself
joie de vivre (Fr)
good spirits, exuberance (lit., "joy of
Living")
jus gentium (L)
the law of nations
kamikaze (J)
suicide pilot (lit., "divine wind")
klutz (Y)
clumsy person
Kvetch (Y)
complain, carp
la belle dame sans merci (Fr)
the beautiful women without mercy
laissez-faire (Fr)
noninterference (lit., "let [people] do [as
they wish]")
lapsus linguae (L)
slip of the tongue
Lebensraum (Gr)
living room; elbow room
lèse majesté (Fr)
treason
l'état, c'est moi (Fr)
I am the state
lingua franca (L)
common language (lit., "French tongue")
macher (Y)
celebrity big shot
magnum opus (L)
major work
Mañana (Sp)
tomorrow
manquè (Fr)
failed
maven (Y)
expert, authority
mazel tov (Y)
congratulations
mea culpa (L)
my fault
mememto mori (L)
reminder of death
mens sana in corpore sano (L)
a sound mind in a sound body
meshuggah (Y)
crazy
mirabile dictu (L)
amazingly (lit., "remarkable to say")
modus operandi (M.O.) (L)
method of operation
morituri te salutamus (L)
we who are about to die salute you
mutatis mutandis
with the needed changes made
ne plus ultra (L)
the best
n'est-ce pas? (Fr)
isn't that true?
noblesse oblige (Fr)
the responsibility of noble birth
nom de plume (Fr)
pen name
non sequitur (L)
something that does not follow
nosh (Y)
nibble, eat
nota bene (N.B.) (L)
note well
nunc aut nunquam (L)
now or never
obiter dictum (L)
something said in passing; a peripheral
comment
o tempora, o mores! (L)
o the times, o the customs!
panem et circenses (L)
bread and circuses
par excellence (Fr)
above all, preeminently
par exemple (Fr)
for example
pari passu (L)
at an equal pace
parvenu (Fr)
newcomer, upstart; nouveau riche
passim (L)
here and there
per diem (L)
by the day
per favore (It)
please
persona non grata (L)
unwanted person
pièce de résistance (Fr)
showpiece item
pied à terre (Fr)
in-town apartment; temporary lodging
plus ca charge, plus c'est la même chose (Fr)
the more things change, the more they are
the same
pons asinorum (L)
insoluble problem (lit., "bridge of asses")
por favor (Sp)
please
prego (It)
please
prima facie (L)
on the face of it; at first sight
primus inter pares (L)
first among equals
prix fixe (Fr)
fixed price
pro bono publico (L)
for the public good
quid pro quo (L)
fair exchange; tit for tat
quién sabe? (Sp)
who knows?
quod erat demonstrandum (Q.E.D) (L)
as has been demonstrated
quod vide (q.v.) (L)
which see (used as cross-reference)
raison d'être (Fr)
reason for being
rara avis (L)
rarity (lit., "rare bird")
reductio ad absurdum (L)
reduction to absurdity (in logical argument)
répondez s'il vous plaît (R.S.V.P.) (Fr)
respond if you please
requiescat in pace (R.I.P.)
rest in peace
salaam aleicham (A)
peace
sancta sanctorum (L)
holy of holies
sangfroid (Fr)
aplomb; composure
savoir faire (Fr)
social savvy (lit., "to Know what to do")
schlemiel (Y)
unlucky person, loser
schmaltz (Y)
excessive sentimentality
schtick (Y)
gimmick; a performer's idiosyncracy
semper fidelis (L)
always faithful
shalom (H)
greeting or farewell (lit., "peace")
sic (L)
thus
sic semper tyrannis (L)
thus always to tyrants
sic transit gloria mundi (L)
thus passes the glory of the world
sine qua non (L)
something indispensable (lit., "without
which not")
sotto voce (It)
softly (lit., "in a soft voice")
Sturm und Drang (Gr)
storm and stress
sui generis (L)
one of a kind, unique
tabula rasa (L)
clean slate (lit., "erased tablet")
tant mieux (Fr)
all the better
tant pis (Fr)
all the worse
tempus fugit (L)
time flies
terra firma (L)
solid ground
terra incognita (L)
unknown territory
tête-à-tête (Fr)
intimate conversation (lit., "head to head")
tout de suite (Fr)
immediately
tout le monde (Fr)
everyone
tovarish (R)
comrade
trompe-l'oeil (Fr)
illusionary (lit., "fool the eye")
vade mecum (L)
handbook, guide (lit., "go with me")
vaya con Dios (Sp)
go with God
veni, vidi, vici (L)
I came, I saw, I conquered
verboten (Gr)
forbidden
verbum sapienti sat (L)
a word to the wise is enough
volte-face (Fr)
about face, reversal
vox clamantis in deserto (L)
a voice crying in the desert
vox populi, vox Dei (L)
the voice of the people, the voice of God
Wanderjahre (Gr)
year of travel
Wanderlust (Gr)
desire to travel
Weltanschauung (Gr)
philosophy, outlook
Weltschmerz (Gr)
world-weariness (lit., "world pain")
Wunderkind (Gr)
prodigy
yenta (Y)
gossip or busybody
Zeitgeist (Gr)
spirit of the times
Key to abbreviations:
A Arabic H Hebrew Lit. Literally
Fr French Hw Hawaiian Sp Spanish
Gk Greek It Italian R Russian
Gr German L Latin Y Yiddish
86 Acceptable Two-Letter Scrabble Words (Words)
aa
ad
ae
ah
ai
am
an
ar
as
at
aw
ax
ay
ba
be
bi
bo
by
da
de
do
ef
eh
el
em
en
er
es
et
ex
fa
go
ha
he
hi
ho
id
if
in
is
it
jo
ka
la
li
lo
ma
me
mi
mu
my
na
no
nu
od
oe
of
oh
om
on
op
or
os
ow
ox
oy
pa
pe
pi
re
sh
si
so
ta
ti
to
un
up
us
ut
we
wo
xi
xu
ya
ye
RECURRENT LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET (Words)
The normal frequencies with which letters of
the alphabet occur from most to least frequent:
E, T, A,O, I, N, S, H, R, D, L, U, C, M, P, F,
Y, W, G, B, V,K, J, X, Z, Q.
OXYMORON: PAIRING CONTRADICTORY OR INCONGRUOUS WORDS
acute dullness
almost perfect
bad health
bittersweet
blameless culprit
cardinal sin
clearly confused
conservative liberal
constant variable
definite maybe
deliberately thoughtless
divorce court
even odds
exact estimate
extensive briefing
fish farm
freezer burn
friendly takeover
genuine imitation
good grief
holy war
home office
idiot savant
instant classic
intense apathy
jumbo shrimp
justifiably paranoid
larger half
least favorite
linear curve
liquid gas
mild interest
minor miracle
modern history
nonalcoholic beer
nondairy creamer
normal deviation
old news
only choice
open secret
original copies
passively aggressive
player coach
pretty ugly
qualified success
randomly organized
real potential
rock opera
rolling stop
same difference
silent scream
simply superb
sweet sorrow
taped live
terribly enjoyable
tragic comedy
unbiased opinion
uncrowned king
unsung hero
vaguely aware
war games
working vacation
Acronyms (Words)
Acronyms are pronounceable formations made by
combining the initial letters or syllables of
a string of words.
ACTION American Council to Improve Our
Neighborhoods
AID Agency for International
Development; American
Institute of Decorators; Army
Intelligence Department
AIDS acquired immune deficiency
syndrome
ALCOA Aluminum Company of America
AMEX American Express Company;
American
Stock Exchange
AMOCO American Oil Company
ARC aids-related complex
ARCO Atlantic Richfield Company
ASCAP American Society of Composers,
Authors and Publishers
AWOL absent without leave
BAM Brooklyn Academy of Music; Basic
Access Method
BART Bay Area Rapid Transit
BASE Bank-Americard Service Exchange
BASIC Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code
(computer language)
BASS Bass Anglers Sportsman Society
BIB Bureau of International
Broadcasting
BIZNET American Business Network
(database of Chamber of
Commerce)
BOLD Bibliographic On-Line Display
(document retrieval system)
CALM Citizens Against Legalized Murder
CARE Cooperative for American Relief
Everywhere
CAT (scan) computerized axial tomography
CLASSMATE Computer Language to Aid and
Stimulate Scientific,
Mathematical and Technical
Education
COBOL Common Business-Oriented Language
COMEX Commodity Exchange (New York)
CONOCO Continental Oil Company
CONUS Continental United States
CORE Congress of Racial Equality
CURE Citizens United for Racial
Equality
DAM Dayton Art Museum; Denver Art
Museum
DELCO Dayton Engineering Laboratory
Company
DISCO Defense Industrial Security
Clearing Office
DOS disk operating system; digital
operating system
DYNAMO Dynamic Action Management
Operation
EARS Electronic Airborne Reaction
System; Electronically Agile Radar
System; Emergency Airborne
Reaction System
ELECTRA Electrical, Electronics and
Communications Trade Association
ENDEX Environmental Data Index
EPCOT Experimental Prototype Community
of Tomorrow
EXIMBANK Export-Import Bank of the United
States
FEDLINK Federal Library Information
Network
FEW Federally Employed Women
FICA Federal Insurance Contributions
Act (Social Security)
FLIP Flexible Loan Insurance Program;
floating instrument platform
FORTRAN formula translation (programming
language)
GAG Graphic Artists Guild
GARB Garment and Allied Industries
Requirements Board
GIPSY General Information Processing
System
GLAD Gay and Lesbian Advocates and
Defenders
GMAT Graduate Management Admission
Test
GRAD Graduate Resume Accumulation and
Distribution
GUPCO Gulf Petroleum Corporation
HALF Human Animal Liberation Front
HART Honolulu Area Rapid Transit
HEAL Health Education Assistance Loans
HOBOL homing bomb
INLAW infantry laser weapon
INTERMARC International Machine-Readable
Catalog
INTERPOL International Criminal Police
Organization
INTERTELL International Intelligence Legion
IRA individual retirement account;
Irish Republican Army
JOBS Job Opportunities in the Business
Sector
JUMPS Joint Uniform Military Pay System
LEAP Loan and Educational Aid Program
LILCO Long Island Lighting Company
LORAN Long-range Aid to Navigation
LSAT Law School Admission Test
MACOM major Army command
MAD mutually assured destruction
MADD Mothers Against Drunk Driving
MARC machine-reading cataloging
MASH mobile Army surgical unit
MOMA Museum of Modern Art (New York)
NAM Network access machine; National
Association of Manufacturers;
National Air Museum
NAPA National Automotive Parts
Association; National
Police Officers' Association of
America
NARAD Navy Research and Development
NARCO United Nations Narcotics
Commission
NASA National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
NASCAR National Association of Sports
Car Racing
NATO North Atlantic Treaty
Organization
NECCO New England Confectionary Company
NOMAD Navy oceanographic and
meteorological device
NORAD North American Air Defense
NOW National Organization for Women
OASIS Overseas Access Service for
Information Systems
ODECO Ocean Drilling and Exploration
Company
ODESY On-Line Data Entry System
OPEC Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries
OXFAM Oxford Famine Relief
PAC political action committee;
Pacific Air Command
PATCO Port Authority Transit
Corporation
PATH Port Authority Trans-Hudson
PEN Poets, Playwrights, Editors,
Essayists, and Novelists
PERT program evaluation and review
technique
PET parent effectiveness training
PIN personal identification number;
Police Information Network
PIRG public interest research group
QUICKTRAN Quick FORTRAN (computer language)
RADAR radio detecting and ranging
RAM random-access memory
READ real-time electronic access and
display
RIF Reading Is Fundamental
ROM read-only memory
ROTC Reserve Officer's Training Corps
SADD Students Against Drunk Driving
SAFE system for automated flight
efficiency
SALT strategic arms limitation talks
SUNOCO Sun Oil Company
SEATO Southeast Asia Treaty
Organization
TAC Tactical Air Command
UNESCO United Nations Educational,
Social, and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations International
Children's Emergency Fund (now
shortened to United Nations
Children's Fund)
UNIVAC universal automatic computer
VISTA Volunteers in Service to America
WAC Women's Army Corps
WASP white Anglo-Saxon Protestant
WAVES Women Accepted for Volunteer
Emergency Service (Navy)
WHO World Health Organization
WIN work incentive program
WISE World Information Systems
Exchange
WUDO Western European Defense
Organization
YUPPIE young urban professional
ZIP zone improvement plan (U.S.
Postal Service)
PALINDROMES (Words)
A palindrome can be a single word, a verse,
a sentence, a series of sentences, or a number
that reads the same forward and backward. People
have been creating palindromes in all languages
since at least as early as the third century B.C.
Palindromic sentences often become jokes when
meanings are ascribed to them and when punctuation
is added.For example, the two best-known English
palindromes are "Able was I ere I saw Elba," which
was not written by but could have been uttered by
Napoleon, and "Madam, I'm Adam," which is fun to
think of as the first introduction. Note that
"madam" alone is a palindromic word, but sentences
are more amusing:
Enid and Edna dine.
A man, a plan, a canal, Panama!
Draw, O Caesar, erase a coward.
Al lets Della call Ed Stella.
Dennis sinned.
Ma is a nun, as I am.
Naomi, did I moan?
Niagara, O roar again!
He lived as a devil, eh?
And here is a palindromic conversation between
two owls:
"Too hot to hoot!"
"Too hot to woo!"
"Too wot?"
"Too hot to hoot!"
"To woo!"
"Too wot?"
"Too hoot! Too hot to hoot!"
Greek Prefixes (Words)
Prefix Meaning in English
a not
acantho spiny, thorny
acous hearing
acro top, tip
adeno gland
aero air, gas
allo other
amphi both, around
amylo starch
an not
ana again, thorough, thoroughly
andro man
anem(o) wind
anthropo man
anti against
apo away
arch(i) chief
arche(o), archae(o) old, ancient
arthro joint
aster, astro star
atmo vapor
auto self
azo nitrogen
baro weight
batho, bathy deep
biblio book
bio life
blepharo eyelid
bracchio arm
brachy short
branchio gills
broncho throat
caco evil
cardio heart
carpo fruit
cath, cato down, thorough, thoroughly
ceno common
cephalo head
cero wax
chilo lip
chiro hand
chloro green
chole, cholo bile
chondro cartilage
choreo dance
choro country
chrom(at)o color
chrono time
chryso gold
cleisto closed
clino slope
cocci berry-shaped
coela stomach
conio dust
coppro excrement
cosmo universe
cranio skull
cryo cold
crypto hidden
cteno comb, rake
cymo wave
cysto bladder
cyto cell
dactylo finger
deca ten
dendro three
dermo, dermato skin
deutero second
di(s) apart
dia through
dino terrible
diplo double
dodeca twelve
dyna, dynamo force, power
dys evil, difficult
echino spiny
ecto outside, external
ef out
el, em, en in, into
encephalo brain
ennea nine
entero gut
ento inside, interior
entomo insect
eo dawn, early
eph, epi on
ergo work
erythro red
ethno race, nation
eu good
ex out
exo outside, external
galacto milk
gam(o) copulation, together
gastro stomach
geo earth, land
geronto old age
glosso tongue
gluc, glyc sweet
glypto, glyph carving
gnath(o) jaw
gon(o) reproduction (sexual)
grapho writing
gymno nude, naked
gynec(o), gynaec(o) woman
haemato blood
hagio holy
halo salt, sea
haplo simple
hecto hundred
helico spiral
helio sun
hema blood
hemi half
hepato liver
hepta seven
hetero different
hexa six
histo tissue
hodo path, way
holo whole, complete
homeo similar, like
homo same
hydro water
hyeto rain
hygro wet
hylo matter
hymeno membrane
hyper above
hypno sleep
hypo under
hypso high
hystero womb
iatro medicine
ichthyo fish
iso equal
kerato horn
kinesi, kineto movement
lepto slender
leuko white
litho stone
logo word, oral
lyo, lysi dissolving
macro large
malaco soft
mega, megalo great
melano black
mero part
meso middle
meta beyond, after, changed
metro measure
micro small
miso hatred
mono one, single
morpho shape
myelo spinal cord
mylo fungus
myo muscle
necro dead body
neo new
nepho cloud
nephro kidney
neuro nerve
noso sickness
noto back (of body)
nycto night
octa, octo eight
odonto tooth
oligo few
ombro rain
oneiro dream
onto being
oo egg
ophio snake
ophthalm(o) eye
ornitho bird
oro mouth
ortho straight
osteo bone
oto ear
oxy sharp
pachy thick
paleo, palaeo ancient, old
pan all
para close, beside
patho suffering, disease
pedo child
penta five
peri around, very
petro stone
phago eating
phlebo vein
phono sound
photo light
phreno brain
phyco seaweed
phyllo leaf
phylo species
physio nature
phyto plant
picro bitter
piezo pressure
pleuro side (of body)
pluto riches
pneumato breath, spirit
pneumo lung
polio gray matter
poly many
pro before, forward
proto first
pseudo false
psycho mind, spirit, soul
psychro cold
ptero wing
pyo pus
pyro fire
rheo flow
rhino nose
rhizo root
sacchro sugar
sapro decompose
sarco flesh
scato excrement
scelero hard
schisto, schizo split
seleno moon
sidero iron
somato body
speleo cave
spermato seed
sphygmo pulse
splanchno guts
stato position
stauro cross
steno short, narrow
stereo solid
stomato mouth
stylo pillar
sy, syl, sym, syn with
tachy rapid
tauto same
tele distant
teleo final
telo distant, final
thalasso sea
thanato death
theo god
thermo heat
thio sulfur
toco child, birth
topo place
toxico poison
trachy rough
xeno foreign
zoo living
zygo double
Greek Suffixes (Words)
algia pain
androus man
archy rule, government
biosis life
blast bud
branch gills
carpous fruit
cele hollow
cephalic, cephalous head
chrome color
coccous berry-shaped
cracy, crat rule, government
dendron tree
derm skin
drome, dromous run (race)
emia blood
gamy marriage
gen(ous), geny, gony giving birth to, bearing
gnathous jaw
gnomy, gnosis knowledge
gon angle
gonium seed
gram, graph(y) writing
hedral, hedron side, sided
iasis disease
iatrics, iatry medical treatment
itis inflammation
kinesis movement
lepsy seizure, fit
lith stone
logy science of, list
lysise, lyte dissolving
machy battle, fight
mancy, mantic foretelling
mania(c) craving
mere, merous part
meter, metry measure
morphic, morphous shape
mycete fungus
nomy science of, law of
odont tooth
odynia pain
oid like, similar
oma tumor
opia eye, sight
opsia sight
opsis appearance
pathy suffering, disease
phage, phagous eating
phany manifestation
phobe, phobia fear
phone, phony sound
phyllous leaf
phyte plant
plasia, plasis growth
plasm matter
plast cell
plegia paralysis
plerous wing
rrhagia, rrhagic,
rrhea flow
saur lizard
scope, scopy observation
sect, section cutting
soma, some body
sophy wisdom
sperm, spermous seed
stichous row
stome, stomous mouth
taxis, taxy order
tomy cutting
trophy feed
tropous, tropy turned
Latin Prefixes (Words)
Prefix Meaning in English
a, abs from
ac, ad, af, ag, to, toward
al, an, ap, as, at
alti, alto high
ambi both
ante before
api bee
aqui water
arbori tree
audio hearing
avi bird
bacci berry
brevi short
calci lime
centi hundred
cerebro brain
cervico neck
circum around
cirro curl
cis near, on the near side of
co, col, com, con, with, thorough, thoroughly
coe
contra against
costo rib
cruci cross
cupro copper, bronze
de not, down
deci tenth
demi half
denti tooth
di(s) apart
digit(i) finger
dorsi, dorso back (of body)
e, ec, ef out
equi equal
ex out
extra outside, external
febri fever
ferri, ferro iron
fissi split
fluvio river
gemmi bud
igni fire
il, im, in not, against, in, into, on
inguino groin
inter between
intra, intro inside, interior
ir not, against, in, into, on
juxta close, near, beside
labio lip
lacto milk
ligni wood
luni moon
magni great
mal(e) bad, evil
multi many
naso nose
nati birth
nocti night
ob, oc against
octa, octo eight
oculo eye
of, op against
oleo oil
omni all
oro mouth
ossi bone
ovi, ovo egg
pari equal
per through, very
pinni fin, web
pisci fish
plano flat
plumbo lead (metal)
pluvio rain
post after
pre before
preter beyond
primi first
pro for, forward
pulmo lung
quadri four
quinque five
re again
recti straight
reni kidney
retro backward
sacro dedicated
sangui blood
se apart
sebi, sebo fatty
septi seven
sidero star
somni sleep
spiro breath
stelli star
sub, suc, suf, sum, under
sup
super, supra above
terri land, earth
trans through, on the far side of
ultra beyond
uni one, single
vari(o) different
Latin Suffixes (Words)
Suffix Meaning in English
cidal, cide kill
fid split
fugal, fuge run away from
grade walking
pennale wing
vorous eating
Additional Sources of Information (Words)
Berlitz, Charles. Native Tongues. Putnam
Publishing Group, 1984.
Betteridge, Harold T. Cassell's German
Dictionary, rev. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1978.
Bremner, John B. Words, Words, Words: A
Dictionary for Writers and Others Who Care About
Words. Columbia University Press, 1980.
Buchanan-Brown, John, et al. Le Mot Juste: A
Dictionary of Classical and Foreign Words and
Phrases. Vintage Books, 1981.
Byrne, Josefa Heifetz. Mrs. Byrne's Dictionary of
Unusual, Obscure and Preposterous Words. Lyle
Stuart, 1974.
Cassell's Italian Dictionary. Macmillan, 1977.
Chapman, Robert L., ed. New Dictionary of
American Slang. Harper & Row, 1986.
Chapman, Robert L., ed. Roget's International
Thesaurus, 4th ed. Harper & Row, 1977.
Ciardi, John. The Complete Browser's Dictionary:
The Best of John Ciardi's Two Browser's
Dictionaries in a Single Compendium of Curious
Expressions and Intriguing Facts. Harper & Row,
1988.
De Sola, Ralph. Abbreviations Dictionary, 7th ed.
Elsevier, 1986.
Ehrlich, Eugene, and Hand, Raymond, Jr. NBC
Handbook of Pronunciation, 4th ed. Harper & Row,
1984.
Girard, Denis, ed. Cassell's French Dictionary.
Macmillan, 1977.
Grambs, David. Words About Words. McGraw-Hill,
1984.
Laird, Charlton, ed. Webster's New World
Thesaurus, rev. ed. Simon & Schuster, 1985.
McCrum, Robert, et al. The Story of English.
Sifton/Viking, 1986.
Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. 20 vols.
Oxford University Press, 1989.
Peers, Edgar A., ed. Cassell's Spanish
Dictionary. Macmillan, 1977.
Random House College Dictionary, rev. ed. Random
House, 1982.
Random House Dictionary of the English Language,
2nd ed. Random House, 1987.
Safire, William. I Stand Corrected: More on
Language. Times Books, 1984.
Safire, William. On Language. Avon, 1981.
Safire, William. What's the Good Word? Times
Books, 1982.
Simpson, D.P., ed. Cassell's Latin Dictionary.
Macmillan, 1977.
Skillin, Marjorie E., and Gay, R. Words Into
Type, 3rd ed. Prentice-Hall, 1978.
Spears, Richard A. Dictionary of American Idioms.
National Textbook Company, 1987.
Stein, Jess, and Flexner, Stuart Berg, eds.
Random House Thesaurus: College Edition. Random
House, 1984.
Urdang, Laurence. A Basic Dictionary of Synonyms
and Antonyms. Lodestar Books, 1979.
Urdang, Laurence, ed. The New York Times Everyday
Reader's Dictionary of Misunderstood, Misused and
Mispronounced Words, rev. ed. Times Books, 1985.
Webster's Compact Rhyming Dictionary.
Merriam-Webster, 1987.
Webster's Third New International Dictionary,
Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 1986.
Webster's New World Crossword Puzzle Dictionary.
Simon & Schuster, 1983.
Webster's New World Dictionary, Third College Ed.
Simon & Schuster, 1988.
Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary.
Merriam-Webster, 1985.
Zinsser, William. On Writing Well: An Informal
Guide to Writing Nonfiction, rev. ed. Harper &
Row, 1985.
Grammar and Punctuation
The purpose of language is to communicate
thoughts and ideas from one person to another. To
do this effectively, all those using a given
language must do so in the same way, putting
words and sentences together in similar fashion
so they are readily understood by anyone
familiar with that language.
This is not to say that everyone must write the
same sentence to communicate the same concept.
On the contrary, American English is so varied,
it is possible to express the same basic idea
in any number of ways. And each of those ways
can be equally correct.
What makes a variety of different sentences
equally valid is grammar. Grammar is a set of
rules that define the ways words can and cannot
be used. These rules are not arbitrarily
imposed on the language by English teachers or
grammarians; they have, instead, grown out of
the language itself and can be observed in
action in the everyday speech and writing of
those who grew up speaking and writing it.
Much of grammar is intuitive and can be
understood by anyone who has spoken American
English for any length of time, even without a
knowledge of the rules. For instance, the
sentence You be not home go yet is readily
recognized as incorrect even without knowledge of
the rules of word order.
But because American English is a complex and
difficult language, it is sometimes helpful to
have the rules at hand in case logic and
intuition fail. What follows, then, are the
basics of grammar, spelling, punctuation, and
alphabetization for American English. The
information presented here is by no means
exhaustive, and, because language is a
constantly changing thing, there can never be
a "final word" as to what is correct and what
is incorrect. Still, this guide should help
provide a start in understanding grammar,
usage, and punctuation.
The Parts of Speech (Grammar and Punctuation)
The parts of speech define the ways words can be
used in various contexts. Every word in the
English language functions as at least one part
of speech; many words can serve, at different
times, as two or more parts of speech,
depending on the context.
adjective A word that modifies a noun
(blue-green, central, half-baked,
temporary).
adverb A word that modifies a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb
(slowly, obstinately, much).
article Any of three words used to signal
the presence of a noun. A and an
are known as indefinite
articles; the is the definite
article.
conjunction A word that connects other words,
phrases, or sentences (and, but,
or, because).
interjection A word, phrase, or sound used as
an exclamation and capable of
standing by itself (oh, Lord,
damn, my goodness).
noun A word or phrase that names a
person, place, thing, quality, or
act (Fred, New York, table,
beauty, execution). A noun may be
used as the
subject of a verb, the object of
a verb, an identifying noun,
the object of a preposition, or
an appositive (an explanatory
phrase coupled with
a subject or object).
preposition A word or phrase that shows the
relationship of a noun to a verb,
an adjective, or another noun
(at, by, in, to, from, with).
pronoun A word that substitutes for a
noun and refers to a person,
place, thing, idea, or act that
was mentioned previously or that
can be inferred from the context
of the sentence (he, she, it,
that).
verb A word or phrase that expresses
action, existence, or occurrence
(throw, be, happen). Verbs can be
transitive, requiring an object
(her in I met her), or
intransitive, requiring only a
subject (The sun rises). Some
verbs, like feel, are both
transitive (Feel the fabric) and
intransitive (I feel bad, in
which bad is an adjective and not
an object).
Turning Words into Sentences (Grammar/Punctuation)
Individual words, even once their parts of
speech are identified, do not communicate very
much by themselves. They must be combined in
such a way that they can convey meaning. This
is done by forming sentences that combine words
that have meaning in and of themselves (nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns) with
those that are solely functional (conjunctions,
prepositions, interjections, and articles).
There are three main types of sentences that
can be constructed from these parts. Statements
are sentences that tell of a fact, an
occurrence, or an opinion; they provide
information (My daughter is almost three years
old). Questions are sentences that seek out
information (How old is your daughter?).
Commands are sentences that make a demand (Tell
your daughter to keep her hands off the
cookies). In addition, there are exclamations
(You're a fool!), answers to questions (Fine,
thank you), sounds or cries (Yipes!), and calls
to others (Yoo-hoo, Buzzy!).
Once the type of sentence has been selected,
the subject, verb, and identifying noun or
direct and indirect objects of the sentence can
be determined. Their placement within the
sentence goes along with the function they
perform.
Subject
A subject is a noun or pronoun that is generally
the doer of the verb's action (Herb in the
sentence Herb kicked the ball) or the thing
being described (The painting in the sentence
The painting is beautiful). It appears before
the verb. In some cases more than one noun
appears before the verb. This signifies a
compound subject (Paul and Carol in the
sentence Paul and Carol argue only about
money). A noun can function as an adjective
(man's in the sentence The man's car jumped the
curb), an appositive (gentlemen in the sentence
The butler, a tall gentleman, came in), or as
a preposition (night in the sentence At night
his hair grows long).
Verb
Subject-Verb Agreement (Verb)
The verb generally follows the subject in
statements (are in the sentence We are happy)
and commands (come in Come over here). It
precedes the subject in questions (Am in Am I
blue?). The verb and the subject must agree in
number if the verb is one that can show number.
Verbs that show number are am, is, are, was,
were, and the third-person singular present
tense form of verbs, which usually end in -s
(he shops, but they shop for plural form). Both
the subject and verb must be either singular (I
am) or plural (we are).
A few subjects pose particularly tricky
problems of subject-verb agreement. Either and
neither are frequently misconstrued as plural
subjects, although they should always be paired
with singular verbs (Neither of us is ready).
Other subjects, such as none and pair, can be
used in singular or plural constructions,
depending on their meaning. For instance, when
none means "not one," is it singular (None of
the guests is here); when it means "not any,"
it is plural (None are more beautiful than a
rose).
Compound subjects can also pose agreement
difficulties. Most of the time a compound
subject is plural (Paul and Carol are ready for
vacation). But when a compound subject
expresses a thought or concept that is
definitely singular, it should be followed by
a singular verb (Hitting a ball and driving it
over the outfield wall is a skill few can
master).
Tense (Verb)
Tense is also indicated by the verb; but with
the exception of the verb to be, past tense
forms do not show the number involved. For the
verb to be, was is used for the singular in the
first and third person (I was, she was) and
were is employed for plurals (they were) and
for the second person singular (you were). The
majority of other verbs are made into past
tense forms by adding -ed, regardless of
whether the verb's action is performed by the
subject (My dog walked). In past participles
(parts of a verb that express completed action,
usually in the passive voice), the verb's
action is performed on the subject (My dog was
walked).
However, a number of verbs are made into past
tense forms in ways that follow no general rule
at all. Bite becomes bit, fight becomes fought,
go becomes went, and so on. The only rule that
can be applied is the age-old maxim "when in
doubt, consult a dictionary."
Objects and Identifying Nouns
There are three types of nouns that can follow
the verb in most sentence constructions: direct
objects, indirect objects, and identifying
nouns. Each operates somewhat differently;
again, relative position within the sentence is
a determining factor in choosing the
appropriate noun.
The most straightforward is the identifying
noun. It indicates the same person or thing as
the subject of the sentence and generally
stands alone, without another noun present on
its "side" of the verb. In the sentence The
painting is a watercolor, watercolor is the
identifying noun.
When a single noun appears after the verb but
does not refer to the same thing as the
sentence's subject, it is called the direct
object. The direct object is the recipient of
the verb's action. In the sentence She repaired
the radio, radio is the direct object.
In sentences with two nouns following the verb,
the first is generally the indirect object, the
word that tells to whom or for whom the action
was done. The second is the direct object, the
actual recipient of the action. In the sentence
Carol gives Tyler a bath, a bath is what is
given (the direct object) and Tyler, its
recipient, is the indirect object.
Modifiers
There are two basic types of modifiers:
single-word modifiers, which are generally
adverbs or adjectives, and phrases, which are
usually introduced by prepositions. Once more,
position within a sentence goes along with the
function of a modifier.
Adjectives, which modify nouns, often precede
the nouns they modify. They serve to restrict,
characterize, or further define the nouns
immediately following. Thus, great in the
sentence You did a great job is an adjective
modifying the noun job.
Nouns can also be used to modify nouns. They,
too, appear immediately before the noun being
modified, and only their position in the
sentence indicates that they are acting as
modifiers rather than nouns. The noun telephone
works as a modifier of the noun booth when it
appears in the phrase a telephone booth.
When two or more adjectives each modify the
noun independently, they are separated by
commas (a silly, cheerful mood). When the first
adjective modifies an idea expressed by the
combination of the second adjective and the
noun, no comma is used (a pretty oil painting).
In some cases, two or more adjectives are
combined, often with a hyphen, so that they
function as a single adjective. In these
compound adjectives, the first term modifies
the second, which modifies the noun (a
high-flying airplane).
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs or phrases. They can often be
recognized by their characteristic -ly ending.
When modifying verbs, adverbs generally appear
immediately after the verbs (quickly in the
sentence He walked quickly through the room).
When used to modify an adjective, the adverb
will immediately precede the adjective (a
swiftly moving deer); such compounds are not
hyphenated.
Phrases that modify nouns are often introduced
by prepositions or pronouns. They immediately
follow the nouns they modify and form an entity
known as a dependent clause. While useful in
defining the nouns to which they are attached,
they are not essential to the sentence in the
way a subject, verb, and object are. Examples
of modifying phrases are in the corner in the
sentence The dog in the corner wagged her tail
and who wants to know in the sentence Anyone
who wants to know can get the information.
Punctuation
Punctuation helps to make sense of the various
parts constituting a sentence. It shows where
to pause or stop, defines possession and
contraction, sets off nonessential modifiers
and asides, indicates excitement or
interrogation, clarifies incompletion or
continuation, and denotes dialogue and special
terms.
Terminating Punctuation
There are four punctuation marks that signal
the end of a sentence: the period (.), the
question mark (?), the exclamation point (!),
and the ellipsis (....).
The period is used at the end of any sentence
that is not a question or an exclamation. It
shows that a sentence is finished and is
followed by a space and a capital letter
beginning the next sentence.
The question mark is used to terminate a
sentence that is a question (How much do you
think this is worth?), to terminate a question
within quoted dialogue ("Do you like my
haircut?" he asked), or to terminate a question
within a sentence (Will the Orioles lose every
game this year? is the question on the minds of
fans everywhere). The question mark is not used
to set off indirect questions (Everyone wants
to know whether the Orioles will continue
losing).
The exclamation point terminates sentences that
convey excitement (What a finish that play
has!) or are emphatic (Leave me alone!). It can
also be used to terminate individual words used
as interjections (You'll get here today?
Terrific!), even when an interjection is within
a sentence (Take four parts gin, add one part
vermouth, and, behold! you have a martini).
The ellipsis indicates that one or more words
are missing. When used at the end of an
incomplete sentence, an ellipsis is made up of
four dots (I had hoped to go....). Four dots
indicate that although what's there makes a
complete sentence, one or more words have been
omitted from the end of the sentence. A
four-dot ellipsis can also indicate the
omission of one or more sentences. When the
middle portion of a sentence has been omitted,
a three-dot ellipsis is used.
Pause Punctuation
The punctuation marks that can indicate a pause
are the comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon
(:), the dash (-), and the ellipsis (...).
Comma (Punctuation)
Commas are used to separate two main clauses
set apart by a conjunction (such as and, but,
or or) (I'd hoped to be done this afternoon,
but I'm not sure that's possible). They can
separate shorter clauses that do not have a
conjunction between them (I work, I sleep, I
work some more). They are also used to set off
all manner of words and phrases, such as
adverbial clauses (When he was finished, he set
down his knife), transitional expressions (Her
remarks, on the other hand, were uncalled for),
conjunctions (We are often late; however, we
must be back by five o'clock), illustrative
expressions (They were confused; that is, they
felt bewildered and afraid), and nonrestrictive
clauses (Your writing, although it is quite
good, is not what we're looking for).
In addition, commas are employed to separate a
series of words or phrases (Hope, charity, and
faith were not enough to sustain her); to set
off direct address (You know, son, that's a
good idea); to mark the beginning of a
contrasting idea (He likes to work, but he
loves to party); to set a direct quotation
apart from the speaker ("Don't quote me," he
said); and to set off a question being asked
about the previous part of the sentence (It was
fun, wasn't it?).
Finally, commas indicate the inference of a
word not stated, especially one used earlier in
the sentence (For us it's money; for them,
food); set off the parts of an address, place
name, or date (They went to London, England, to
conduct research); and separate a name from a
title following it (Paul Fargis, President).
Semicolon (Punctuation)
The semicolon signals a more complete stop than
is indicated by the comma. It is used to
separate parts of a sentence that contain
commas (Our organization runs on the
dedication, concern, and compassion of its
staff; the generosity, moral support, and
wisdom of its directors; and the gratitude,
hope, and joy expressed by those it serves). It
can also join clauses that are not connected by
a coordinating conjunction (Those who can, do;
those who can't, teach) as well as those joined
by conjunctive adverbs (It's easy to lie;
however, lying is a bad habit to get into).
Colon (Punctuation)
The colon represents the next closest thing to
the full stop indicated by a period. It can
mark the separation of an enumerated list or
extract from the rest of a text (The Ten
Commandments:) or the introduction of an
appositive (She wanted only one thing: sleep)
or series (It's easy to list the things money
won't buy: love, health, happiness, and peace).
The colon also precedes an illustrative or
explanatory phrase; many style guides recommend
beginning such phrases with capital letters if
they can function as sentences in and of
themselves (His Excellency demands
satisfaction: He will expect you on the dueling
field at dawn).
Colons are frequently used in contexts other
than sentences. They can separate book titles
from their subtitles (Curious Customs: The
Stories Behind 296 Popular American Rituals),
set off the salutation in business
correspondence (Dear Mr. President:) and the
labels in memoranda (To:), and separate the
elements of time (8:45), ratios (a 3:5 mix of
boys to girls), and biblical references
(Deuteronomy 1:5).
Dash (Punctuation)
The dash, known as the em dash to compositors
and editors, represents an abrupt shift within
a sentence. It separates a clause or phrase
from the rest of the sentence, whether for
emphasis (You want-my god, you need-an expert)
or to introduce a parenthetical remark (He
hopes to turn a profit-something I can't see
happening any time soon-within six months).
Dashes also are used to separate quoted
material from its author ("I still find the
Strunkian wisdom a comfort"-E. B. White).
Ellipsis (Punctuation)
The ellipsis is used in dialogue to indicate
faltering speech ("We want ... that is, ...").
Brackets and Parentheses (Punctuation)
Brackets [] are specialized tools for setting
off material from the rest of the text. They
can be used with editorial comments: The main
point [emphasis mine] has been missed; or as
parentheses within parentheses: It is hoped
(some might say prayed [even atheists pray
sometimes]) that she will pull through. They
should not be employed when simple parentheses
will do.
Parentheses () are used to set off explanatory
words and phrases that demand more of a break
than is shown by commas and less than that
indicated by dashes: We can't bear it (or so we
believe); to surround numbers when enumerating
points in a sentence: He hopes (1) to be
employed, and (2) to make lots of money; to
give abbreviations: American Telephone &
Telegraph (ATT); and to indicate potential
plurals or other alternatives: Please tell us
which course(s) of action you wish to take.
Apostrophes, Single Quotation Marks, and Double
Quotation Marks
Apostrophes (Punctuation)
Apostrophes are used to indicate a contraction
(didn't) or a possessive by adding 's to most
words (Mr. Marx's humor); an apostrophe alone
is added to form the possessive of plurals (the
kittens' tails). Apostrophes also appear in
shortened forms of the year (the '80s) and for
plurals of numbers, letters, and terms (all at
6's and 7's).
Single quotation marks (Punctuation)
Single quotation marks are used for quotes
within quotes ("`I'm not sure,' is what I think
he said," she responded) and for titles and
special terms mentioned in dialogue ("She said
she doesn't read the `His' column anymore," he
told his buddy).
Double quotation marks (Punctuation)
Double quotation marks are used for direct
quotations and dialogue ("What was she up to?"
he asked); to set off special terms (soldiers
are sometimes called "grunts"); and to indicate
the titles of stories, articles, songs, book
chapters, TV and radio shows, poems, and
lectures.
Punctuating a sentence that contains quotation
marks can be tricky. Commas used to set off
quoted material from the speaker are placed
within the quotation marks ("I hope it's
finished," she said). A period is also placed
within the quotation marks ("We're done."). A
question mark or exclamation point ending a
sentence that ends in a quotation mark is
placed within the quotation marks too ("Will
you marry me?"). However, when quoted material
is used in a question, but is not itself a
question, the question mark is placed outside
(Do you think he really meant "till death do us
part"?).
Spelling Guidelines
Many words in American English are spelled just
as they sound. That is, a long a sound is often
spelled with an a. Aside from the old saw "i
before e except after c, unless sounded as a as
in neighbor and weigh," there are few easy ways
of remembering the intricacies of correct
spelling. The following table shows the ways in
which various sounds common in English words
can be spelled.
Sound Spellings
a sat, meringue, salmon, laugh
ah father, aunt, calm, sergeant,
Afrikaans
aw saw, caught, order, ought, walk
ay fade, aerobic, plain, cay, break,
neigh, whey, regime
ch cello, chip, question, nature
e any, guess, leopard, friend, bread
ee me, see, lea, ski, either, Aesop,
very,
believe, phoenix
er earth, jerk, stir, turn, author
f fall, telephone, rough
ih hit, English, women, busy, cabbage,
build, carriage, sieve
i ice, sly, geyser, high, buy, die,
papaya, eye
j jam, ledge, tragedy
k kelp, character, slack, acre, aqua,
account
n nap, know, pneumonia, gnaw
oh bone, oat, soul, oh, folk, brooch,
crow, though, bureau
oo do, loo, blew, sue, you, cruise,
beauty
ow cow, bough, sauerkraut
sh push, ocean, chauffeur, special,
fascist, tissue, compulsion, nation,
vicious, noxious, nauseous, sure
uh up, oven, trouble, was, does
v love, of
z Xerox, zebra, visible
zh regime, division, brazier
Alphabetization
There are two ways of alphabetizing a list of
words, terms, or names. In both cases, lists
can be compiled by comparing the first letter,
then the second letter, and so forth. In a
word-by-word list, only the first word of each
entry is considered; hyphens are ignored. A
letter-by-letter list is considered without
regard for whether the entry consists of one
word or more than one; spaces and hyphens are
ignored.
The following list is arranged according to the
word-by-word system:
sea
sea gull
Sea Side Heights
seafood
seal
seaside
season ticket
seasoning
second best
second name
secondary
Now here is the same list compiled under the
letter-by-letter system:
sea
seafood
sea gull
seal
seaside
Sea Side Heights
seasoning
season ticket
secondary
second best
second name
Either method of alphabetization is acceptable,
as long as it is scrupulously adhered to. While
some lists may be better served by one approach
or the other, it is not more correct to use one
or the other.
Commonly Misused Words
accept - to receive; to respond
positively
except - to leave out (verb); with the
exclusion of (preposition)
affect - to influence; to pretend
effect - a result, an influence, an
impression; to bring about
(verb)
anxious - worried, unhappy
eager - pleased but impatient
bathos - triteness; an anticlimax
pathos - sympathy
brake - to stop
break - to separate
capital - a city; money; an uppercase
letter
Capitol - the building in which the U.S.
Congress meets
compare - to examine differences and
similarities
contrast - to examine differences
diagnosis - the identification of a disease
prognosis - the likely course of a disease
dinner - the main meal of the day, at
noontime or in the evening
supper - the evening meal
dyeing - coloring with dye
dying - ceasing to live
emigrate - to leave a country to live
elsewhere
immigrate - to enter a country to live there
flair - skill, talent
flare - a bright light; an outburst
guerrilla - a warrior
gorilla - an ape
hole - a space, a void
whole - complete, intact
illegible - indecipherable
unreadable - illegible; uninteresting, not
worth reading
ingenious - brilliant, clever
ingenuous - simple, naive
its - belonging to it
it's - it is
lay - to put; to set down
lie - to rest in a horizontal
position; to make an
untrue statement
liable - responsible, likely
libel - a defamatory statement
majority - more than half
plurality - more votes than any other
candidate; the margin of victory
notable - worthy, impressive
notorious - widely known and ill-regarded
peace - harmony; the absence of war
piece - part of a whole
personal - intimate; having to do with a
specific person
personnel - the employees of a company or
organization
pray - to address God
prey - a victim
principle - a moral rule; a law
principal - main (adjective); the person in
charge; money lent or borrowed
(noun)
protagonist - the leading character
antagonist - an adversary
put - (someone) on to mislead someone
put - (someone) down to make fun of
someone
racket - noise
racquet - a stringed paddle
re-collect - to collect again
recollect - to remember
sail - to ride in a wind-powered boat
sale - a discounted offering
stationary - not moving
stationery - writing materials
talk to - to address others
talk with - to converse together
viral - having to do with a virus
virile - manly
whose - of which
who's - who is
your - belonging to you
you're - you are
American English and British English
It has been said that the United States and
Great Britain are two nations divided by a
single language. This is true in a number of
ways. In the first place, spellings of the same
words can be decidedly different. The following
list shows some common examples of the
variances between American and British
spellings.
American British
aluminum aluminium
center centre
check (money) cheque
color colour
connection connexion
curb kerb
diplomat diplomatist
gray grey
honor honour
inquire enquire
jail gaol
jewelry jewellery
labor labour
organization organisation
pajamas pyjamas
peddler pedlar
program programme
realize realise
recognize recognise
theater theatre
The two versions of the English language also
diverge when it comes to the names for many
everyday objects and events. It is easy for a
visitor from across the Atlantic to provoke
amusement from the natives by calling a cloth
used to wipe one's mouth a napkin in England,
or by asking an American waiter for the W.C.
The following is a list of some common American
terms and their counterparts in the United
Kingdom.
American British
apartment flat
bathroom toilet, W.C., or loo
candy sweets
checkers draughts
closet cupboard
corn maize
cracker biscuit
diaper nappy
drugstore chemist's
faucet tap
gas, gasoline petrol
hood (of car) bonnet
line queue
napkin serviette
oven cooker
round-trip ticket return ticket
suspenders braces
truck lorry
trunk (of car) boot
underpass subway
undershirt vest
vacation holiday
vest waistcoat
As if confusion about spelling and word choice
were not enough, the quotation mark is also
used in a substantially different way in the
United States and Great Britain. While U.S.
usage dictates the use of double quotation
marks to indicate speech, British usage employs
single quotes. And whereas Americans put
periods and commas at the end of a quote within
their double quotation marks, the British do
just the opposite, placing them outside their
single quotation marks.
Additional Sources of Information (English)
Bernstein, Theodore M. The Careful Writer: A
Modern Guide to English Usage. Atheneum, 1965.
The Chicago Manual of Style, 13th ed.
University of Chicago Press, 1982.
Fowler, H. W. A Dictionary of Modern English
Usage, 2nd ed. (rev. by Sir Ernest Gowers).
Oxford University Press, 1987.
Miller, Casey, and Swift, Kate. The Handbook of
Nonsexist Writing, 2nd ed. Harper & Row, 1988.
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers,
Theses, and Dissertations. Modern Language
Association, 1988.
Morris, William, and Morris, Mary. Harper
Dictionary of Contemporary Usage, 2nd ed.
Harper & Row, 1985.
Strunk, W., Jr., and White, E. B. The Elements
of Style, 3rd ed. Macmillan, 1979.
Words into Type, 3rd ed. Prentice-Hall, 1978.
Zinsser, William. Writing Well: An Informal
Guide to Writing Nonfiction, rev ed. Harper &
Row, 1985.
Etiquette
For most people, etiquette in everyday life has
little to do with white gloves and raised pinkies,
although this is a common image of what etiquette
is all about. In fact, etiquette involves the use
of good manners, consideration for others, and
adherence to unspoken rules of behavior that are
expected to be followed in certain situations.
This chapter explains the basic rules of conduct
expected of late-twentieth-century Americans when
they engage in a number of common business and
social activities. It is hardly exhaustive-a great
many books have been written on planning and
organizing a wedding, for instance-and it does not
cover the moral, psychological, or social
implications of etiquette. But it does describe
what can be expected to occur when one participates
in certain activities and what is expected of those
who participate.
Wedding Etiquette
Because weddings vary greatly in their level of
formality and style, each component of a wedding-
from the invitations to the reception-is flexible.
The rule of thumb is that the various elements that
make up a wedding should be compatible. That is,
if a formal, evening church wedding is held, it
should be preceded by formal, engraved invitations
and followed by a formal, sitdown dinner; likewise,
a wedding held in an open field in the countryside
would call for an informal dining arrangement,
perhaps a buffet.
Invitations and Announcements (Wedding Etiquette)
Wedding invitations, like weddings themselves, come
in two basic varieties: formal and informal. A
formal, traditional invitation is engraved or
printed in black ink on high-quality white or ivory
paper. The size of the paper is either 5-by-7,
folded in half before being put in an envelope, or
4-by-5, inserted into an envelope without folding.
The wording of a formal wedding invitation is
written in the third person, and the date and time
are written out in full. A typical example might
read:
Mr. and Mrs. Henry Appleton
request the honor of your presence
at the marriage of their daughter
Carol June
to
Mr. Alan Hart
Saturday, the fourth of February
at eleven o'clock
St. Albert's Church
Bayonne, New Jersey
The invitation to the wedding ceremony itself can
also invite the recipient to a reception afterward.
If all those receiving invitations to the reception
are not invited to the ceremony, or vice versa, a
separate invitation to the reception is printed
and, for those invited to both events, included
with the wedding invitation. The reception
invitation or the combined invitation should
include the instructions "R.S.V.P."
Traditionally, the invitation is covered with a
piece of tissue paper and enclosed with the
reception invitation (and a response card and its
envelope, if desired) in an inner envelope. The
names of those invited, including a couple's
children if they are also invited, are written out
in full on the inner envelope. This inner envelope
is then enclosed in an outer envelope that bears
the handwritten names of all invited and their
addresses, without abbreviations. Modern custom
allows the bride's parents to forgo using an inner
envelope altogether when sending out invitations.
Other enclosures that may be sent with the wedding
invitation include cards designating reserved pews,
"At-Home" cards that announce when the bride and
groom will return from their honeymoon and where
they will reside, and maps or other travel
information.
Nontraditional, informal invitations can be
designed and printed or handwritten in whatever
style or form the bride and groom desire. They
should, however, be in good taste-avoiding garish
colors and bad poetry-and in harmony with the style
of the wedding itself.
Wedding announcements usually are sent to people
who would like to know about the wedding but who
would not be expected to attend. They use the same
paper and printing as the invitations. The wording
is also similar, although the parents of both the
bride and the groom are often mentioned and the
words announce the marriage of replace request the
honor of your presence at the marriage of. Wedding
announcements are sent out the day of, or shortly
after, the wedding day.
Response to a wedding invitation is dictated by the
type of invitation. A formal invitation
traditionally is answered with a third-person,
handwritten note that might read:
Mr. and Mrs. Harold Sloane
accept with pleasure
(or regret they will be unable to attend)
Mr. and Mrs. Appleton's
kind invitation for
Saturday, the fourth of February.
Of course, if a response card is enclosed, it may
simply be filled out and returned. If the
invitation is less formal, a handwritten response
in more standard, informal English is correct.
Showers (Wedding Etiquette)
Bridal or wedding showers can be given by any close
friend of the bride. They should not be given by
a member of the bride's immediate family.
There is no set rule for the number of showers that
can be held before a wedding, although only members
of the wedding party are invited to more than one
shower. Neither is there a hard-and-fast rule for
the types of parties they should be; serving
anything from coffee and cake to cocktails to a
light supper is appropriate.
Unless it is a surprise shower, the guest list is
drawn up by the bride (or the bride and groom if
both are to be present). The host for the party
should set the limit on the number of guests.
Guests invited to the shower should also be invited
to the wedding, unless the wedding is to be very
small.
Everyone attending a shower is expected to bring
a present, which is opened at the party. The host
or another friend of the bride should keep a list
of who gave what, so that thank-you notes can be
sent later on.
Bachelor Dinner (Wedding Etiquette)
Several days before the wedding, a bachelor dinner
can be given for the groom. It is usually held in
a private room of a restaurant and hosted by the
best man or the ushers, although a groom may give
his own bachelor dinner.
Generally, the men drink and eat a great deal. At
some point in the evening, the groom toasts his
bride-to-be. It is rarely appropriate to break the
glasses after such a toast, although this was once
the custom. The only important rule regarding
bachelor dinners is that they should not be held
the night before the wedding, so that there is
adequate time for the groom to recover from the
festivities.
Ceremony (Wedding Etiquette)
The wedding ceremony itself can be as formal or
informal as the bride and groom wish it to be.
Weddings are held in city halls, open fields,
private homes, reception halls, restaurants, and
churches and synagogues. For most weddings to which
guests are invited, and especially church and
synagogue weddings, a prescribed series of events
will take place.
First comes the processional. In Christian and
Reform Jewish weddings, the ushers come down the
aisle first, arranged in height order, followed by
any junior ushers. They are followed by junior
bridesmaids, then bridesmaids, in height order,
with the shortest first. Then comes the maid or
matron of honor, the flower girls, the ring bearer,
and, finally, the bride, holding the right arm of
her father. The groom and the best man wait at the
front of the room with the clergy.
Orthodox and Conservative Jewish processionals are
led by the ushers, who are followed by the
bridesmaids. Next come the rabbi and cantor
followed by the best man and then the groom,
accompanied by his mother and father. The maid of
honor is next; she is followed by the bride, who
walks between her mother and father.
The guests stand during the processional and remain
standing until the clergy has asked them to sit,
usually after opening remarks or a prayer. Once at
the front of the room, the bride's father (or
parents) step back or to one side and the groom
steps forward to meet his bride. Bride and groom
stand next to each other holding hands or with her
hand on his arm, if they wish.
In Protestant ceremonies, the father of the bride
gives her away before sitting down in the first
pew. In Roman Catholic ceremonies, the father of
the bride sits with his wife as soon as the bride
is delivered to the groom. Orthodox and
Conservative Jewish ceremonies require that the
parents of the bride and groom remain at the front
of the room; if there is space, they stand under
the marriage canopy, known as a chuppah.
The actual events of the wedding ceremony differ
widely among various denominations. Most Christian
services include a blessing of the ring or rings.
(If the bride is wearing an engagement ring, she
should put it on her right hand for the service,
then place it outside the wedding band afterward.)
Orthodox Jewish services are mostly in Hebrew, and
two glasses of wine are shared by the couple before
the groom breaks the goblet at the end of the
ceremony.
The recessional for Christian and Reform Jewish
weddings is led by the bride and groom. They are
followed by the flower girl, the best man and maid
or matron of honor, and the ushers and bridesmaids;
a line of bridesmaids follows the bride and a line
of ushers follows the groom. Orthodox and
Conservative Jewish recessionals are led by the
bride and groom, followed by the bride's parents,
the groom's parents, the maid of honor with the
best man, the flower girl, and the rabbi and
cantor. Bridesmaids and ushers bring up the rear.
In Orthodox ceremonies, all the men are on one side
and all the women on the other.
Reception (Wedding Etiquette)
The style of the reception will follow from the
style of the rest of the wedding. Ordinarily,
photographs are taken immediately after the
ceremony; they are ordered and paid for by the
bride's family.
A receiving line, made up of the mothers of the
bride and groom, the wedded couple, the maid of
honor, and, at the discretion of those involved,
the fathers of the couple, the bridesmaids, the
best man, and the ushers, greets guests as they
enter the room.
Formal receptions have assigned tables for those
attending. The bridal party will generally be at
the head table, and a parents' table will be
nearby. Other guests should be assigned to tables
with people whose company they will enjoy.
Almost all receptions include a toast to the bride
and groom, which is proposed by the best man. The
groom should reply with thanks after the toast has
been drunk and offer a toast to his bride; other
toasts may be offered as well. The toasts can be
followed by dancing or a meal, if one is to be
served. The wedding cake is cut just before
dessert, or shortly before the bride and groom
leave the reception if it is not a formal dinner.
The bride cuts the first slice, with the help of
her new husband, from the bottom tier of the cake,
and the couple offer each other a bite. The top
layer of the cake, with its decorations, is removed
and saved for the bride and groom, while the
remainder is cut up and served to the guests.
At the reception's end, the bride usually will toss
her bouquet from stairs or a landing, turning her
back and throwing it over her shoulder to her
bridesmaids or other female friends; the one who
catches it is supposed to marry next. Then the
newlyweds change clothes, say goodbye to their
families, and, led by the best man, leave in a
shower of paper rose petals or rice.
Gifts and Thank-you Notes (Wedding Etiquette)
Gifts can be sent to the address on the At-Home
card, if one is enclosed with the invitation or to
the home of the bride's mother. They also can be
brought to the reception. Among some people, money
is an appropriate wedding gift; it is usually
presented to the bride in an envelope, which she
will place in a special purse or in a box or basket
put out for this purpose. Envelopes, and usually
gifts as well, are not opened until after the
reception.
Thank-you notes should be handwritten and should
mention the gift that was given. They should be
sent shortly after the couple's honeymoon is over.
DIVISION OF WEDDING EXPENSES
Today, the groom and his family often offer to
share some of the wedding expenses that
traditionally have been borne by the bride's
family. This is a significant change of custom, as
the costs of traditional weddings have become too
prohibitive for many families to absorb. However,
if the groom's family does not offer to share
expenses, the bride's family should plan a wedding
in accordance with their means.
The traditional division of expenses is listed
below. In addition to the change noted above, it
should be kept in mind that there are numerous
exceptions and variations depending on religion,
ethnicity, or local custom. Many items may be
omitted without diminishing the ceremony in any
way.
Expenses Paid by Bride's Family (Wedding Etiquette)
Bridal consultant, if needed
Invitations and announcements
Flowers for the church and receptions, bouquets for
the bridesmaids, bouquet for bride (sometimes given
by groom)
Music for the ceremony, including organist or choir
fee
Transportation of bridal party to church or
synagogue and reception
Bride's presents to her bridesmaids
Bride's present to groom (optional)
Groom's wedding ring
Sexton's fee (church fee)
Accommodations for out-of-town bridesmaids
All expenses of reception, including music
Expenses Paid by Groom's Family (Wedding Etiquette)
Bride's rings, both engagement and wedding
Groom's present to bride (optional)
Groom's presents to ushers and best man
Groom's boutonniere and boutonnieres for ushers
Ties and gloves for the ushers
Clergy member's fee; tips to altar boys
Corsages for immediate members of both families and
bride's going-away corsage
Accommodations for out-of-town ushers
Bachelor dinner (optional, and often given by
ushers)
Rehearsal dinner (optional, but becoming more
standard)
Honeymoon
Expenses Paid by Bridesmaids (Wedding Etiquette)
Dress and accessories
Transportation to and from town of wedding
Gift to the couple and contribution to a gift from
all bridesmaids to the bride
Expenses Paid by Ushers (Wedding Etiquette)
Transportation to and from town of wedding
Rental of wedding attire
Gift to the couple and contribution to a gift from
all ushers to the groom
Bachelor dinner (optional, and often given by
groom)
Expenses Paid by Out-of-Town Guests
Transportation and accommodations
Gift to the couple
Anniversary Gifts
Etiquette authorities differ on the appropriate
gifts to be presented on the occasion of individual
wedding anniversaries. The following list
represents a modern consensus, with the eight
oldest and most traditional gifts indicated in
italics.
1 Paper or plastics 2 Cotton or calico
3 Leather 4 Linen, silk, or
synthetics
(rayon, nylon)
5 Wood 6 Iron
7 Copper, wool, or 8 Bronze or electrical
brass appliances
9 Pottery 10 Tin or aluminum
11 Steel 12 Silk or linen
13 Lace 14 Ivory
15 Crystal or glass 20 China
25 Silver 30 Pearls
35 Coral or jade 40 Rubies or garnets
45 Sapphires or 50 Gold
tourmalines
55 Emeralds or 60 Diamonds or gold
turquoise
75 Diamonds or gold
Business Etiquette
The business world is extraordinarily demanding and
extremely competitive. In it, there are really only
a few criteria on which members will be judged:
competence, initiative, leadership, and how well
one gets along with others. It is this last area
in which manners plays a crucial role, for
individuals must be able to present themselves well
and deal well with others if they wish to succeed
in business.
Appointments (Business Etiquette)
Business life requires that people meet each other
face-to-face to conduct transactions or exchange
information. To do so, they schedule appointments.
The first rule regarding business appointments is
that they should be kept if at all possible;
failing to show up for an appointment will be taken
as a sign of disinterest, carelessness, and lack
of professionalism. If an appointment cannot be
kept, it should be cancelled as far in advance as
possible. If an individual is unavoidably delayed,
he or she should telephone the host or have someone
else make the call.
When guests are shown into the office where the
appointment will take place, the host should rise
from his or her desk, shake hands, and greet them;
if the host and guests have not met before, they
should introduce themselves. The guests should be
offered seats, and the host should either sit back
down at the desk or sit with the visitors. Coffee
or tea may be offered by the host but should not
be requested by the guests.
Any business meeting should get to the business at
hand as quickly as possible. It is just as
important to listen as it is to talk, not simply
to be polite but to get the most out of the
meeting. It is also important not to interrupt
others during meetings. Taking notes during a
business meeting is acceptable.
The host usually will conclude a business meeting,
either by making remarks that sum up the discussion
or by suggesting outright that everything pertinent
has now been discussed. It is important for guests
to pick up on such cues, gather their belongings,
thank the host, shake hands, and leave. A follow-up
letter, thanking the host for the meeting and
outlining whatever was agreed upon at the meeting,
should be sent by the next business day.
Entertainment (Business Etiquette)
Business entertaining generally takes place in an
office; over breakfast, lunch, or dinner, at a
restaurant; or over drinks after work. The purpose
of business entertaining is to conduct business in
a congenial setting that is less formal than an
office.
The person initiating business entertainment acts
as the host. That person is responsible for
deciding on the setting, making reservations, and
paying the bill. The site chosen for entertaining
a client or colleague should be appropriate to the
person being invited and the nature of the business
relationship; a prestigious restaurant would be
right for entertaining a major client, while drinks
at a clubby bar might be a good choice for
entertaining a vendor who regularly sells supplies
to the company.
Regardless of setting, it should be kept in mind
that business is the main purpose of the
get-together. The host should endeavor to bring up
the business at hand before the guest becomes
impatient. However, business discussions should not
interfere with the pleasure of enjoying the meal.
The host should pick up the check when it is
brought to the table, look it over, and pay it.
Because business entertaining should give both
parties more or less equal status, it makes no
difference whether the host is a man or a woman.
There is no reason for a guest even to show a
pretense of wanting to pick up the check; the guest
can express his or her thanks to the host as they
are leaving.
Gifts (Business Etiquette)
Gift-giving is not at all unusual among people who
work together. Bosses often give gifts to employees
for birthdays, Christmas, or Secretaries Day; staff
members may give the boss a present for holidays
or birthdays; office colleagues sometimes give each
other gifts; and executives can give presents to
clients or vendors.
Such gifts are generally not lavish, although the
type of gift is dictated by the nature of the
relationship. Bosses tend to give larger presents
to their employees than staff members give to the
boss. Gifts to colleagues reflect the degree of
friendship between them. Clients or vendors give
and receive gifts appropriate to the amount of
business transacted and the longevity of the
relationship.
Business gifts should be less personal than gifts
for a friend. A datebook or similar office
accessory, costume jewelry, a tie, or a bottle of
wine makes a good, inexpensive business gift. More
lavish presents, like theater tickets, food
baskets, or a case of wine can be given to
longstanding clients or employees.
The Telephone (Business Etiquette)
For many companies, the telephone is an essential
tool for conducting business. Proper telephone
manners can make it an effective tool.
Many people think that having a secretary or
assistant place calls will enhance the image of an
executive. In fact, having others place calls for
oneself is an inconvenience, both for the secretary
or assistant who must place the call and for the
person receiving the call, who must wait for the
executive to get on the line. People in business
should place their own phone calls.
When the call goes through, the caller should
identify himself or herself by name and company;
if the nature of the call is not readily apparent,
the caller should volunteer this information. With
some companies, this process will have to be
repeated two or three times-with the switchboard
operator, a secretary, and the person being called.
A caller should not take offense if asked to
identify the reason for the call, although this
type of questioning is often a thinly disguised way
of keeping a boss insulated from people he or she
does not want to receive calls from. Screening
phone calls is acceptable, but not if the caller
is then asked to hold the line and finally is told
that the person being called is not available. As
with placing calls, the most convenient and least
rude way of dealing with incoming calls is to
answer them yourself; if you are too busy to answer
the phone yourself, a secretary should keep the
interrogation of a caller to a minimum.
People answering business phones should identify
themselves and ask if they can help the caller.
They should be attentive, organized, and unhurried.
If answering someone else's phone, they should be
ready to take a message.
Business phones should not be used for personal
calls. If a personal call must be made, or if one
is received, it should be kept as brief as
possible. Similarly, business calls should be kept
brief and to the point. Chattiness and rudeness are
always to be avoided in business telephone calls.
Letter Writing (Business Etiquette)
Like business phone calls, business letters should
be brief and to the point. The first line below the
letterhead should bear the date, with the name,
company, and address of the recipient appearing two
lines below it at the left margin. Two lines below
the address, the salutation is given.
If the recipient is known personally, he or she can
be greeted by first name ("Dear Fred:"). If the
recipient is known casually or not at all, use Mr.
or Ms. ("Dear Mr. Burrows:" or "Dear Ms.
Johnston:"). When the addressee is unknown, "Dear
Sir or Madam" or something like "Dear Sales
Manager" can be employed.
The first paragraph of a business letter should
clearly explain the purpose of writing. It should
be straightforward and concise. If the letter is
being written at the suggestion of someone else,
this should be stated in the first paragraph along
with the reason for writing.
The length of a business letter is determined by
what needs to be said. If a reply is desired, the
last paragraph should simply state, "I look forward
to hearing from you at your earliest convenience."
A response by a specific date should not be
demanded unless there is a good reason for doing
so.
Appropriate closings for a business letter include
"Best wishes," "Sincerely," "Sincerely yours," or
"Yours truly." Informal closings like "Yours" or
"Cheers" should not be used. The signature can
either be your full name ("Henry Wiggins") or, if
the writer and the recipient are well acquainted,
a first name alone ("Henry"). The writer's full
name and company title should be typed below the
signature unless they appear at the top of the
letterhead.
How to Prepare a Resume
A resume is a tool that can be used to obtain a job
interview. Along with a cover letter, it is the
first impression a prospective employee makes on
a potential employer. Therefore, it is important
that a resume provide as much relevant information
as possible about the person being described in it:
you. It is also important that the resume be kept
brief-no more than one full side of a sheet of 8
1/2-by-11-inch paper.
A resume must be neatly typed, with at least a
3/4-inch margin on both sides, top, and bottom.
Single-space all information in the resume, leaving
one line of space between blocks of information.
Use underlining, capital letters, and asterisks to
highlight important information.
Begin a resume with your name, address, and home
and business telephone numbers. They can be laid
out on the page in any way you find visually
pleasing, so far as space allows. Do not include
your age, marital status, or other personal facts.
Many resumes then list a career goal, for example,
"Career goal: Systems engineer responsible for
monitoring, maintaining, and improving plant
facilities" or "Objective: Position as
illustrator/designer with opportunity to create
book jackets from concept through mechanicals."
This is a good tactic if you are looking for a
specific type of job; however, job-hunters who
would consider any of several possible careers are
better off omitting any specific career goal.
Most resumes then present a chronological outline
of work experience, starting with one's current or
most recent job and working backward. For each job
listed, the important duties and skills involved
should be outlined or described. Depending on how
much "real world" experience you have, relevant
high school or college employment, internships, and
part-time work can be included. Such a portion of
a typical resume might look like this:
This section is followed by one outlining your
educational background, again going from your most
recent experience backward. List the date, school
or course attended, and certificate or diploma
obtained. Depending on the extent of your work
experience, you may wish to give a more detailed
description of your higher education. If you are
a college student, you may wish to list your high
school and any pertinent coursework or special
achievements.
In the last part of your resume, list any work you
have done with civic or charitable organizations
and any awards or certificates of recognition you
have received. Place these under an appropriate
heading, such as "COMMUNITY SERVICE." If you have
no such background, leave this section out of your
resume.
Finally, it is unnecessary to write "References
available upon request" at the bottom of a resume.
Anyone looking at it will assume you can provide
references and will ask for them if and when they
are needed.
Personal Letters (Etiquette)
The demise of personal letter writing is considered
by many to be a sad comment on the overall lack of
civility in our society. Many people arrange their
lives in such a way that they never need to write
a letter outside of business situations. There are,
however, several situations in which a note or
letter is expected. And there are many other
circumstances in which written communication will
delight the recipient.
Thank-you notes should always be sent to the host
and hostess of an overnight guest, for wedding
presents, and for presents of any sort that the
giver has not been thanked for personally.
Thank-you notes to the host or hostess of a party
or to someone who has done a favor are not
required, but they will make the writer's gratitude
clear and warm the heart of the person who gets
them.
Other situations demand notes or letters as well.
The death of someone in a friend's family is one
such event. This is especially true if you cannot
express your condolences personally at a wake or
during shiva. A letter of condolence need not be
long and involved, but it should be a personal,
handwritten note, not just a printed sympathy card.
Formal invitations require a written response. For
many, wedding invitations are the most common sort
of formal invitation received. While response cards
are frequently included with wedding invitations,
a personal response in addition to or in place of
the response card will be greatly appreciated.
When a friend or family member has something
important to celebrate-a promotion or graduation,
or receipt of an award or other honor-a
congratulatory note will make the celebration even
happier. Even the briefest of notes adds a warmth
that cannot be conveyed by a phone call.
Personal letter writing can also be done for no
good reason at all. Or rather, you may write
letters to friends and family simply to keep in
touch with them and to let them know that you are
thinking of them. These are perhaps the most
enjoyable letters to receive.
Personal letters, while not requiring a strict
format, do have a few guidelines. The date should
be written at the top, either in the center or the
right-hand corner. The salutation, which may be a
bit warmer than it would for a business letter ("My
dearest Jeanne,") should be followed by a comma
instead of a colon.
The body or text of a personal letter is, of
course, a highly personal matter. It should be
written with less of an eye to what would be
stylistically or grammatically correct and more of
an eye to expressing feelings and thoughts. A
personal letter should sound like you, and
techniques that would be out of place in a business
letter, such as using dashes, ellipsis, and
sentence fragments, can be employed in personal
correspondence.
Closings for personal letters are also a matter of
choice. "Love" is appropriate for those you do
love; "Fondly" or "All my best" or "Affectionately"
might be right for friends. As with the rest of the
letter, the closing should express your own
feelings.
Parties (Etiquette)
Parties come in all shapes and sizes. They can be
held for holidays, anniversaries, housewarmings,
birthdays, weddings, or farewells or just to have
some friends over. They range from sit-down dinners
in banquet halls to tea and cookies in living
rooms. But no matter the size or style of the
party, certain aspects need to be tended to make
it a success.
Invitations (Parties) (Etiquette)
Invitations can be given in writing, in person, or
by telephone, depending on the sort of party they
are for. Engraved invitations are sent for formal
parties, like weddings and anniversary parties.
Less formal events require less formal invitations;
handwritten notes on personal stationery or printed
invitation cards with blanks that can be filled in
can be used. Invitations to small informal parties
can be issued by telephone. Invitations should be
sent out about three weeks before a party.
R.S.V.P.s (Parties) (Etiquette)
Your invitation should include a request that
guests respond if you want to know in advance who
will be coming. A formal invitation can include a
response card or just "R.S.V.P." Informal
invitations can include a statement like, "Unless
we hear otherwise, we'll expect you on the third,"
or, "Please let us know if you can make it."
Telephone invitations will usually get immediate
responses; however, if you are invited by telephone
and do not know whether you can attend, it is
acceptable to put off a response. In any case, it
is important to respond to an invitation as quickly
as possible so the hosts can plan accordingly.
Formal Dinner Parties (Etiquette)
Seating Arrangements (Formal Dinner Parties)
The host and hostess, as well as any guests of
honor, are the people around whom seating
arrangements are set at more formal dinner parties.
The host and hostess will usually sit at either end
of the table; a male guest of honor sits at the
hostess' right and a female guest of honor at the
host's right. Other guests are told where to sit
by the host and hostess, either personally or by
using place cards. While it is customary to
alternate men and women at a sit-down dinner, this
practice can be ignored if there are more members
of one sex than of the other. Husbands and wives
can be seated together or separated. Obviously,
buffet dinner parties, cocktail parties, and other
informal get-togethers do not require any sort of
specific seating arrangement; guests can be
expected to fend for themselves.
Tableware (Formal Dinner Parties)
A place setting at a formal dinner party can be
somewhat intimidating to guests unfamiliar with
such events. The arrangement of plates, glasses,
and utensils is fairly standard, however, and
fairly easy to deal with.
The basic setting should be in place when the
guests sit down. A service plate is in the center,
usually with the napkin on top of it. Flanking the
plate will be the flatware: a dessert or salad fork
to the immediate left of the plate, a dinner fork
to the left of it, and a fish fork, if needed, on
the outside. To the right of the plate are, from
closest to furthest, the salad knife, the meat
knife, the fish knife, a soup or fruit spoon (or
both), and, if shellfish is being served, a
shellfish fork. Utensils are used in order from the
outside in.
Glasses are placed above the knives to the right
of the plate. There will be a water goblet and,
extending to the right from there, a champagne
glass, one or two wine glasses, and a sherry glass.
In addition to the service plate, a butter plate
is placed above the forks, to the left of the
service plate. The butter knife is set across the
butter plate.
Serving (Formal Dinner Parties)
Food at a formal dinner party is usually served by
hired help. Guests are served from the left, and
plates are cleared from the right. The female guest
of honor is served first; if there is no guest of
honor, women are served before men or, if this is
hard to manage, a woman is served the first plate
with the other guests served in order. The hostess
is served last. Warmed dinner plates are usually
brought out just before the entree is served. A
clean service plate should be brought out for each
of the other courses.
Deaths and Funerals (Etiquette)
Plans for death should be discussed with family and
loved ones before such plans are likely to be
needed. A person's desires regarding the sort of
funeral held, disposal of the body by burial or
cremation, donation of organs, and so forth need
to be known. Practical matters-where to find
insurance papers, the will, bills, bank accounts,
safety deposit boxes, or investment holdings-also
should be dealt with in advance.
Funeral Arrangements (Deaths and Funerals)
The details of funeral arrangements are handled by
funeral directors. Placement of a death notice in
the newspaper; selection of a coffin; travel to
church, synagogue, and/or graveyard; and a variety
of other services are provided. Many of these
arrangements can be made in advance or at the time
of death. The death notice would include the
deceased's name and date of death, the names of
immediate family members who survive, and the place
and time of the wake and funeral if the funeral is
not private.
Wakes (Deaths and Funerals) (Etiquette)
Traditionally, wakes were held at the dead
person's home, but today wakes are usually held at
a funeral home. They are strictly a Christian
phenomenon; Jews sit shiva during a three- to
seven-day period of mourning and remembrance
immediately after burial. Anyone who wishes to may
attend a wake, unless it is kept private. The hours
and days are set and usually appear in the death
notice in the newspaper. Nonfamily members should
sign the guest book provided at the funeral home,
stay just long enough to express sympathy to the
bereaved family, then leave. Expressions of
sympathy are best if they come from the heart; when
at a loss for what to say, a simple "I'm sorry" is
enough. Standing, kneeling, or praying at the
coffin is optional.
Flowers (Deaths and Funerals) (Etiquette)
Sending flowers is a customary way of expressing
sympathy, especially if attendance at the wake or
funeral is not possible. They can be sent to either
the funeral home or the church along with a card.
Flowers are not appropriate for Jewish funerals or
if the death notice requests donations to charity
in lieu of them.
Funeral Services (Deaths and Funerals) (Etiquette)
Unless specified as private in the death notice,
funeral services can be attended by anyone. They
should be viewed not as an obligation but as an
opportunity to publicly bid farewell to the person
who died and to show concern for the survivors.
Religious affiliation is unimportant; one may
attend a funeral service regardless of faith. It
is important to speak to the bereaved family at the
funeral service; if sympathy has already been
expressed at the wake, a positive comment about the
service, the eulogy, or the church or synagogue
would be appropriate.
Burial (Deaths and Funerals) (Etiquette)
For Jews, burial takes place within 24 hours, or
as quickly as possible. Christians are buried two
or more days after death. Close friends and family
members are generally the only people expected to
attend the actual interment.
A reception generally is held after the burial. The
funeral director or a family member will invite
those present to attend. It can be held at the home
of a relative or at a catering hall or restaurant.
Food and drink are provided by the bereaved family
or arranged for by them.
Letters or Calls of Condolence (Deaths and Funerals)
These are appropriate in lieu of attendance at a
wake or funeral service. They should be brief and
should focus on memories of the dead person,
sympathy for the survivors, and offers of help to
the survivors. Avoid pity in such communications
or visits, and make clear that a response is not
expected soon.
After Burial (Deaths and Funerals) (Etiquette)
It is important to be available to the grieving
family after all ceremonies are over. If the family
is Jewish, they will sit shiva for three to seven
days; it is appropriate to drop by and bring food
but not flowers. If the family is Christian, stop
by a few days later to listen and talk. Whatever
the religious affiliation, friends who are willing
to listen and talk to bereaved family members are
highly valued at this time.
Additional Sources of Information (Etiquette)
Baldridge, Letitia. The Amy Vanderbilt Complete
Book of Etiquette: A Guide to Contemporary Living.
Doubleday, 1978.
Bryan, Dawn. The Art and Etiquette of Gift Giving.
Bantam, 1987.
Ford, Charlotte. Charlotte Ford's Book of Modern
Manners. Crown, 1988.
Mark, Lisbeth. The Book of Hierarchies: A
Compendium of Steps, Ranks, Orders, Levels,
Classes, Grades, Tiers, Arrays, Degrees, Lines,
Divisions, Categories, Precedents, Priorities &
Other Distinctions. William Morrow, 1984.
Martin, Judith. Miss Manners' Guide to
Excruciatingly Correct Behavior. Atheneum, 1982.
Martin, Judith. Miss Manners' Guide to Rearing
Perfect Children. Atheneum, 1984.
McCaffree, Maryjane, and Innis, Pauline. Protocol:
The Complete Handbook of Diplomatic, Official and
Social Usage. Devon, 1985.
Post, Elizabeth. Emily Post On Entertaining:
Answers to the Most Often Asked Questions about
Entertaining at Home and in Business. Harper & Row,
1987.
Post, Elizabeth. Emily Post's Etiquette, 14th ed.
Harper & Row, 1984.
Post, Elizabeth. Emily Post's Wedding Etiquette &
Planner. Harper & Row, 1982.
Rowland, Diana. Japanese Business Etiquette: A
Practical Guide to Business and Social Success with
the Japanese. Warner Books, 1985.
Forms of Address
Order of British Peerage
Titles of nobility, or peerages, are granted by the
king or queen of Great Britain on the
recommendation of the prime minister. In most
hereditary peerages, the title passes on to a
peer's oldest son, or to his closest male heir if
the peer has no son (the other children are
considered commoners). The title becomes extinct
if there is no male heir. There are some ancient
peerages that allow the title to be passed to a
daughter if the holder leaves no male descendant.
The last hereditary peerage was granted in 1964.
Life peerages are created each year by the British
monarch for several distinguished persons. Life
peers hold the rank for their own lives only; the
titles do not pass on to their children. Both men
and women may be granted life peerages, and the
titles given to them are baron or baroness.
The following are the five grades of peers ranked
from the highest to the lowest and the dates they
were created. (Duke is the highest hereditary rank
below that of prince.)
1. duke or duchess (1337)
2. marquess, marquis or marchioness (1385)
3. earl or countess (c. 800 - 1000)
4. viscount or viscountess (1440)
5. baron or baroness (c. 1066)
Abbreviated Titles That Follow Names
An abbreviated title can tell more about a person
than his or her name. It will identify a rank or
position, membership in a monastic or secular
order, academic degree, or military or civil honor.
The following list includes some familiar as well
as some obscure abbreviated titles.
Abbreviation Title
A.B. artium baccalaureus (bachelor
of arts)
A.M. artium magister (master of
arts)
B.A. bachelor of arts
B.D. bachelor of divinity
B.S. Bachelor of science
D.B. divinitatis baccalaureus
(bachelor of divinity)
D.D. divinitatis doctor (doctor of
divinity)
D.D.S. doctor of dental surgery
D.O. doctor of osteopathy
D.S.O. Distinguished Service Order
D.V.M. doctor of veterinary medicine
Esq. esquire
F.R.S. fellow of the Royal Society
J.D. juris doctor (doctor of law)
J.P. justice of the peace
Kt. knight
L.H.D. litterarum humaniorum doctor
(doctor of humanities)
Litt.D. litterarum doctor (doctor of
letters)
LL.B. legum baccalaureus (bachelor
of laws)
M.A. master of arts
M.D. medicinae doctor (doctor of
medicine)
M.P. member of Parliament
M.S. master of science
Ph.B. philosophiae baccalaureus
(bachelor of philosophy)
Ph.D. philosophiae doctor (doctor
of philosophy)
Ph.G. graduate in pharmacy
Psy.D doctor of psychology
R.N. registered nurse
S.B. bachelor of science
S.J. Society of Jesus
S.M. master of science
S.T.B. sacrae theologiae baccalaureus
(bachelor of sacred theology)
Additional Sources of Information (Forms of Address)
Baldridge, Letitia. Amy Vanderbilt's Complete Book
of Etiquette, rev. ed. Doubleday, 1978.
Blumenthal, Lassor A. The Art of Letter Writing.
Putnam, 1986.
Crisp, Quentin, and Hofsess, Joseph. Manners From
Heaven: A Divine Guide to Good Behavior. Harper &
Row, 1985.
Lott, James E. Practical Protocol: A Guide to
International Courtesies. Gulf, 1973.
Mark, Lisbeth. The Book of Hierarchies: A
Compendium of Steps, Ranks, Orders, Levels,
Classes, Grades, Tiers, Arrays, Degrees, Lines,
Divisions, Categories, Precedents, Priorities &
Other Distinctions. William Morrow, 1984.
Martin, Judith. Miss Manners' Guide to
Excruciatingly Correct Behavior. Warner Books,
1983.
McCaffree, Maryjane, and Innis, Pauline. Protocol:
The Complete Handbook of Diplomatic, Official and
Social Usage, rev. ed. Devon, 1985.
Post, Elizabeth. Emily Post's Etiquette, 14th ed.
Harper & Row, 1984.
Swartz, Oretha D. Service Etiquette, 4th ed. Naval
Institute Press, 1988.
Legal Information
Federal Judicial System (Legal Information)
THE SUPREME COURT ────────────────────┐
│ │
┌─ U.S. courts of appeals ──────────┐ │
│ │ │ │
│ U.S. district courts │ │
│ │ │
│ U.S. special courts: │ │
│ Tax Court ─────────────────┘ │
│ Federal Circuit Court of Appeals ─┘
│ (formerly Court of Customs and
│ Patent Appeals)
│ Claims Court
│ (fact-finding body that settles
│ questions submitted to it by
│ Congress)
│ Court of Military Appeals
│ (decisions may be appealed to
│ the President)
│
State supreme courts
│
State appellate courts
│
General jurisdiction courts
(municipal and district courts
and justices of the peace)
Supreme Court Justices (Legal Information)
Justice Term
*John Jay 1789-95
John Blair 1789-96
William Cushing 1789-1810
Robert H. Harrison 1789-90
John Rutledge 1789-91
James Wilson 1789-98
James Iredell 1790-99
Thomas Johnson 1791-93
William Paterson 1793-1806
*John Rutledge 1795 (Congress rejected
his appointment as
chief justice)
*Oliver Ellsworth 1796-99
Samuel Chase 1796-1811
Bushrod Washington 1798-1829
Alfred Moore 1799-1804
*John Marshall 1801-35
William Johnson 1804-34
Brockolst Livingston 1806-23
Thomas Todd 1807-26
Joseph Story 1811-45
Gabriel Duval 1812-35
Smith Thompson 1823-43
Robert Trimble 1826-28
John McLean 1829-61
Henry Baldwin 1830-44
James M. Wayne 1835-67
*Roger B. Taney 1836-64
Philip P. Barbour 1836-41
John Catron 1837-65
John McKinley 1837-52
Peter V. Daniel 1841-60
Samuel Nelson 1845-72
Levi Woodbury 1845-51
Robert C. Grier 1846-70
Benjamin R. Curtis 1851-57
John A. Campbell 1853-61
Nathan Clifford 1858-81
David Davis 1862-77
Samuel F. Miller 1862-90
Noah H. Swayne 1862-81
Stephen J. Field 1863-97
*Salmon P. Chase 1864-73
Joseph P. Bradley 1870-92
William Strong 1870-80
Ward Hunt 1873-82
*Morrison R. Waite 1874-88
John M. Harlan 1877-1911
Stanley Matthews 1881-89
William B. Woods 1881-87
Samuel Blatchford 1882-1903
Horace Gray 1882-1902
*Melville W. Fuller 1888-1910
Lucius Q. C. Lamar 1888-93
David J. Brewer 1890-1910
Henry B. Brown 1891-1906
George Shiras, Jr. 1892-1903
Howell E. Jackson 1893-95
Edward D. White 1894-1910
Rufus W. Peckham 1896-1909
Joseph McKenna 1898-1925
Oliver W. Holmes 1902-32
William R. Day 1903-22
William H. Moody 1906-10
*Edward D. White 1910-21
Charles E. Hughes 1910-16
Horace H. Lurton 1910-14
Joseph R. Lamar 1911-16
Willis Van Devanter 1911-37
Mahlon Pitney 1912-22
James C. McReynolds 1914-41
Louis D. Brandeis 1916-39
John H. Clarke 1916-22
*William H. Taft 1921-30
Pierce Butler 1922-39
George Sutherland 1922-38
Edward T. Sanford 1923-30
Harlan F. Stone 1925-41
*Charles E. Hughes 1930-41
Owen J. Roberts 1930-45
Benjamin N. Cardozo 1932-38
Hugo L. Black 1937-71
Stanley F. Reed 1938-57
William O. Douglas 1939-75
Felix Frankfurter 1939-62
Frank Murphy 1940-49
*Harlan F. Stone 1941-46
James F. Byrnes 1941-42
Robert H. Jackson 1941-54
Wiley B. Rutledge 1943-49
Harold H. Burton 1945-58
*Fred M. Vinson 1946-53
Tom C. Clark 1949-67
Sherman Minton 1949-56
*Earl Warren 1953-69
John Marshall Harlan 1955-71
William H. Brennan, Jr. 1956-
Charles E. Whittaker 1957-62
Potter Stewart 1958-81
Arthur J. Goldberg 1962-65
Byron R. White 1962-
Abe Fortas 1965-69
Thurgood Marshall 1967-
*Warren E. Burger 1969-86
Harry A. Blackmun 1970-
Lewis F. Powell, Jr. 1972-87
*William H. Renquist 1972-
John Paul Stevens, III 1975-
Sandra Day O'Connor 1981-
Antonin Scalia 1986-
Anthony Kennedy 1988-
Forms and Contracts (Legal Information)
The wording of the documents in the following
sections are fairly standard versions of simple
agreements, requests, or statements. They are
meant to demonstrate the content of such documents.
Because laws vary from state to state, and because
agreements can have their own special
circumstances, terms, or other complexities, it is
always a good idea to consult with a lawyer before
drawing up or signing a contract.
Certificate of Notary (Forms/Contracts) (Legal)
A certificate of notary often accompanies
agreements or statements; it may be required in
some localities. The certificate of notary might
be useful with the following documents in this
section:
Bill of Sale
Declaration of Gift
Request for Reason for Adverse Credit Action
Power of Attorney
Living Will
Privacy Act/Freedom of Information Act Request
CERTIFICATE OF NOTARY
STATE OF )
) ss:
COUNTY OF )
On this _________day of____________, 19____, before
me personally came and appeared_______________________,
known, and known to me, to be the individual described
in and who executed the foregoing instrument, and who
duly acknowledged to me that he/she executed same for
the purpose therein contained.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I hereunto set my hand and
official seal.
__________________________
Notary Public
My commission expires: _________________
Leases (Forms and Contracts) (Legal Information)
│ LEASE AGREEMENT--UNFURNISHED APARTMENT │
│ │
│ Landlord___________________________________________ │
│ │
│ ___________________________________________________ │
│ Address Phone │
│ │
│ Managing Agent ____________________________________ │
│ │
│ ___________________________________________________ │
│ Address Phone │
│ │
│ Premises __________________________________________ │
│ Address Apt. No. │
│ │
│ Tenant ____________________________________________ │
│ │
│ Tenant ____________________________________________ │
1. The LANDLORD hereby leases to __________________
(and) _________________ hereinafter termed TENANT, the
premises described above for a term of_______________
beginning __________ and ending ____________, at a
monthly rate of $________, making a total rental amount
payable under this lease of $__________.
2. The tenant agrees to pay the rent herein provided
subject to the terms and conditions set forth herein.
3. Rent shall be payable in equal monthly installments
to be paid in advance on the ______day of each month.
4. Rent shall be payable in the following manner:
(Specify above if payments are to be made by mail, and
if so, to what address. If payments are to be made to
the landlord or the landlord's agent in person, state
the place where, and the person to whom, payments are
to be made.)
5. Upon receiving any payments of rent in cash, the
landlord agrees to issue a receipt stating the tenant's
name, a description of the premises, the amount of rent
paid, the date paid and the period for which rent is
paid.
6. The landlord covenants that the leased premises are,
to the best of his or her knowledge, clean, safe, sound,
and healthful and that there exists no violation of any
applicable housing code, law or regulation of which he
or she is aware.
7. The tenant agrees to comply with all sanitary laws
ordinances and rules, and all orders of the Board of
Health or other authorities affecting the cleanliness,
occupancy, and preservation of the premises during the
term of this lease.
8. The tenant shall use the leased premises exclusively
as a private residence for no more than ____ persons,
and the tenant will not make alterations therein without
the written consent of the landlord.
9. The tenant shall keep fixtures in said apartment in
good order and repair, and the tenant shall cause to be
made, at the tenant's expense, all required repairs to
heating and air-conditioning apparatus, refrigerator,
range, electric and gas fixtures, and plumbing work
whenever such damage shall have resulted from misuse,
waste, or neglect, it being understood that the landlord
is to have same in good order and repair when giving
possession.
10. The tenant shall not keep or have in the leased
premises any article or thing of a dangerous,
inflammable, or explosive nature that might be
pronounced "hazardous" or "extra Hazardous" by any
responsible insurance company.
11. The tenant shall give prompt notice to the landlord
of any dangerous, defective, unsafe, or emergency
condition in the leased premises, said notice being
given by any suitable means. The landlord shall repair
and correct said condition promptly upon receiving
notice thereof from the tenant.
12. The landlord covenants that all essential services
are now provided and shall be provided at all times
during the term of this lease and any extension,
renewal, or continuation thereof, except where any
interruption of essential services shall be for
maintenance or for cause beyond control of the landlord
such as strike, storm, civil insurrection, fire, or acts
of God. "Essential services" hereunder are defined as
heat, hot and cold running water, a properly functioning
toilet, light in public areas, and suitable building
security.
13. The ________________________ shall pay for gas and
electricity except to the extent otherwise set forth
herein.
14. The landlord covenants that consumption of
electricity for the public halls and other common areas
and use and consumption of gas for heat or hot water in
public areas are recorded on separate meters, and that
said electricity and gas are and will at all times be
billed to and paid by the landlord.
15. The tenant covenants that during the last 30 days
of this lease, or any renewal thereof, the landlord or
his agents, with reasonable notice, and at reasonable
hours, have the privilege of showing the premises to
prospective buyers or tenants.
16. The tenant shall, at reasonable times, give access
to the landlord or his agents for any reasonable and
lawful purpose. Except in situations of compelling
emergency, or to show the premises for rental or sale,
the landlord agrees to give the tenant 24 hours' notice,
stating the time and date when access will be sought,
and the reason therefore.
17. The landlord covenants that the tenant and the
tenant's family shall have, hold, and enjoy the leased
premises for the term of this lease, subject to the
provisions and conditions set fort herein.
18. The tenant covenants that he shall not commit nor
permit a nuisance in or upon the premises, that he shall
not maliciously or be reason of gross negligence damage
the premises and that he shall not engage in conduct so
as to interfere substantially with the comfort and
safety of occupants of adjacent apartments or buildings.
19 The tenant agrees to place a security deposit with
the landlord in the amount of $_______, to be used by
the landlord for the cost of replacing and/or repairing
damage, if any, to the premises caused by the
intentional or negligent acts of the tenant.
20. The landlord agrees, within ten days of receiving
said security deposit, to deposit same in an interest-
bearing account in a banking organization, in which said
deposit shall earn interest at a rate which shall be the
prevailing rate earned by other such deposits made with
banking organizations in such circumstances.
21. The landlord agrees, within ten days of making such
deposit, to notify the tenant, in writing, of the name
and address of the banking organization in which the
deposit of security money has been make.
22. The landlord shall be entitled to receive, as
administrative expenses, an amount equal to one percent
per annum upon the security payment so deposited, which
shall be in lieu of all other administrative and
custodial expenses. The balance of the interest paid by
the banking organization shall be the money of the
tenant and shall be paid to the tenant on each
anniversary of this lease or any extension or renewal
thereof.
23. The landlord agrees to return said security deposit
to the tenant within ten days of the tenant's vacating
the leased premises subject to the terms and conditions
set herein.
24. In the event of any breach by the tenant of any of
the tenant's covenants or agreements herein, the
landlord may give the tenant five days' notice to cure
said breach, setting forth in writing which covenants or
agreements have been breached. If any breach is not
cured within said five-day period, or reasonable steps
to effectuate said cure are not commenced and diligently
pursued within said five-day period and thereafter until
said breach has been cured, the landlord may terminate
this lease upon five waiver. The tenant shall then
become liable for the cost of landlord's may terminate
this lease upon five waives. The tenant shall then
become liable for the cost of landlord's normal
redecorating and cleaning expenses related to
preparation of the premises for rental to a succeeding
tenant.
25. In the event of any breach by the landlord of any
of the landlord's covenants or agreements herein, the
tenant may give the landlord ten days' notice to cure
said breach, setting forth in writing the manner in
which said covenants and agreements have been breached.
If said breach is not cured within said ten-day period,
or reasonable steps to effectuate said cure are not
commenced and diligently pursued within said ten-day
period and thereafter until said breach has been cured,
rent hereunder shall be fully abated from the time at
which said ten days' notice expired until such time as
the landlord has fully cured the breach set forth in the
notice provided for in this paragraph.
26. In no case shall any abatement of rent hereunder be
effected where the condition set forth in the notice
provided for herein was created by the intentional or
negligent act of the tenant, but the landlord shall have
the burden of proving that rent abatement may not be
effected for the foregoing reason.
27. The landlord agrees to deliver possession of the
lease premises at the beginning of the term, the tenant
shall have the right to rescind this lease and to
recover any consideration paid under terms of this
agreement.
28. The tenant agrees that this lease shall be subject
to and subordinate to any mortgage or mortgages now on
said premises or which any owner of said premises may
hereafter at any time elect to place on said premises.
29. Unless otherwise provided for elsewhere in this
lease, any notice required or authorized herein shall be
given in writing, one copy of said notice mailed via
U.S. certified mail, return receipt requested. and one
copy of said notice mailed via U.S. first-class mail.
Notice to the tenant shall be mailed to him at the
leased premises. Notice to the landlord shall be mailed
to him, or to the managing agent, at their respective
addresses as set forth herein, or at such new address as
to which the tenant has been duly notified.
30. This lease constitutes the entire agreement between
the parties hereto. No changes shall be made herein
except by writing, signed by each party and dated. The
failure to enforce any right or remedy hereunder, and
the payment and acceptance of rent hereunder, shall not
be deemed a waiver by either party of such right or
remedy in the absence of a writing as provided for
herein.
31. In the event legal action is required to enforce
any provision of this agreement, the prevailing party
shall be entitled to recover reasonable attorney's
fees
and costs.
32. The landlord and tenant agree that this apartment
lease, when filled out and signed. is a binding legal
obligation.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have executed
this agreement.
____________________________
Landlord
By _________________________
_________________________
Witness as to landlord
_________________________
Witness as to landlord
____________________________
Tenant
_________________________
Witness as to tenant
_________________________
Witness as to tenant
____________________________
Tenant
_________________________
Witness as to tenant
_________________________
Witness as to tenant
Dated this _________ day of __________, 19____.
Seasonal Lease Agreement--Furnished
Country/Seashore House
Landlord
_______________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Address Phone
Managing Agent
_________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Address Phone
Premises
_______________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Address Phone
Tenant
_________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Address Phone
Tenant
_________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Address Phone
1. The LANDLORD hereby lease to ____________ (and)
____________ hereinafter termed of ___________
beginning__________ and ending _______________. at a
monthly rate of $_________, making a total rental amount
payable under this lease of $__________.
2. The tenant agrees to pay the rent in the following
manner:
(Landlord specify if payments are to be made by mail,
and if so, to what address. If payments are to be make
to the landlord or his agent in person, state the place
where, and the person to whom, payments should be made.)
3. The tenant, in addition to rent, agrees to pay all
charges for water, gas, fuel oil, electricity used
during the term of the lease, such charges to be paid
monthly in addition to rent.
4. Upon receipt of any payments for rent or utilities
in cash, the landlord agrees to issue a receipt stating
the tenant's name, a description of the premises, the
amount paid, the date paid, and the period for which
rent or utilities is paid.
5. The tenant agrees to place a security deposit of
$_______, to be used by the landlord at the termination
of this lease for the cost of replacing or repairing
damage, if any, to the premises or furnishings cause by
the intentional or negligent acts of the tenant.
6. The landlord agrees to return said security deposit
to the tenant upon the tenant's vacating the premises
subject to the terms and conditions herein.
7. The tenant agrees to take good care of the premises
and of the furnishings therein, and at the end of the
term of this lease to deliver up to the landlord the
premises and furnishings in good order, normal wear and
tear excepted.
8. The landlord covenants that the leased premises are,
to the best of his or her knowledge, clean, safe, sound,
and healthful and that there exists no violation of any
applicable housing code, law or regulation of which he
or she is aware, and that no such violation will be
permitted to exist during the term of this lease or any
extension thereof.
9. The tenant shall promptly comply with all laws,
orders, ordinances and regulations pertaining to his or
her use of the premises, and the tenant shall not keep
therein any article or thing of a dangerous, flammable
or explosive nature that might be pronounced "hazardous"
or "extra hazardous" by any responsible insurance
company.
10. The tenant shall, in case of fire, give immediate
notice to the proper authorities and to the landlord who
will cause the damage to be promptly repaired; but if
the premises be so damaged that the landlord shall
decide to terminate this lease, then upon ten days'
personal or written notice to the tenant this lease
shall terminate and the accrued rent shall be paid up to
the time of the fire.
11. The tenant shall do no cooking in any room used for
sleeping purposes, but shall have the right to use
jointly with any other tenants a room set aside by the
landlord for that purpose.
12. The tenant shall, at reasonable times, give access
to the landlord or his agents for any reasonable and
lawful purpose, Except in situations of compelling
emergency, the landlord shall give the tenant at least
24 hours' notice of intention to seek access, the date
and time at which access will be sought, and the reason
therefore.
13. In the event of default by the tenant, the tenant
shall remain liable for all rent due or to become due
during the term of this lease. The landlord shall have
the obligation to relet the premises in the landlord's
name for the balance of the term, or longer, and will
apply proceeds of such reletting toward the reduction of
the tenant's obligations enumerated herein.
14. The tenant shall permit the landlord or his agents
to show the premises at reasonable hours, to persons
desiring to rent or purchase same, 30 days prior to the
expiration of this lease, and will permit the notice "To
Let" or "For Sale" to be placed on said premises and
remain thereon without hindrance or molestation after
said date.
15. The tenant shall not assign this lease, nor
underlet or underlease the premises, or any part
thereof, nor make any alterations to the premises, nor
permit same to be used at any time during the term of
this lease for any other purpose that a private
residence.
16. This lease, and any attached List of Furnishings
signed by both parties and dated, and incorporated
herein by reference for all purposes, constitutes the
entire agreement between the parties hereto. No changes
shall be made herein except by writing, signed by each
party and dated.
17. In the event legal action is required to enforce
any provision of this agreement, the prevailing party
shall be entitled to recover reasonable attorney's fees
and costs.
18. This lease, when filled out and signed, is a
binding legal obligation.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have executed
this agreement.
_____________________________
Landlord
_____________________________
By
______________________
Witness as to landlord
_____________________________
Tenant
_____________________________
Tenant
_____________________
Witness as to tenant
_____________________
Witness as to tenant
"Open" Rental Agreement
THIS AGREEMENT is made this ________ day of
_______________, 19____, between ____________________
__________________________________________________, of
______________________________________________________
Street Address City State Zip
hereinafter called "Owner," and___________________, of
______________________________________________________
Street Address City State Zip
hereinafter called "Renter."
Property
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Year Make Model/Type
___________________________________________________
Capacity Horsepower Serial No.
The Owner warrants that to the best of his/her
knowledge and belief the aforesaid property is free of
any know faults or deficiencies which would affect its
safe and dependable operation under normal and prudent
usage.
Rental Period
The Owner agrees to rent the above-described
property to the Renter for a period of ________________
beginning _______________ and ending _________________.
Use of Property
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
The Renter further agrees that the rented property
(A) shall not be used beyond any rated capacity; (B)
shall not be used for any illegal purpose; (C) shall not
be used in any manner for which it was not designed,
built, or designated by the manufacturer; (D) will not
be used in a negligent manner; (E) will not be operated
by any other person without the written permission of
the Owner; and (F) will not be removed from the
designated areas of use or operation.
Area of Use or Operation
The renter agrees to operate/use the above-
described property only at the following location or
within the following described area(s):
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Insurance
The Renter hereby agrees that he/she shall fully
indemnify the Owner for any and all damage to or loss of
the rented property and any accessories or related
equipment during the term of this Agreement whether
caused by fire, theft, flood, vandalism, or any other
cause, except that which shall be determined to have
been caused by a fault or deficiency of the rented
property, accessories, or equipment.
Rental Rate
The Renter hereby agrees to pay the Owner at the
rate of $__________per_________ for the use of said
property and any accessories/equipment. Any fuel used
shall be paid for by the Renter.
Deposit
The Renter further agrees to make a deposit of
$_______ with the Owner, said deposit to be used, in the
event of loss or damage to the rented property and any
accessories/equipment during the term of this Agreement,
to defray fully or partially the cost of necessary
repairs or replacement. In the absence of any damage or
loss, said deposit shall be credited toward payment of
the rental fee and any excess shall returned to the
Renter.
Return of Property to Owner
The Renter hereby agrees to return the rented
property and any accessories/equipment to the Owner
______________________________________________________
___________________ no later than ____________________
Termination of Agreement
It is mutually agreed that the Renter shall have
the right to terminate this Agreement at any time by
payment of one full day's rental for each 24-hour period
or any part thereof, during which the Renter has
retained possession of the property and any
accessories/equipment during the term of this Agreement.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto execute this
Agreement.
(Signed) _____________________
(Renter)
(Signed) _____________________
(Owner)
Contract (Forms and Contracts) (Legal Information)
Agreement Between Owner and Contractor
THIS AGREEMENT is hereby entered in this _________
day of ________, 19____, between _____________________
__________________________________________________, of
______________________________________________________,
Street Address City Street Zip Phone
hereinafter called Owner, and ____________________, of
_____________________________________________________,
Street Address City Street Zip Phone
hereinafter called the Contractor.
The said parties, for the considerations
hereinafter mentioned, hereby agree to the following:
Description of the Work
1. The contractor shall provide all materials and
labor required to perform all of the work for:
as shown on the drawing(s), and set forth in the
specifications and/or description(s) prepared by
____________, which drawing(s) and specifications and/or
description(s) are identified by the signatures of the
parties to this agreement, and which form a part of this
agreement and are incorporated by reference herein for
all purposes.
Payment
2. Under the terms of this agreement, the Owner
agrees to pay the Contractor, for materials to be
furnished and work to be done, the sum of _____________
________________ ($)___________), subject to any
additions or deductions as hereinafter provided for in
this agreement, and to make the following payments:
and that the final payment shall be made subject to the
hereinafter stated conditions of this agreement.
It is agreed that no payment made under thais
agreement shall be considered conclusive evidence of
full performance of this contract, either wholly or in
part by the Contractor, and that acceptance of payment
shall not be considered by the Contractor to be
acceptance by the Owner of any defective materials or
workmanship.
Liens
3. Final payment shall not be due until such time
as the Contractor has provided the Owner with a release
of any liens arising from this agreement; or receipts
for payment in full for all materials and labor for
which a lien could be filed; or a bond satisfactory to
the Owner indemnifying the Owner against any lien.
Timely Completion of the Work
4. The Contractor agrees that the various portions
of the work shall be completed on or before the
following dates:
and the entire work shall be completed on or before
________ day of _________, 19_____.
In the event the work is not completed by the
aforementioned date, the Owner shall be entitled to
receive as damages from the Contractor, the sum of
___________________________________________________
($_________) per _______, it being agreed that the
aforementioned sum is reasonable, taking into account
the difficulty in determining the exact amount of
damages the Owner would sustain in the event of said
delay, and that the agreed sum shall be considered as
liquidated damages.
If the Contractor is delayed in the completing of
the work by any changes ordered in the work, by acts of
God, fire, flood, or any other unavoidable casualties;
or by labor strikes, late delivery of materials; or by
neglect of the Owner, his agents or representatives; or
by any subcontractor employed by the Contractor; the
time for completion of the work shall be extended for
the same period as the delay occasioned by any of the
aforementioned causes.
Surveys and Easements
5. The Owner shall provide and pay for all surveys.
All easements for access across the property of another,
and for permanent changes, and for the construction or
erection of structures shall also be obtained and paid
for by the Owner.
Licenses, Permits, and Building Codes
6. The Contractor shall obtain and pay for all
permits and licenses required for the prosecution and
timely completion of the work. The Contractor shall
comply with all appropriate regulations relating to the
conduct of the work and shall advise the Owner of any
specifications or drawings which are at variance
therewith.
Materials and Equipment
7. The Contractor shall provide and pay for all
materials, tools and equipment required for the
prosecution and timely completion of the work. Unless
otherwise specified in writing, all materials shall be
new and of good quality.
Samples
8. Whenever the Owner may require, the Contractor
shall at all times keep a competent foreman and a
sufficient number of workers skilled in their trades to
suitably perform the work.
The foreman shall represent the Contractor and, in
the absence of the Contractor, all instructions given by
the Owner to the foreman shall be binding upon the
Contractor as though given to the Contractor. Upon
request of the foreman, instructions shall be in
writing.
Alterations and Changes
10. All changes and deviations in the work ordered
by the Owner must be in writing, the contract sum being
increased or decreased accordingly by the Contractor to
the Owner in writing, and written approval of the Owner
shall be obtained by the Contractor before proceeding
with the ordered change or revision.
In the event that additional work, not shown on the
drawings and/or not described in the specifications, is
required to comply with laws, regulations, or building
codes, such additional work shall be considered as done
under the terms of this agreement.
Correction of Deficiencies
11. The Contractor agrees to reexecute any work
which does not conform to the drawings and
specifications, warrants the work performed, and further
agrees that he shall remedy any defects resulting from
faulty materials or workmanship which shall become
evident during a period of one year after completion of
the work. This provision shall apply with equal force
to all work performed by subcontractors as to work that
is performed by direct employees of the Contractor.
Protection of the Work
12. It shall be the responsibility of the
Contractor to reasonably protect the work the property
of the Owner, and adjacent property and the public, and
the Contractor shall be responsible for any damage,
injury or death resulting from his negligence or from
any intentional act of the Contractor or the
Contractor's employees, agents or subcontractors.
Cleaning Up
13. The Contractor shall keep the premises free
from the accumulation of waste and, upon completion of
the work shall remove all waste, equipment, and other
materials and leave the premises in broom-clean
condition.
Contractor's Liability Insurance
14. The Contractor shall obtain insurance to
protect himself against claims for property damage
arising out of his or any subcontractor's performance of
this contract; and to protect himself against claims
under provisions of Workman's Compensation and any
similar employee benefit acts, and from claims for
bodily injury, including death, due to performance of
this contract by the Contractor or any sub contractor
employed for the performance of this contract.
Owner's Liability Insurance
15. It shall be the responsibility of the Owner, at
the Owner's option, to obtain insurance to protect
himself from the contingent liability to claims for
property damage and bodily injury, including death, that
may arise from the performance of this contract.
Fire Insurance with Extended Coverage
16. The Owner shall obtain fire insurance with
extended coverage at 100 percent of the value of the
entire structure, including materials and labor related
to the work described in this agreement. Certificates
of insurance shall be filed with the Contractor if he so
requests. The aforesaid fire insurance need not include
tools, equipment, scaffolding, or forms owned or rented
by Contractor, any subcontractor, or their respective
employees.
Owner's Right to Terminate the Agreement
17. In the event the Contractor shall fail to meet
the provisions of this agreement, the Owner shall, after
sever (7) days' written notice to the Contractor and his
surety, have the right to take possession of the
premises in order to complete the work as specified in
the agreement. The Owner may deduct the cost thereof
from any payment then and thereafter due to the
Contractor or may, at his option, terminate the
agreement, take possession of amy materials, and
complete the work as he deems appropriate. If the
unpaid balance of the contracted sum exceeds the Owner's
expenses of completing the work, such excess shall be
paid to the Contractor. If such expense shall exceed
the unpaid balance, the Contractor shall pay the
difference to the Owner.
Contractor's Right to Terminate the Agreement
18. In the event the Owner shall fail to pay the
Contractor within seven (7) days after the date upon
which payment shall become due, the Contractor shall
have the right, after sever (7) days' written notice to
the Owner, to stop work and may, at his option,
terminate the agreement and recover from the Owner
payment for all work executed, plus any loss sustained,
plus a reasonable profit, plus damages.
In the event the work is stopped by any court or
other public authority for a period of thirty (30) days
through no fault of the Contractor, the Contractor shall
have the right to stop work and may, at his option,
sustained, plus a reasonable profit, plus damages.
Assignment of Rights
19. Neither the Owner nor Contractor shall have the
right to assign any rights or interest occurring under
this agreement without the written consent of the other,
nor shall the Contractor assign any sums due, or to
become due, to him under the provisions of this
agreement.
Access and Inspection
20. The Owner, Owner's representative, and public
authorities shall at all time have access to the work.
An appropriately licensed representative of the
Owner, whose authority shall be set forth in writing by
the Owner, shall have the authority to direct the
removal of any materials and the taking down of any
portions of the work failing to meet drawings,
specifications, laws, regulations, or building codes;
the reexecution of said work deemed as being done under
the provisions of Article 11 of this agreement.
Any other removal of materials or taking down of
any portions of the work as directed by the Owner's
representative shall be in writing and at the sole
expense of the Owner.
Attorney Fees
21. Attorney fees and court costs shall be paid by
the defendant in the event that judgment must be
obtained, and is, to enforce this agreement or any
breach thereof.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto set their
hands and seals the day and year written above.
__________________________ _______________________
Witness as to Owner Owner
___________________________ _______________________
Witness as to Contractor Contractor
Bill of Sale (Forms and Contracts) (Legal Information)
Bill of Sale
of
____________________________________
STATE OF )
) ss:
COUNTY OF )
KNOW YE ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS,
That I, _______________________________________ of,
______________________________________________________
Street Address City State Zip
for and in consideration of payment of the sum of
$_______, the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged,
do hereby grant, bargains, sell, and convey to:
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Street Address City Stat Zip
and his/her heirs, executors, administrators,
successors, and assigns the following property:
I hereby warrant that I am the lawful owner of said
property and that I have full legal right, power, and
authority to sell said property. I further warrant said
property to be free of all encumbrances and that I will
warrant and defend said property hereby sold against any
and all persons whomsoever.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I, the seller, have hereto set
my hand and seal this __________ day of ___________,
19____.
(Signed) ____________________
Seller
Declaration of a Gift (Forms and Contracts) (Legal)
Declaration of Gift
TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME OR MAY
CONCERN, KNOW THAT on
this ________________ day of _________, 19___ I, ______
______, of ___________________________________________,
Street City State Zip
being of sound and disposing mind and memory, do hereby
irrevocably give, bestow, and deliver up to ___________
_______________________________________________________,
of_____________________________________________________,
Street City State Zip
all of my right, title, and interest in the following
described property valued at __________________________
($________):
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I hereunto set my hand and seal on
the date above mentioned.
_____________________________
Promissory Note (Forms/Contracts) (Legal Information)
Promissory Note
$___________ Date ____________
________________ after the above date I promise to pay
(number of days)
to the order of ________________ the sum of ___________
($__________), together with interest at ______________
percent per annum, payable at _________________________
The maker and endorser of this not further agree to
waive demand, notice of nonpayment and protest, and in
case suit shall be brought for the collection hereof, or
the same has to be collected upon demand of an attorney,
to pay reasonable attorney's fees for making such
collection. Deferred interest payments to bear interest
from maturity at ____________ percent per annum, payable
semiannually.
(Signed) _____________________
Maker
(Signed) _____________________
Endorser
Due____________________
Security Agreement (Forms and Contracts) (Legal)
Security Agreement
STATE OF )
) ss:
COUNTY OF )
KNOW YE ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS,
That I, ______________________________________, of
_______________________________________________________
Street Address Apt. No. City State Zip
hereinafter called "Debtor," hereby grant to __________
_______________________________________________________
Street Address Apt No. City State Zip
hereinafter called the "Secured Party," a security
interest in the following described property as
collateral to secure payment of obligation described
herein.
Collateral
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Obligation
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Default in the payment of all or any part of the
obligation described is a default under this Agreement.
Upon such default the Secured Party may declare all of
the above-described obligation(s) immediately due and
payable and shall have the remedies of a secured party
under provisions of the Uniform Commercial Code. In the
event legal action is required to enforce any provisions
of this Agreement, the prevailing party shall be
entitled to recover reasonable attorney's fees and
costs.
The Debtor hereby agrees to exercise reasonable
caution and care in use of the herein-described
collateral; to adequately insure or keep insured the
described collateral; not to attempt to sell, assign, or
dispose of said collateral or his/her interest herein;
not to encumber nor to permit any encumbrance against
same, and not remove said collateral from the county
where the Debtor resides without written permission of
the Secured Party.
EXECUTED this __________ day of _________, 19_____.
(Signed) _____________________
Debtor
(Signed) _____________________
Secured Party
Request for Reason for Adverse Credit Action (Forms)
Date: ____________________
REQUEST FOR REASON FOR ADVERSE CREDIT ACTION
Dear
On __________________, I was notified that my
application for credit dated ______________ was denied
based upon information received by you from a source
other than a consumer credit reporting agency.
Pursuant to my right under the Fair Credit
Reporting Act, Title 15 USC, Sec. 1681m(b), I hereby
request that the nature of the information received by
you be disclosed to me.
Please forward such information to me at the above
address.
Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter.
Sincerely,
Power of Attorney (Forms and Contracts) (Legal)
Power of Attorney
STATE OF )
) ss:
COUNTY OF )
KNOW YE ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS,
That I, ______________________________________, of
______________________________________________________,
Street Address Apt No. City State Zip
do hereby make, constitute, and appoint _______________
___________________________________________________, of
______________________________________________________,
Street Address City State Zip
as my true and lawful Attorney-in-Fact, for me and in my
name, place, and stead to:
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
I further give and grant to my said Attorney-in-
Fact full power and authority to do and perform every
act necessary and proper to be done in the exercise of
any of the foregoing powers as fully as I might or could
do if personally present, with full power of
substitution and revocation, hereby ratifying and
confirming all that my Attorney-in-fact shall lawfully
do, or cause to be done by virtue hereof.
This instrument may not be changed orally.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand and
seal this _______ day of _________, 19____.
(Signed) _____________________
Living Will (Forms and Contracts) (Legal Information)
Living Will
Directive to Physicians:
I, ___________________________________________, of
______________________________________________________
Street Address Apt. No.
______________________________________________________,
City State Zip
being of sound mind, do hereby willfully and
voluntarily make known my desire that my life not be
prolonged under any of the following conditions, and do
hereby further declare:
1. If I should, at any time, have an incurable
condition caused by any disease or illness, or by any
accident or injury, and be determined by any two or
more physicians to be in a terminal condition whereby
the use of "heroic measures" or the application of
life-sustaining procedures would only serve to delay
the moment of my death, and where my attending
physician has determined that my death is imminent
whether or not such "heroic measures" or life-
sustaining measures are employed, I direct that such
measures and procedures be withheld or withdrawn and
that I be permitted to die naturally.
2. In the event of my inability to give directions
regarding the application of life-sustaining procedures
or the use of "heroic measures", it is my intention
that this directive shall be honored by my family and
physicians as my final expression of my right to refuse
medical and surgical treatment, and my acceptance of
the consequences of such refusal.
3. I am mentally, emotionally, and legally
competent to make this directive and I fully understand
its import.
4. I reserve the right to revoke this directive at
any time.
5. This directive shall remain in force until
revoked.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand
and seal this ________ day of ____________, 19___.
(Signed)___________________________
Declaration of Witness
The declarant is personally known to me and I
believe him/her to be of sound mind and emotionally and
legally competent to make the herein-contained
Directive to Physicians. I am not related to the
declarant by blood or marriage, nor would I be entitled
to any portion of the declarant's estate upon his/her
decease, nor am I an attending physician of the
declarant, nor an employee of the attending physician,
nor an employee of a health care facility in which the
declarant is a patient, nor a patient in a health care
facility in which the declarant is a patient, nor am I
a person who has any claim against any portion of the
estate of the declarant upon his/her decease.
(Signed)___________________________
Witness
___________________________
Address
___________________________
(Signed)___________________________
Witness
___________________________
Address
___________________________
Privacy Act/Freedom of Information Act Request (Forms)
Attn:
This is a request under provisions of Title 5 USC,
Sec. 552, the Freedom of Information Act, and Title 5
USC, Sec. 552a, the Privacy Act.
Please furnish me with copies of all records on me
retrievable by the use of an individual identifier and
by the use of any combination of identifiers (e.g.,
name + date of birth + Social Security number, etc.)
that are contained in the following systems of records:
In order to identify myself and to facilitate your
search of records systems, I provide the following
information:
_______________________________________________________
Last Name First Middle
_______________________________________________________
Street City State Zip
_______________________________________________________
Date of Birth Place of Birth Sex Soc. Sec. #
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
In the event that any part or all of my records
are withheld, I request a complete list of all records
being withheld and the specific exemption being claimed
for the withholding of each.
In the event that search and copying fees are
estimated to exceed $________, I request an opportunity
to review such records, or to have a duly authorized
representative review such records, in order to select
those to be copied.
If you have any questions regarding this request,
please telephone me at _____________ weekdays between
_______ and _______ or write to me at the above
address.
As provided for by Sec. 552(a)(6)(i) of the
Freedom of Information Act, I shall expect to receive a
reply within ten (10) business days.
Sincerely,
Statute of Limitations (Legal Information)
Federal Statute of Limitations
Capital Offenses
There is no limitation on prosecution in cases
punishable by death and in the crime of murder, even
when the death penalty is not prescribed.
Noncapital Offenses
The limitation on noncapital offenses is five years,
although Congress may make specific exceptions.
State Statute of Limitations
Varies by crime and by state.
Copyrights (Legal Information)
The copyright law protects works of authorship,
published or unpublished, in any tangible medium
of expression. Under this law, creators of, among
other things, books, theatrical works, computer
programs, videotapes, movies, music, lyrics,
choreography, pantomimes, and recordings can
secure exclusive rights to perform, display, or
reproduce their works. These individuals have a
property right in their work and may license it
for reproduction or other use.
However, anyone may make "fair use" of copyrighted
material. The definition of this term depends on
who is using the material, how much is used, the
percentage of the entire work that the excerpt
used constitutes, the purpose of the use, and the
effect such use may have on the ability of the
copyright holder to derive income from his or her
creation. For example, a teacher may be able to
photocopy a few pages of a book for use in a
classroom, but an advertising firm may be entitled
to quote no more than a few lines from the same
book in an ad without obtaining permission from
the copyright holder. And while it may be lawful
to quote 200 words from a novel without asking
permission, the same would not be true in the case
of a poem if the 200 words constituted the whole
poem.
The most recent version of the copyright law took
effect in 1978. Works created before 1973 are
protected for 28 years from the time they were
first published. The copyright may be renewed for
an additional 47 years. Works created since the
beginning of 1978 may be copyrighted for the life
of the author plus 50 years after his or her
death. For works made for hire, and for anonymous
and pseudonymous works (unless the author's
identity is revealed in Copyright Office records),
the term is 100 years from creation or 75 years
from first publication, whichever period is
shorter.
Copyrighted works must display a notice of
copyright. This includes the word "Copyright," or
the abbreviation "Copr.," the year the work was
first published, and the name of the copyright
holder. The copyright symbol, a "C" in a circle
(except for recordings, which use a circled "P"),
must also be displayed. A copy of a work published
in the United States bearing this symbol must be
deposited with the Library of Congress.
Displaying the notice of copyright is sufficient
to establish exclusive rights to an original work.
However, formal registration of a copyright claim
is a prerequisite to filing suit for infringement.
Subject to certain exceptions, the remedies of
statutory damages and attorneys' fees are not
available for those infringements occurring before
registration.
The United States has copyright relations with
more than 70 countries. Under this reciprocal
agreement, works of American authors are protected
in those countries and the works of their authors
are protected in the United States. The basic
feature of this protection is "national
treatment," under which the alien author is
treated by a country in the same manner that it
treats its own authors.
Filing for copyright registration presently costs
$10. For more information and application forms,
write to:
Register of Copyrights
The Library of Congress
Washington, DC. 20557
Patents (Legal Information)
Congressional grants of patents and copyrights are
based on Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution,
which reads "Congress shall have power ... to
promote the progress of science and useful arts,
by securing for limited times to authors and
inventors the exclusive rights to their respective
writings and discoveries."
A patent is the grant of a property right to an
inventor, excluding others from making, using, or
selling his or her invention. The invention may
consist of "any new and useful process, machine,
manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new
and useful improvements thereof ...." It also
covers ornamental designs and plants and may soon
include new forms of animal life. But no one can
patent printed matter or a way of doing business.
In addition to being useful, the invention must be
new. If the inventor describes the invention in a
printed publication or uses the invention
publicly, or places it on sale, he or she must
apply for a patent before one year has gone by;
otherwise, any right to a patent will be lost.
The Patent and Trademark Office currently receives
about 100,000 applications for patents each year,
and it has granted more than 4.5 million since
1790. The agency grants new patents only after a
diligent search of the records to make sure that
the patent is original. Inventors may use its
Search Room (patent research library) in
Washington or any of the many Patent Depository
Libraries throughout the United States to conduct
their own searches before filing.
Although inventors can handle their own
applications, the agency advises that the process
is complex enough to require a patent attorney-ma
lawyer who also has a degree in engineering or
physical science.
Only the inventor may apply for a patent. If the
inventor is dead or incapacitated, legal
representatives or a guardian may apply. If two or
more persons shared the ideas for the invention,
they may apply jointly. But if one person had the
idea and the other financed its development, only
the person with the original idea may apply.
"Small entities" independent inventors, small
businesses, and nonprofit organizations-pay a
modest filing fee; others pay a higher one.
The application consists of a written description
of the invention, with "claims" relating its
distinguishing features-ways in which it does
things in an entirely novel manner or improves
significantly on previous inventions. If
applicable, pen-and-ink or color drawings must
accompany the description. Models are usually
unnecessary. The Patent Office keeps all documents
submitted in application for a patent strictly
confidential while the application process runs it
course.
It is not uncommon for some or all of the claims
to be rejected on the first action by the patent
examiner; relatively few applications are allowed
as filed. The applicant responds to the examiner's
objections with clarification and explanation. If
the Patent Office finally rejects the application,
the inventor can take the case to the Board of
Patent Appeals and Interferences. If the board
turns down the application, the inventor has
recourse either to the Court of Appeals for the
Federal Circuit or to a civil suit in U.S.
District Court in Washington, D.C.
In about 1 percent of all applications, two or
more applications are filed by different inventors
claiming substantially the same patentable
invention. Only one can receive a patent, and the
procedure to determine that one is called an
"interference." Each party to such a proceeding
must submit evidence of facts proving when the
invention was made. As in the case of the
rejection of any other patent, the decision of the
examiners can be appealed.
If the patent is granted, it is good for 17 years.
The fee for granting a patent is presently $280
for small entities and $560 for large ones.
Inventors also must pay maintenance fees after 3
1/2, 7 1/2, and 11 1/2 years. Currently, these
fees for small entities are $225, $445, and $670;
for large ones, they are $450, $890, and $1,340.
Once a patent is granted, all documents relating
to it become available for public inspection. The
Patent Office can, however, keep such information
secret if its commissioner decides that such
information is vital to the national security.
As with any other property, patents may be sold or
assigned in whole or in part to someone else. The
patent holder also may license others to use the
process or produce the product under specific
conditions. The Patent Office cautions that a part
owner of a patent, no matter how small his or her
interest, may make, use, and sell the invention
for his or her own profit without regard to the
other owner and may sell the interest or any part
of it, or license others to use or make it.
Therefore, inventors should be very careful when
agreeing to sell a part interest in their patent.
Patented articles must be marked with the word
"Patent" and the number of the patent. Some people
use "Patent Pending" or "Patent Applied For" to
inform others of the status of a patent claim, but
such words have no legal effect. To combat
infringement of a patent, a patentee may bring a
civil suit.
Patents granted by the Patent and Trademark Office
protect inventions in the United States only.
However, the United States is a signatory of
several treaties that facilitate applications for
patent protection in other countries. For further
information, write to:
Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks
Washington, DC 20231
Legal Terms
accessory (Legal Terms)
An individual who helps another person commit
or try to commit a crime before the fact, but
who is not present at the commission of the
crime. An accessory during the fact witnesses
a crime but does not do what he or she could do
to prevent it; one who helps another avoid
arrest for the commission of a crime is an
accessory after the fact.
accomplice (Legal Terms)
An individual who joins with another to commit
a crime. The accomplice bears equal
responsibility under the law.
actus reus (Legal Terms)
A wrongful act, as opposed to mens rea, or
thoughts and intentions behind the act. For
example, in a murder, homicide is the actus
reus, and "malice aforethought" is the mens
rea.
adjudication (Legal Terms)
A final judgment in a legal proceeding.
affidavit (Legal Terms)
A written statement sworn or affirmed to be
true before a person legally authorized to
administer an oath.
age of consent (Legal Terms)
The minimum age for marrying without parental
consent; also, the minimum age for consensual
sexual relations. Sexual intercourse at an
earlier age can result in a charge of assault
or statutory rape, even if both people
participate willingly.
amicus curiae (Legal Terms)
Latin for "friend of the court." A person or
organization not party to a case who submits
information useful to the court in that
proceeding. Amicus curiae briefs are generally
submitted when the suit involves matters of
wide public interest.
appeal (Legal Terms)
A request to a superior court to reverse the
decision of a lower court or government agency
or to grant a new trial.
appellate court (Legal Terms)
A court whose jurisdiction is confined to
reviewing decisions of lower courts or
agencies.
arraignment (Legal Terms)
A court procedure in which formal charges are
brought against a defendant, who is advised of
his or her constitutional rights and may have
the opportunity to offer a plea.
assault (Legal Terms)
A threatened or attempted physical attack in
which the attacker appears to have the ability
to bring about bodily harm if not stopped;
aggravated assault involves an attack
perpetrated with recklessness and intent to
injure seriously, or an assault with a deadly
weapon. Battery is an assault in which the
assailant makes contact.
attachment (Legal Terms)
A court writ authorizing legal authorities to
seize property that may be needed for the
payment of a judgment in a judicial proceeding.
bail (Legal Terms)
Security provided to ensure the presence of a
defendant in court during the course of a case.
Defendants raising this security are said to
"make bail"; those fleeing and forfeiting the
security have "jumped bail." The actual
document securing the defendant's release is
the bail bond.
battery (Legal Terms)
See assault.
bench warrant (Legal Terms)
A court order authorizing a public official to
arrest a person and bring that individual to
court.
bequest (Legal Terms)
Personal property bequeathed (given as a gift)
in a will. Devise is the term for real property
handed down through a will.
bill of particulars (Legal Terms)
The specific events to be dealt with in a
criminal trial, presented to the defendant so
that he or she may effectively prepare a
defense.
bind over (Legal Terms)
Action of a lower court shifting a case to a
grand jury or superior court when the inferior
court believes that a crime has been committed.
Also, a court order to jail a defendant during
the course of a proceeding.
boilerplate (Legal Terms)
Language uniformly found in certain types of
documents-for instance, the "small print" in a
contract that people often neglect to read.
breach of contract (Legal Terms)
Failure to do something required in a contract.
breaking and entering (Legal Terms)
The illegal entrance into premises with criminal
intent. Simply pushing a door open and walking in
may constitute breaking and entering.
brief (Legal Terms)
A document in which a lawyer makes his or her
client's case by raising legal points and citing
authorities.
burglary (Legal Terms)
Unlawful presence in a building with the aim of
committing a felony or taking something of
value. See also robbery.
capacity (Legal Terms)
The ability to understand the facts and
significance of one's behavior. A defendant
cannot be convicted of a crime in which he or
she did not have the legal capacity to
comprehend it.
cease and desist order (Legal Terms)
A legal order preventing a person or
organization from continuing a specific
activity. A mandatory injunction, on the other
hand, orders the performance of a specified
act.
certiorari (Legal Terms)
A writ in which a superior court commands an
inferior court to deliver the records of a
proceeding to the superior body so that it may
decide whether there is basis for appeal.
character witness (Legal Terms)
See witness.
chattel (Legal Terms)
Personal, rather than real, property; a chattel
mortgage, for example, is a loan to buy an
expensive item, such as a car, in which the item,
or chattel, is security for the debt.
circumstantial evidence (Legal Terms)
Evidence based not on direct observation or
knowledge but rather implied from things
already known.
codicil (Legal Terms)
An addition to a will altering it.
common-law marriage (Legal Terms)
A relationship in which two people live together
as husband and wife without formally getting
married.
community property (Legal Terms)
Property owned by husband and wife jointly.
competency hearing (Legal Terms)
A procedure to determine legal capacity, for
example, of a defendant in a criminal case, to
understand the charges, and to cooperate with a
lawyer in preparing a defense. Compos mentis is a
finding of competence to stand trial; noncompos
mentis, a lack of competence to go to trial.
complaint (Legal Terms)
The first statement of facts (in a civil
proceeding) or accusation (in a criminal case).
compos mentis (Legal Terms)
See competency hearing.
consent decree (Legal Terms)
An agreement between two parties sanctioned by
the court, for example, between a company and
the government involving alleged violations of
antitrust laws. In the consent decree, the
company would agree to cease such practices
without formally admitting guilt.
conspiracy (Legal Terms)
The plotting by two or more people to break the
law.
contempt of court (Legal Terms)
Anything done to hinder the work of the court.
Civil contempt involves failure to follow a
court order benefiting another party in a case, as
in the failure to pay court-ordered damages;
criminal contempt consists of the obstruction of
justice.
contract (Legal Terms)
A commitment between two or more parties,
enforceable by law.
corpus delicti (Legal Terms)
The object upon which a crime has been committed.
The term does not necessarily refer to a body,
although a corpse with a knife in its back would
be an example in an alleged homicide.
corroborating evidence (Legal Terms)
Additional evidence, or evidence different in
kind, that backs up proof already offered in a
proceeding.
criminal negligence (Legal Terms)
See negligence.
cross-examination (Legal Terms)
The interrogation of a witness to discredit or
show in new light testimony already offered by
that person in direct examination.
custody (Legal Terms)
In a divorce case, the right to house, care for,
and discipline a child.
damages (Legal Terms)
A court-ordered monetary award to someone hurt by
another.
decree (Legal Terms)
A court's decision in a case; its judgment.
de facto (Legal Terms)
A practice whose sanction is custom, as opposed to
de jure, a practice formally backed by law.
defamation (Legal Terms)
The damaging of another person's reputation
through writing (libel) or speech (slander).
default judgment (Legal Terms)
A court determination made against a defendant who
fails to show up in court.
defendant (Legal Terms)
A person or institution in a legal proceeding
being sued or accused.
de jure (Legal Terms)
See de facto.
deposition (Legal Terms)
A pretrial interrogation of a witness, usually in
a lawyer's office.
directed verdict (Legal Terms)
A verdict in a civil trial declared by the court
before the jury gets the case. Judges render this
verdict when the facts and the law in a case point
to a definite conclusion. There cannot be a
directed verdict of guilty in a criminal trial,
since that would violate a defendant's right to
trial by jury.
discovery (Legal Terms)
A pretrial process that enables one side in a
litigation to elicit information from the other
side relating to facts in the case.
disorderly conduct (Legal Terms)
A broad spectrum of offenses, such as drunkenness
or fighting, that disturb the public peace.
district attorney (Legal Terms)
See prosecutor.
docket (Legal Terms)
A list of cases to be tried by a court-its
calendar; also, a summary of a court's activities.
double jeopardy (Legal Terms)
The constitutional right not to be tried twice for
the same criminal offense.
due process (Legal Terms)
The general doctrine that legislation must promote
the legitimate aims of government (substantive due
process) and that nobody can be deprived of
liberty or property through unfair procedures
(procedural due process).
easement (Legal Terms)
A right to use another person's land.
emancipation (Legal Terms)
The parental yielding of authority over, control
over, and responsibility for a minor.
eminent domain (Legal Terms)
The right of the state to convert private property
to public property.
entrapment (Legal Terms)
A defense in which a defendant seeks to show that
he or she would not have committed an unlawful act
if not tricked into doing it by law enforcement
officials.
estate (Legal Terms)
Everything an individual owns.
eviction (Legal Terms)
The dispossessing of a tenant from land or
premises he or she has occupied.
evidence (Legal Terms)
Testimony, documents, and objects used to prove
matters of fact at a trial.
exclusionary rule (Legal Terms)
A rule preventing introduction at a criminal trial
of evidence obtained in violation of the
Constitution's prohibition against unreasonable
searches and seizures, even if that evidence would
otherwise be admissable. See also search and
seizure.
executor (Legal Terms)
A person appointed to administer the provisions of
a will.
eyewitness (Legal Terms)
One who can testify as to what happened because he
or she was there when it happened and saw it;
technically, one who offers testimony of something
overheard is an "earwitness."
fair hearing (Legal Terms)
A special administrative procedure set up to
ensure that a person will not be harmed or denied
his or her rights without due process of law
before a court can intervene; examples of
extraordinary circumstances calling for a fair
hearing include loss of welfare benefits and
deportation.
fair use (Legal Terms)
The conditions under which one can use material
copyrighted by another.
false imprisonment (Legal Terms)
See kidnapping.
false pretense (Legal Terms)
Taking another's property through trickery. This
crime involves intent to secure title to the
property through some seemingly legal transaction.
See also larceny.
fee (Legal Terms)
Unencumbered ownership of property; freehold
is land held in fee.
felony (Legal Terms)
A serious crime, as opposed to a misdemeanor;
the distinction is often made in terms of the
applicable punishment, felonies being punishable
by a certain minimum prison term-under federal
law, a year.
felony murder (Legal Terms)
Homicide committed in the course of another crime,
such as a burglary.
fiduciary (Legal Terms)
A person in a position of trust who acts for the
benefit of another person; examples are executors,
corporate directors, and infant guardians.
finding (Legal Terms)
The basis in fact or law for a judgment. See
also judgment.
fraud (Legal Terms)
The injury of a person or group of persons through
deceit.
freehold (Legal Terms)
See fee.
frisk (Legal Terms)
See stop and frisk.
garnishment (Legal Terms)
Legal impoundment of funds owed by C to B to pay
off B's debt to A; for example, the seizing of a
person's pay at work to pay off a debt owed to
another party.
grand jury (Legal Terms)
A jury of from 12 to 23 people empowered to look
into possible criminal activity in an area, report
on it, and indict individuals when it finds
evidence that they have committed crimes.
guardian (Legal Terms)
A person entrusted to look out for the interests
of a minor or an incompetent person. The specific
fiduciary relationship is defined by law and court
orders.
habeas corpus (Legal Terms)
The order by a judge to have a prisoner brought to
court to determine the legality of the
imprisonment.
hearsay evidence (Legal Terms)
Statements made outside of court attesting to some
fact, where the person making the statements may
not be cross-examined or otherwise scrutinized;
for example, if A testifies in court that he or
she heard B say something, in most cases, B's
statement will not be admissible as evidence.
homicide (Legal Terms)
An act in which one person causes the death of
another. See also manslaughter; murder.
hung jury (Legal Terms)
A jury that is unable to reach a verdict.
immunity from prosecution (Legal Terms)
Exemption of a witness from prosecution to thwart
a refusal to testify based on constitutional
rights. The witness cannot be prosecuted on the
basis of anything he or she says while testifying
under such immunity.
in camera (Legal Terms)
A judicial proceeding from which the public is
excluded. Although the term literally means "in
chambers," the proceeding can be held anywhere
outside of open court.
indictment (Legal Terms)
A document, delivered to a grand jury, in which a
public prosecutor accuses one or more persons of
committing a crime. If the grand jury thinks the
evidence submitted is sufficient to warrant a
trial, it will endorse the indictment as a true
bill.
infant (Legal Terms)
A person who has not reached the age of majority
(usually 18), at which he or she enjoys the full
rights of citizenship and is legally responsible
for his or her acts.
information (Legal Terms)
A prosecuting attorney's written accusation of
criminal activity, similar to an indictment but
not presented to a grand jury. Information may be
used to initiate proceedings against defendants in
state, but not federal, courts.
injunction (Legal Terms)
A court order preventing someone from doing a
specific act.
injury (Legal Terms)
The violation of a person's rights to the point
where he or she suffers any kind of damage,
including financial.
in loco parentis (Legal Terms)
A person or institution acting toward a minor "in
place of parents" without a formal adoption
procedure; for example, the relationship between
a school and a student.
inquest (Legal Terms)
A coroner's investigation of the cause of death.
in rem (Legal Terms)
A proceeding involving property without reference
to the claims of people on that property.
insanity (Legal Terms)
A mental state in which one lacks legal
responsibility.
intestate (Legal Terms)
Without a will.
judgment (Legal Terms)
A court's final decision in a case.
jury (Legal Terms)
A representative group of people who determine
issues of fact at a trial. The Constitution
guarantees the right to trial by jury for all
crimes punishable by imprisonment for more than
six months. In civil trials, juries range in
number from six to twelve people. State trial
juries do not need a unanimous vote to convict
(with the exception of six-person juries), but
federal juries do.
kidnapping (Legal Terms)
The illegal seizure and removal of a person
without his or her consent. False imprisonment
involves illegally confining a person against his
or her will without moving that person.
larceny (Legal Terms)
The act of gaining the use or possession of
property through an overtly illegal act, as in
stealing a car. Grand larceny involves the theft
of an object worth more than a specified amount.
See also robbery.
leading question (Legal Terms)
A lawyer's question to a witness that
predetermines the answer, thus putting words in
the witness' mouth. Such questions are legitimate
during direct examination but not during
cross-examination.
libel (Legal Terms)
See defamation.
magistrate (Legal Terms)
An official, such as a justice of the peace, who
performs low-level judicial functions.
majority, age of (Legal Terms)
See infant.
malfeasance (Legal Terms)
Wrongful conduct by a public official.
Misfeasance is the misperforming of a proper
act; nonfeasance, the nonperformance of an act
that a person has agreed to or is duty-bound to
do.
malice aforethought (Legal Terms)
An antisocial state of mind, often at issue in a
murder trial, marked by cruelty and recklessness
for which there is no justification. See also
manslaughter.
malpractice (Legal Terms)
Wrongful conduct by a professional, either through
negligence or lack of ethics.
mandamus (Legal Terms)
A writ commanding someone, often a public
official, to perform some act. Mandamus is
frequently issued when time is of the essence.
mandatory injunction (Legal Terms)
See cease and desist order.
manslaughter (Legal Terms)
Homicide without malice aforethought. Voluntary
manslaughter is homicide with mitigating
circumstances, for example, a fight in which one
person kills another; involuntary
manslaughter, killing through criminal negligence,
as in drunk driving.
material witness (Legal Terms)
See witness.
mens rea (Legal Terms)
See actus reus.
Miranda rule (Legal Terms)
The obligation of the police, when interrogating
someone after an arrest, to read to that person
his or her constitutional rights to a lawyer and
to remain silent until advised by counsel, and to
inform the suspect that anything he or she says
may be used as evidence.
misdemeanor (Legal Terms)
See felony.
misfeasance (Legal Terms)
See malfeasance.
mistrial (Legal Terms)
The ending of a trial before the rendering of a
verdict. Possible causes include a hung jury or
the incapacity of the judge, jurors, or attorneys.
mitigating circumstances (Legal Terms)
Conditions under which a crime was committed that
tend to reduce the punishment in a case, for
example, the circumstances leading to a crime of
passion.
moral turpitude (Legal Terms)
Baseness, depravity, vileness, or extreme
antisocial behavior.
murder (Legal Terms)
Homicide with malice aforethought. Murder in the
second degree generally involves less
premeditation than the same crime in the first
degree.
negligence (Legal Terms)
Carelessness, acting without reasonable caution,
putting another person at risk of injury, or not
performing an act that one is obliged to do, with
the same consequences. In criminal negligence
there is the added element of recklessness.
next of kin (Legal Terms)
Closest blood relatives or, lacking them, the next
closest relations, even if they are related only
by marriage.
nolo contendere (Legal Terms)
A defendant's statement that the charges in a case
will not be contested.
noncompos mentis (Legal Terms)
See competency hearing.
nonfeasance (Legal Terms)
See malfeasance.
notary public (Legal Terms)
A person with the authority to administer oaths,
witness documents, and accept depositions.
on the merits (Legal Terms)
A court judgment resting on the facts in the case
rather than on a legal technicality.
open court (Legal Terms)
Judicial proceedings fully accessible to the
public.
pardon (Legal Terms)
An act by which a governor or the president can
excuse a person from punishment and restore his or
her civil rights; however, a pardon usually does
not wipe out a conviction.
parole (Legal Terms)
The release of a person from prison under
controlled conditions. The parolee must fulfill
certain requirements, such as reporting regularly
to a parole officer.
plaintiff (Legal Terms)
The person who initiates a lawsuit.
plea (Legal Terms)
A defendant's answer to a complaint.
plea bargaining (Legal Terms)
A deal between prosecutor and accused, in which
the accused pleads guilty in return for lesser
punishment than might be received at the end of a
trial.
polling the jury (Legal Terms)
A proceeding in which the judge asks each juror,
after the verdict has been rendered, to restate
his or her decision in the case.
power of attorney (Legal Terms)
A document in which one person authorizes another
to act as an agent on his or her behalf.
preliminary hearing (Legal Terms)
A proceeding held after an arrest but before an
indictment to see whether there is sufficient
evidence to continue holding the prisoner and
proceed with a case.
premeditation (Legal Terms)
Calculation, often a factor in determining the
degree of guilt in a murder case.
presentment (Legal Terms)
A grand jury's accusation, based not on material
presented to it by a prosecutor, but rather on its
own investigation.
preventive detention (Legal Terms)
The holding of a prisoner without bail; also
accomplished by setting bail so high that the
prisoner cannot meet it.
probable cause (Legal Terms)
The rule under which police need to have a
reasonable belief that someone has committed a
crime before making an arrest, or that the object
for which they are searching in connection with a
crime is at a specific location before they search
for and seize it. See also search and seizure.
probate (Legal Terms)
The process in which the legitimacy of a will is
established.
probation (Legal Terms)
The procedure under which a court, rather than
imprisoning a person convicted of a crime, leaves
that individual at liberty but under court
supervision.
pro bono (Legal Terms)
Designating the taking of a case by an attorney
without a fee. Pro bono cases are often defended
on behalf of groups backing important causes.
process (Legal Terms)
A writ requiring that a person appear in court.
prosecutor (Legal Terms)
The person responsible for bringing the accused to
justice. Depending on the level on which he or she
functions, the prosecutor is usually called a
district attorney, county prosecutor, federal
prosecutor, or, if appointed by a legislature to
conduct an investigation, special prosecutor.
protective custody (Legal Terms)
The imprisonment of an individual for his or her
own protection.
public defender (Legal Terms)
A lawyer provided by the state to an accused
person who cannot afford or who refuses counsel.
reasonable doubt (Legal Terms)
The criteria against which jurors are told to
weigh the evidence in a criminal case. The jurors
must find the prosecution's case proven beyond the
point at which a reasonable, average, prudent
person would be convinced before returning a
verdict of guilty.
release on one's own recognizance (Legal Terms)
Release of the accused on a promise to appear in
court rather than on bail.
restraining order (Legal Terms)
A temporary order granted to prevent some action
until a hearing can be held on that action.
robbery (Legal Terms)
The use of violence or intimidation to seize
another person's property. See also burglary.
search and seizure (Legal Terms)
A law enforcement procedure involving the search
of a person or premises when police have probable
cause to suspect they will find and be able to
seize criminal evidence. See also probable cause;
search warrant.
search warrant (Legal Terms)
A court order authorizing law enforcement
officials to look for objects or people involved
in the commission of a crime and to produce them
in court; the order stipulates the places that the
officials may search.
self-defense (Legal Terms)
A plea by which a person may justify the use of
force to ward off an attack if the attack was
unprovoked, retreat was impossible, and the threat
of harm seemed imminent.
self-incrimination (Legal Terms)
An act in a legal proceeding by which a person
says something that incriminates himself or
herself; under the Fifth Amendment, a person
cannot be forced to make such a statement.
show cause order (Legal Terms)
A court order, issued at the request of one party,
requiring a second party to convince the court,
usually within a matter of days, that a specific
act should not be carried out or allowed.
slander (Legal Terms)
see defamation.
statute of limitations (Legal Terms)
The time limitation for bringing a legal action.
statutory rape (Legal Terms)
A criminal offense involving sex with a girl under
the age of consent; the age differs in various
states.
stay (Legal Terms)
A court order preventing some act or proceeding
until a specific condition is met or the stay is
lifted.
stop and frisk (Legal Terms)
A procedure in which police who believe a suspect
may be carrying a weapon with intent to use it can
stop that person and search the suspect's outer
layer of clothing for a weapon.
subpoena (Legal Terms)
A court writ requiring a person to appear to
testify at a judicial proceeding at a specific
time and place under penalty of law.
summons (Legal Terms)
A notice to appear in court as a defendant in a
suit.
testament (Legal Terms)
See will.
tort (Legal Terms)
A wrongful act, not involving a contract, that
damages someone's interests, for example, injuries
caused by the failure of a public official to
perform his or her duties.
true bill (Legal Terms)
See indictment.
verdict (Legal Terms)
A judge or jury's finding of fact. The judgment,
not the verdict, is the final determination in a
case; for example, a judge can declare a jury's
verdict "false"- that is, invalid because it is
not based on the evidence.
voir dire examination (Legal Terms)
A term usually applied to the interrogation of
people to see whether they qualify as jurors. The
term, which is French for "speak the truth," also
describes a trial hearing without the jury present
to determine a matter of fact or law, such as the
validity of a confession.
waiver (Legal Terms)
The conscious forgoing of a legal right.
warrant (Legal Terms)
A court writ directing a public employee to do
something, for example, to make an arrest.
will (Legal Terms)
A document specifying the disposition of a
person's property after his or her death. Most
states require two or three people to witness a
will. Although "will" generally means the same
thing as "testament," the latter applies only to
the distribution of personal, as opposed to real,
property.
witness (Legal Terms)
A person who testifies in court under oath. A
material witness is one whose testimony is
central to a case; a character witness
testifies to the character of an individual.
writ (Legal Terms)
A written order from a judicial body commanding a
law enforcement officer to do something specified.
wrongful death statute (Legal Terms)
A law that enables survivors or the person
administering an estate to sue for money damages
in a death caused by some person or persons. The
law is based on the fact that the death deprives
survivors or the estate of the services or income
of the deceased.
youthful offender (Legal Terms)
One who, at a judge's discretion, may be sentenced
with special consideration given to his or her
age. The category applies to defendants older than
juveniles (no longer minors) but not yet, in the
opinion of the judge, adults.
Supreme Court Decisions
The following Supreme Court decisions are among
the most significant in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries.
1803 Marbury v. Madison. (Supreme Court Decisions)
For the first time, the Supreme Court ruled an act
of Congress unconstitutional, establishing the
principle of judicial review.
1819 McCullock v. Maryland. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The Court's ruling upheld the constitutionality of
the creation of the Bank of the United States and
denied to the states the power to tax such an
institution because, as Justice John Marshall put
it, "the power to tax is the power to destroy."
1819 Trustees of Dartmouth College v.Woodward.
The Court ruled that a state could not arbitrarily
alter the terms of a contract. Although this case
applied to a college, its implications widened in
later years when the same principle was used to
limit states' ability to interfere with business
contracts.
1857 Dred Scott v. Sanford. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The Missouri Compromise was declared
unconstitutional because it deprived a person of
his property (a slave) without due process of law.
This was only the second time that the Court had
asserted the power of judicial review. The
decision also stated that slaves are not
citizens of any state or of the United States.
1877 Munn v. Illinois. (Supreme Court Decisions)
States were allowed to regulate businesses when "a
public interest" was involved. This principle was
weakened by rulings in other cases in the late
nineteenth century.
1895 U.S. v. E. C. Knight Co. (Supreme Decisions)
In stating that manufacturing and commerce are not
connected, and that the Sherman Anti-Trust Act
could not be applied to manufacturers, the Court
seriously impaired the government's ability to
regulate monopolies.
1896 Plessy v. Ferguson. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The Supreme Court ruled that state laws enforcing
segregation by race are constitutional if
accommodations are equal as well as separate.
Subsequently overturned by Brown v. Board of
Education of Topeka.
1904 Northern Securities Co. v. U.S.(Court Decisions)
The High Court backed government action against
big businesses that restrained trade, in effect,
putting teeth in the Sherman Anti-Trust Act.
1908 Muller v. Oregon. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The Court ruled that a state could legislate
maximum working hours based on evidence compiled
by attorney Louis Brandeis.
1911 Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey Et Al. v. U.S.
The Court dissolved the Standard Oil Trust not
because of its size but because of its
unreasonable restraint of trade. The principle
involved is called "the rule of reason."
1919 Schenck v. U.S. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The Court upheld the World War I Espionage Act. In
a landmark decision dealing with free speech,
Justice Oliver W. Holmes said that a person who
encourages draft resistance during a war is a
"clear and present danger."
1935 Schechter v. U.S. (Supreme Court Decisions)
Invalidating the National Industrial Recovery Act
of the New Deal, the Court declared that Congress
could not delegate its powers to the President.
1951 Dennis Et Al. v. U.S. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The Supreme Court ruled the 1946 Smith Act
constitutional; the act made it a crime to
advocate the overthrow of the government by force.
In its 1957 Yates v. U.S. decision, the Court
tempered this ruling by permitting such advocacy
in the abstract if it is not connected to action
to achieve this goal.
1954 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.
In an example of sociological jurisprudence, the
Court held unconstitutional laws enforcing
segregated schools; it called for desegregation of
schools "with all deliberate speed."
1957 Roth v. U.S. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The ruling based obscenity decisions on whether a
publication appeals to "prurient interests." The
Court also said that obscene material is that
which lacks any "redeeming social importance."
1961 Mapp v. Ohio. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The High Court extended the federal exclusionary
rule to the states; this rule prevented
prosecutors from using illegally obtained evidence
in a criminal trial.
1962 Baker v. Carr. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The Court held that state legislatures must be
apportioned to provide equal protection under the
law (Fourteenth Amendment). A follow-up decision
applied the same principle to the size of
congressional districts, insisting that they be
approximately equal in population.
1966 Miranda v. Arizona. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The case declared that before questioning
suspects, police must inform them of their right
to remain silent, that any statements they make
can be used against them, and that they have the
right to remain silent until they have an
attorney, which the state will provide if they
cannot afford to pay.
1972 Furman v. Georgia. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The Court found unconstitutional all death penalty
statutes then in force in the states, but held out
the possibility that if they were rewritten so as
to be less subjective and randomly imposed, they
might be constitutional (as the Court has
subsequently held in many instances).
1973 Roe v. Wade. (Supreme Court Decisions)
The Court ruled state antiabortion laws
unconstitutional, except as they apply to the last
trimester of pregnancy.
1978 University of California v. Bakke.
The ruling allowed a university to admit students
on the basis of race if the school's aim is to
combat discrimination. Subsequent decisions of the
Court have filled in the details of how government
and business may use quotas to make up for past
racism.
1986 Bowers v. Hardwick. (Supreme Court Decisions)
In a case involving enforcement of Georgia's law
against sodomy, the Court ruled that states have
the power to regulate sexual relations in private
between consenting adults.
THE DEATH PENALTY (Legal Information)
States That Have States That Do Not Have
Capital Punishment Capital Punishment
Alabama Alaska
Arizona Hawaii
Arkansas Iowa
California Kansas
Colorado Maine
Connecticut Massachusetts
Delaware Michigan
Florida Minnesota
Georgia New York
Idaho North Dakota
Illinois Vermont
Indiana Washington D.C.
Kentucky West Virginia
Louisiana Wisconsin
Maryland
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
North Carolina
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
North Carolina
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Virginia
Washington
Wyoming
Additional Sources of Information (Legal Information)
Organizations and Services
American Bar Association (ABA)
Lawyers Referral and Information Service
1155 East 60th Street
Chicago, IL 60637
312-332-1111
A staff member will refer individuals or groups
making inquiries to a local legal referral service
that can advise them of their options. The ABA
answers calls from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., CST.
NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
99 Hudson Street
16th Floor
New York, NY 10013
212-219-1900
The staff at the NAACP Legal Defense Fund will put
individuals or groups who feel that they have been
discriminated against in touch with an attorney
who can help. The office is open weekdays from
9:30 A.M. to 5:30 P.M., EST.
National Center for Youth Law
1663 Mission Street, 5th Floor
San Francisco, CA 94103
415-543-3307
Attorneys are available to help other attorneys
who need to have fine points of the law cleared
up. The office is open from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., PST.
National Legal Aid and Defender Association
1625 K Street, NW
8th Floor
Washington, DC 20006
202-452-0620
This association acts as a clearinghouse of
organizations, providing legal services for those
without the means to pay. The office is open from
9 A.M. to 5:30 P.M., EST.
National Resource Center for Consumers of Legal
Services
3254 Jones Court, NW
Washington, DC 20007
202-338-0714
This office is for people who need help in
choosing a lawyer or who wish to complain about an
incompetent one. A staff member offers help
weekdays from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., EST.
United States Department of Justice
Tenth Street and Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20530
202-633-2000
Women's Legal Defense Fund
2000 P Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
202-887-0364
This national organization is dedicated to
securing women's rights through advocacy and
litigation. Legal counseling is available on
matters related to sexism, such as pregnancy
discrimination, economic inequality, and problems
with changing one's surname. Referrals are
available. The office is open weekdays from 9 A.M.
to 5 P.M., EST.
Books
Belli, Melvin, and Wilkinson, Allen P. Everybody's
Guide to the Law. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986.
Black, Henry C. Black's Law Dictionary, 5th ed.
West, 1979.
Gifis, Steven H. Law Dictionary. Barron's
Educational Series, 1984.
Reader's Digest Family Legal Guide: A Complete
Encyclopedia of Law for the Layman. Reader's
Digest, 1981.
Ross, Martin J., and Ross, Jeffrey. Handbook of
Everyday Law, 4th ed. Harper & Row, 1981.
Personal Finances
Personal finances are often a mystifying subject.
The objective of making more from your income than
just enough to live on is shared by many. But faced
with a huge assortment of possible investments,
insurance plans, real estate ventures, and
retirement plans, how can you, as an individual,
decide on the best course of action?
This section provides a starting point. It contains
information on making a budget, kinds of insurance
available, loans, real estate and mortgages, Social
Security and retirement planning, and glossaries
of financial and real estate terms. However,
consultation with books and periodicals devoted to
financial planning or with professional financial
planners is recommended before you create a master
plan for your own personal finances.
Tables of Common Interest
Simple Interest (Personal Finances)
Simple interest is computed on the amount of the
principal of a loan. That principal is multiplied
by the rate of interest; the resulting figure is
then multiplied by the time over which the loan
will be repaid.
Annual rate
TIME 5% 10% 15% 20%
1 month .4167 .8333 1.2500 1.6667
6 months 2.5000 5.0000 7.5000 10.0000
12 months 5.0000 10.0000 15.0000 20.0000
24 months 10.0000 20.0000 30.0000 40.0000
36 months 15.0000 30.0000 45.0000 60.0000
Compound Interest (Personal Finances)
Compound interest is computed by multiplying the
sum of the principal and the accrued interest by
the rate of interest. This calculation must be
refigured each time the principal is compounded.
Compound Interest on $100 Principal,
Compounded Annually
TIME 5% 7.5% 10% 12.5%
6 months 2.50 3.75 5.00 6.25
1 year 5.00 7.50 10.00 12.50
2 years 10.25 15.56 21.00 26.56
3 years 15.76 24.23 33.10 42.38
4 years 12.55 33.55 46.41 60.18
5 years 27.63 43.57 61.05 80.20
MAKING A BUDGET (Personal Finances)
The first step in personal financial planning is to
get a clear picture of where you now stand. An
inventory of expected income and expenses projected
on both a monthly and an annual basis will allow
individuals and families to create a budget. A
budget helps to keep expenses within the boundary of
income while also showing what amount, if any, is
available for investments.
Following are outlines of income and expense
categories that should be included in any personal
budget. Note that expenses include fixed obligations
and flexible or discretionary outlays, which can be
changed as circumstances and objectives change.
Income
Salaries (total in household) _______
Bonuses, tips _______
Investments (interest, dividends,
capital gains, real estate income) _______
TOTAL INCOME _______
Expenses
Housing (rent or mortgage payments) _______
Utilities (gas, electric, water,
telephone) _______
Taxes (federal, state, and local
income; local real estate; Social
Security) _______
Interest payments (car, bank loan,
credit card, other loans) _______
Principal payments (amounts of
borrowed principal repaid) _______
Insurance (health, life, property) _______
Education (tuition, supplies, room
and board) _______
Personal expenses _______
Contributions _______
Food _______
Transportation _______
TOTAL FIXED OUTLAYS _______
Clothing _______
Entertainment _______
Vacations and recreation _______
Furniture, appliances, and home
improvements _______
Health and beauty _______
Savings (general or specific for
future purchases or objectives) _______
Miscellaneous _______
TOTAL VARIABLE OUTLAYS _______
TOTAL EXPENSES _______
AMOUNT AVAILABLE FOR INVESTING
(total income minus total expen╨╨ses) _______
Budgets are useful only when the amounts specified
in each category are not regularly exceeded. If you
have trouble keeping a budget, you may want to make
sure that your spending targets reflect your actual
expenses and that the members of your household
understand the ultimate benefits of budgeting
income and expenses.
Insurance
Life is full of risks. One means of minimizing the
effects of these risks is to obtain insurance. By
insuring your health, your life, your property, and
your car and getting coverage for loss of income
in the event of a disability, you can assure
yourself and your family of financial stability
even if catastrophe strikes. Additionally, you can
use some types of insurance to further your
personal financial goals.
Health Insurance
Health insurance covers the costs of medical care.
It is available to individuals and families through
private insurance companies, Blue Cross-Blue Shield
organizations, and health maintenance organizations
(HMOs). While many Americans are covered by one of
these plans-paid for or organized through
employers, unions, or other groups-individual
policies can be bought to provide additional
coverage or to replace the group benefits. For the
self-employed, individual policies are often the
only choice available.
Private Insurance
Health insurance obtained from a private company
can cover a wide variety of services, paying for
them directly or through reimbursements to the
insured individual.
Basic coverage usually includes hospital expenses
such as room and board, surgeon's fees, diagnostic
charges, anesthesia, operating or delivery room
fees, drugs, and medical equipment. Also included
in some basic policies are reasonable medical
expenses for outpatient care, emergency room
treatment, nursing care, and even prescription
drugs and eyeglasses. The typical basic plan
includes an annual deductible, generally around
$200, which must be spent before coverage begins;
the plan then pays a set percentage, usually 80
percent, of covered costs for specified illnesses
and conditions. Such plans frequently pay according
to a predetermined fee schedule; any amounts in
excess of the scheduled fee are considered to be
beyond the limits of "reasonable" expenses and will
not be reimbursed or paid out. Basic plans without
any supplemental insurance are considered
insufficient because they often exclude common
medical conditions; in addition, the limits of
coverage are often too low to provide adequate
protection.
Major medical coverage pays only for major medical
expenses beyond those covered by basic insurance
plans. There is a deductible, a co-insurance
provision that requires the insured individuals
themselves to pay a sepercentage of medical costs
up to a set amount, and a high ceiling on
liability. There are generally few excluded
conditions or fee schedules. Important provisions
to look for in major medical policies include
guaranteed renewability to age 65, a reasonable
cutoff for the co-insurance provision, and full
coverage for acute-care facilities.
Comprehensive medical coverage combines basic and
major medical coverage in one package. It provides
a set amount of basic coverage after a deductible
and then coverage for charges beyond that amount
and for other major medical expenses with a
co-insurance provision coming into effect.
Blue Cross-Blue Shield
The basic difference between Blue Cross-Blue Shield
plans and those offered by private companies is the
way payments for covered expenses are handled. Blue
Cross usually pays hospital costs directly to the
care provider rather than reimbursing the insured
individual. Blue Shield plans come in three
varieties: full-service coverage that pays
health-care providers directly for all covered
conditions; indemnity coverage that reimburses the
insured individual; and partial service benefits,
which provide full coverage for those with incomes
below a certain level and indemnity coverage for
those whose incomes are above that level.
Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs)
HMOs provide medical care to those who pay a
quarterly fee. They are oriented toward preventive
health care, and those paying the premium are
entitled to medical, surgical, and hospital care;
some plans also cover the costs of some
prescription medicines and provide partial coverage
of dental services. Some HMOs provide the services
of several doctors at a single location connected
with a hospital. Others allow subscribers to
receive care from doctors in their individual
offices; the doctors are then reimbursed by the HMO
on a fee-for-service basis. Important aspects of
an HMO that should be scrutinized are the
patient-to-physician ratio, the services for which
deductibles or additional fees are charged, the
availability of maternity benefits, and the
relationship of the HMO or participating doctor to
a hospital.
Life Insurance
The purpose of life insurance is to provide future
financial security for your family. It provides an
immediate estate that will enable your family to
maintain their household after you die. Life
insurance can also be used to build up cash
reserves for future expenses, such as retirement
or college tuition.
By purchasing a life insurance policy, you are
buying into a risk-sharing group. Although no one
can predict with any reliability when any
individual is going to die, it is possible to
predict with great accuracy the number of
nonsmoking 32-year-old women who exercise regularly
and are not overweight who will die at any given
point over the next 40 years. The costs of premiums
for people of different ages in different risk
categories can then be calculated on the basis of
how much the insurance company will pay out in
benefits to each group's beneficiaries.
There are six types of life insurance available.
Term insurance provides a death benefit to
beneficiaries for a specified period of time. It
can be renewable or convertible to whole life and
features a low initial premium that rises with each
new term. Term life typically has no cash value.
Whole life insurance offers protection for life at
a fixed premium. It provides a fixed death benefit
and a cash value that can be borrowed against and
that increases over the years
Universal life insurance offers permanent
protection, flexible premiums and death benefits,
and a cash value based on premiums paid to date and
current interest rates.
Excess interest whole life insurance provides
permanent protection, a fixed premium that the
insurer may adjust after the policy is issued, a
fixed death benefit, a cash value that grows
dependent on market conditions, and the possibility
that premiums may be reduced or dispensed with for
one or more years if investments are sufficiently
profitable.
Variable life insurance offers permanent
protection, fixed or flexible premiums,
policyholder control over the investment of the
policy's cash value, and variable death benefits
and cash values depending on performance of the
investments account.
Adjustable life insurance gives permanent
protection that can be reduced to a shorter term
if desired, a death benefit that can be raised or
lowered, and premiums that can be increased or
decreased.
The American Council of Life Insurance recommends
that people evaluate their life insurance needs,
buy from a company licensed in their state, select
a trustworthy insurance agent, compare costs of
similar policies, ask about lower premium rates for
nonsmokers, and read their policies and understand
them. After selecting coverage that is right for
you, inform your beneficiaries about the kind and
amount of life insurance you own, keep your policy
in a safe place at home, keep the company's name
and policy number in a safe deposit box, and check
your coverage periodically to be sure it meets your
current needs.
Disability Insurance
Disability insurance provides coverage for loss of
income when an illness or injury prevents you from
working. Temporary disability insurance is provided
in California, Hawaii, New Jersey, New York, Rhode
Island, and Puerto Rico. Social Security also
provides disability coverage at varying levels
depending on family size and the recipient's age.
In addition, there are three types of disability
insurance available through private companies.
Noncancellable policies protect your income as long
as you continue to make premium payments; coverage
may be increased as income increases. Guaranteed
renewable policies are less expensive than
noncancellable ones because insurers can increase
premium rates. Optionally renewable policies can
be renewed or not renewed each year, with variable
premium rates. They are the least expensive private
option.
Property and Liability Insurance
The purchase of a home is the largest investment
most individuals will make in their lifetimes. The
home also represents the largest portion of their
total financial worth. It therefore makes sense to
insure against its possible damage or loss. Even
renters stand to lose a substantial amount of money
if the uninsured contents of their apartments or
houses are destroyed.
There is a wide array of homeowner's insurance
policies, including coverage for renters and
apartment dwellers. The type of coverage most
appropriate for you depends on the sort of risks
the property is exposed to and the value of the
property. Some policies cover only specific causes
of damage or loss, while others provide "all-risk"
coverage that will pay for any loss or damage
except that specifically excluded by the policy.
The available homeowner's policies are as follows.
Homeowner's 1 covers fire, lightning, extended
perils (such as windstorms, hail, smoke damage,
explosions, riots, and vehicular and aircraft
damage), vandalism, malicious mischief, theft, and
personal liability.
Homeowner's 2 adds extended coverage for a variety
of other potential problems, such as broken water
pipes, freezing, and building collapse, to the
coverage offered in Homeowner's 1.
Homeowner's 3 is an "all risks" policy for
buildings that is more extensive than either 1 or
2; it also can cover personal property to a limited
extent.
Homeowner's 4 covers personal property only; the
extent of coverage is generally the same as in 2,
but the policy is designed for renters.
Homeowner's 5 provides the most comprehensive "all
risks" coverage for homes and personal property.
Homeowner's 6 is designed for condominium owners;
it covers loss of personal property and loss of use
of the dwelling.
Homeowner's 8 is more limited than Homeowner's 1;
it is for homes that are below the standard
underwriters use to determine eligibility for
insurance.
Homeowner's policies cover more than just a home
and its contents. Most types include the main
dwelling, any other structures on the property,
personal belongings that are kept either in the
dwelling or elsewhere, costs of additional living
expenses, and comprehensive personal liability,
including medical payments and damage to others'
property.
Comprehensive personal liability insurance protects
against the loss of your home or property in the
event someone is accidentally injured, whether the
injury occurs at the home or elsewhere (such as on
a golf course or during a softball game). It will
pay up to a set amount for each occurrence of
personal liability (injury and property damage) and
up to set amounts for medical payments to others
and damage to others' property. Excluded from
comprehensive personal liability insurance
provisions of most homeowners' policies are losses
resulting from business or professional activities;
use of boats, ships, and planes; intentional injury
or damage; acts of war, or nuclear accidents; and
liabilities covered by other insurance policies,
such as workers' compensation. Additional liability
insurance is available for these situations.
Automobile Insurance
When you are evaluating the risks to which you are
regularly exposed, driving a car is one that must
be considered. The possibility of an accident
involving your car is so great that many states
have made at least limited automobile insurance
mandatory.
Automobile insurance covers three broad risk
categories.
Liability insurance covers personal injuries and
property damage resulting from ownership,
maintenance, or use of a vehicle. Separate limits
for payments apply to each person involved in an
accident and to property damage incurred.
Medical insurance covers the medical costs incurred
in an accident up to a set amount per person per
accident.
Collision insurance pays the costs of having a car
repaired after it has been damaged in an accident.
Additional automobile insurance is also available
to pay for damages resulting from an uninsured
driver, for towing and labor, and for
transportation needed while a damaged car is being
repaired. Many states mandate the inclusion of
no-fault personal injury insurance in any
automobile insurance policy; this provides benefits
for those injured in an accident regardless of who
was responsible for the accident.
The types of coverage and the monetary limits of
the policy, the driver's age, the frequency of use
of the vehicle, the driver's accident history, and
the place where the vehicle is kept are considered
in determining the cost of liability insurance.
Costs for coverage of damage to a vehicle are
calculated on the purchase price of the vehicle and
its age. When evaluating insurance policies, it is
important to compare what is not covered by a given
policy-its exclusions-as well as what is covered
and how much it will cost. Comparative shopping and
a trustworthy insurance agent can help automobile
owners to choose wisely when buying insurance for
use of the their vehicles.
Credit and Loans
One key to enhancing personal finances is through
credit. With loans, credit cards, revolving charge
plans at department stores, and other methods of
delaying payment, people obtain goods and services
for which they otherwise would have to wait. Of
course, use of credit results in debts and interest
charges that must be paid to maintain a good credit
rating and ensure the availability of more credit.
Getting credit is a fairly straightforward
procedure. You can apply to a bank for a loan or
a bank credit card, such as Visa or MasterCard, or
to a department store or gasoline company for a
revolving charge account, by filling out an
application form. These companies will ask about
your income, employment history, length and type
of residence, credit history, and major assets
(car, home, etc.) in order to determine your
creditworthiness.
A positive credit history-meaning that you have
received credit and made payments on time-is one
of the strongest recommendations for further
credit. If you have never had credit before, a good
first step is to obtain a department store or
gasoline company credit card, which is often easier
to get, or to take out a small loan at a bank where
you keep a savings and/or a checking account.
Having a reasonably large amount of money in the
bank also can help persuade issuers to provide you
with credit.
When looking to obtain credit, especially once
creditworthiness has been established, comparison
shopping is very important. Different states have
different limits on the amount of interest that can
be charged on consumer loans and bank cards.
Interest rates on loans can range from less than
2 percent per month to 36 percent per year or more;
credit card rates range from under 15 percent to
30 percent or more per year. You do not need to be
a resident of a state to get credit from lending
institutions headquartered there, and you can apply
by mail.
The amount of indebtedness you should assume is not
easy to calculate. The credit-granting institution
bases its decision on your gross income and
expenses. Your own decision about how much credit
you should use is harder to come by. Calculating
the amount of money you have available from your
income after deducting monthly expenses will give
you some idea of what you can afford, although
other factors-such as ever-decreasing balances in
your checking and savings accounts, use of
overdrafts or credit to cover regular expenses, and
difficulty making payments on credit lines you
already have-may suggest that additional credit is
not a good idea.
Problems that can arise from credit, such as
billing errors or unfair denial of credit, can be
remedied under federal regulations. The Fair Credit
Billing Act requires that, if you notify a creditor
in writing about an error on a bill, your complaint
must be acknowledged within 30 days and resolved
within 90 days. The Equal Credit Opportunity Act
requires creditors to give a reason if you are
denied credit and prohibits discrimination based
on race, sex, age, marital status, color, religion,
national origin, or receipt of public assistance.
If you are denied credit on the basis of a negative
report from a credit bureau, you can obtain the
information that agency supplied to the creditor
free of charge if you request it within 30 days of
being turned down or for a small fee at any time.
You can challenge the accuracy of any item in your
credit file; this will force the credit bureau to
investigate the item and remove it if it cannot be
substantiated. Any item in your file also can be
amended at your request to include a 100-word
explanation that will be added to your file.
Real Estate and Mortgages
American society is geared toward home ownership.
The desire to own a home, and the labyrinthine
process of purchasing one, can have tremendous
impact on an individual's or a family's finances.
A home represents the single largest financial
commitment most people will make in their
lifetimes. It therefore requires a careful,
reasoned decision based on a thorough examination
of the steps involved in the purchase. What follows
are some of the basics involved in buying a home
and obtaining a mortgage. Potential home buyers
are cautioned to seek out as much additional
information as is practical from specialized books,
real estate professionals, and friends who have
made similar purchases.
The Decision to Buy a Home (Real Estate)
Owning their own home is something most people
believe to be desirable regardless of their
financial circumstances. They think that owning a
home is a perfect investment, and that renting is
akin to throwing money away. This is not always the
case. Home ownership often includes a great many
hidden expenses, while renters take care of the
basic need for shelter at a set monthly cost
without having to deal with such headaches as
taxes, sewage disposal, or sidewalk repairs.
A number of factors need to be considered when
deciding whether you should buy your own home.
First among these should be the way you lead your
life. Home ownership can provide greater space, a
chance to set down roots, the option to make any
alterations you choose, the possibility of
providing yard space and better schools for your
children, and the pride of having a home of your
own. Renters have greater flexibility about when
they can move, pay less of their income for
shelter, avoid the ancillary costs and added work
of maintaining a residence, and can use any excess
funds for investments that offer a guaranteed rate
of return.
Also of great importance in the decision to buy a
home is your current financial situation. Home
ownership requires enough money to make a down
payment (generally at least 10 percent of the
purchase price, and often 20 or 25 percent), to
obtain a mortgage, and to make payments on that
mortgage for many years to come. Renters need to
have enough money to pay the rent each month.
Affordability (Real Estate)
It is best to shop for a mortgage before you shop
for a home so as to know how much money is
available to you. A long-standing rule of thumb is
that the annual cost of a home should not exceed
25 percent of your gross income. If you can manage
monthly payments that do not exceed 25 percent of
your income, you will probably have little trouble
obtaining a mortgage or making the payments.
But even if mortgage payments come to 25 percent
of your income, the cost of a home will be
substantially more. Funds to cover utilities, water
and sewage costs, taxes, repairs, improvements, and
even garbage cans and yard equipment will be needed.
Additional costs may include more costly
commutation. It is wise to set aside an additional
10 percent of the basic annual costs for unseen
expenses.
A careful evaluation of present and projected
income and expenses-including money spent on
nonessential interests, hobbies, and pastimes-will
give you some idea of what you can afford to pay
for a home on a monthly basis. From there, you can
look at mortgage payment schedules to find out how
much of a mortgage you can afford.
One thing to keep in mind when deciding what you
can afford is that many experts recommend against
buying the most expensive house in a given
neighborhood. A lower-priced home in a
higher-priced neighborhood offers greater security
and a better likelihood of seeing the property
value increase.
An Old Home or a New One? (Real Estate)
If there is a choice between buying a new home or
one that has been occupied before, you must weigh
the pluses and minuses of each. The value of
similar new and used homes in similar neighborhoods
will go up about equally, but other aspects of each
may make you choose one over the other.
New homes have more modern amenities, are often
less likely to suffer system breakdowns (that is,
plumbing, heating, and water supply), should not
require much upkeep or many repairs, and often can
be mortgaged for a greater percentage of the price
over a longer term. Older homes frequently are less
expensive, have larger rooms, are better built,
have finished landscaping, and are closer to the
center of town. The individual merits of the actual
houses you look at will guide you in making a final
choice.
The Down Payment (Real Estate)
Among the many decisions to be made in the
home-buying process is whether to make a large or
small down payment.
While a higher down payment can reduce your monthly
payments or the term of the mortgage, there are a
number of advantages in making as small a down
payment as possible: you retain access to your
money; the money you pay in later years will be
less valuable, because of inflation, than any spent
now; and the interest included in your mortgage
payments is tax deductible, so the more you borrow,
the more you can deduct.
The Mortgage (Real Estate)
At one time the only mortgages widely available in
the United States were fixed-rate mortgages that
required fixed monthly payments for a specific
period, usually 25 or 30 years. Recently, however,
a wide variety of different mortgage options have
become available.
The graduated payment mortgage (GPM) has a fixed
rate of interest but varying payments. Payments
begin lower and are increased at a fixed rate each
year, rising to a level higher than on a fixed-rate
mortgage. Initial payments may be lower than the
cost of interest, in which case the unpaid interest
is added to the principal. This type is good for
first-time buyers who expect their incomes to rise
during the course of the mortgage.
The pledged-account mortgage (PAM) is a variation
of the GPM that takes the difference between
payments and the accrued interest from a savings
account pledged to that purpose by the borrower.
The adjustable rate mortgage (ARM) has a flexible
interest rate that varies according to a selected
interest-rate index. It may go up when the index
goes up and must go down when the index goes down;
it may contain limitations on the maximum and
minimum rates. The changing rate can affect the
monthly payment, the term, or the outstanding
principal. Some plans change the rate more
frequently than they change the payments. This can
result in underpayments on interest that are then
added to the outstanding balance.
The graduated-payment adjustable-rate mortgage
(GPARM) combines features of GPMs and ARMs. Some
plans defer interest in the early years; others set
rising payments during the first several years; and
still others fix low payments early on. Countless
variations are possible.
The wraparound mortgage allows the buyer to assume
the balance of a lower-rate mortgage from the
seller, making payments to amortize both that
original mortgage and the additional amount being
borrowed at prevailing rates. This mortgage reduces
the overall interest rate on the total amount.
The shared-appreciation mortgage (SAM) is available
from some lenders. In return for a reduced interest
rate, the lender receives a set portion of the
amount by which the home has appreciated when it
is sold or the loan is paid. Because the final
value of the home cannot be determined in advance,
additional interest can be due if the value has not
appreciated sufficiently.
A reverse mortgage really is not a mortgage at all,
but a way of getting monthly payments in return
for some of the equity in a house. It is
advantageous for those over 75 with significant
equity and insufficient cash.
In addition to the mortgage payments themselves,
many lenders also charge "points." These additional
amounts-each point is equal to 1 percent of the
loan-are paid by the buyer at the time the mortgage
goes into effect, at the closing.
Going to Contract (Real Estate)
Anything and everything can and possibly will go
wrong when it comes time to draw up a contract and
close the deal to buy a home. No list of potential
pitfalls could be considered all-inclusive. The
best advice is to obtain a lawyer who is familiar
with the kind of property purchase you are making
and to read every word in every document presented
to you with your lawyer.
Investments and Retirement
If you are like most people, your main source of
income for the greater part of your life is the
salary or fees you earn from working. This income
may or may not be adequate to support the
life-style you wish to maintain. If you would like
to increase your income, you might consider making
investments. Even if your earned income is enough
for the present, you may want to invest now in
order to plan for a secure retirement.
Setting Goals (Investments)
There is little point in considering investments
without developing the goals you hope to reach by
making them. Investing is a means to an end. That
end generally can be described as financial
security-having enough income to live on after you
retire. But a more specific set of goals is
essential.
Short-term and long-term strategies must be
developed. The amounts you have available to invest
now, and those you can make available in the
future, must be calculated. The rate of return you
require from your investments must be figured,
taking into account the amount of income you will
need them to produce in the future after factoring
in inflation. Your need for access to the principal
or profit on short notice must be evaluated, too,
along with whether you are willing to take greater
risks for a potentially higher return or will
accept lower profits in return for greater
security.
Other aspects that should be considered in creating
short- and long-term goals are diversification of
your investments to reduce risks; the tax status
of the income your investments produce; and the
availability of loans using your investments as
collateral.
Setting goals is a continual process. Your current
goals should be based on how you envision your
future.
Choosing Your Investments (Investments)
Once you have decided on your investment goals, you
must answer the most difficult question of all:
What should you invest in? The possibilities are
almost limitless.
It is unwise to select an investment without close
scrutiny. Selecting a stock because someone-even
a stockbroker-tells you "it's a good bet" is not
a good way to handle your money. You can select the
types of investments you believe will be most
effective in helping you reach your short- and
long-term goals. But professional assistance should
then be sought from an appropriate source: bankers
for information about money market accounts,
individual retirement accounts, or certificates of
deposit; or stockbrokers for stock and bonds.
Passbook savings are the first investments most
people are exposed to. They are insured by the
federal government, require no minimum deposit,
offer set interest rates, and can be added to or
withdrawn from at any time. Time deposits offer
higher interest rates, require a minimum deposit
of $2,500 in most cases, are available for varying
lengths of time, and often provide free checking
privileges. They penalize early withdrawals. Money
market accounts generally require a minimum deposit
of $1,000, pay interest rates comparable to those
available on larger certificates of deposit, have
no requirements for length of time of deposit, and
allow withdrawals and transfers at any time.
Certificates of deposit (CDs) are available in
varying amounts (usually from $500) for anywhere
from 90 days to two years, pay high interest rates,
and penalize early withdrawals. Long-term
certificates require deposits for two and a half
years or more, compound interest for greater
yields, and offer high interest rates.
Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs) have varying
minimum deposit requirements, provide interest that
will not be taxed until it is withdrawn, have
maximum individual deposit limits of $2,000 per
year, and sometimes allow depositors to deduct the
amounts of their deposits from their taxable
income.
Mutual fund accounts come in a variety of types.
Your choice will depend on whether your investment
needs require growth of capital, substantial
current flow of income, or a balance of reasonable
capital growth, reasonable current income, and
security of the principal. Minimum deposits vary,
and deposits can be withdrawn at any time.
Bond funds allow investors to buy into a
diversified portfolio of bonds. They can easily be
resold but lose value if interest rates rise. Some
funds can be exempt from federal income tax. U.S.
savings bonds require a minimum $25 deposit, mature
in five years, and provide virtually guaranteed
security. Corporate bonds require a minimum deposit
of $1,000, mature in 10 to 30 years, and can easily
be cashed in. They provide the current market rate
of return but can lose value if interest rates
rise. Zero-coupon bonds provide a fixed yield when
the bond matures, are sold at a large discount off
face value, mature in six months to ten years or
longer, and usually require a minimum deposit of
$1,000.
Stock funds allow investors to diversify their
stock holdings, require minimum investments, and
change in value according to stock market price
changes. Common stocks can provide dividend income
and long-term growth of capital but require careful
management to avoid loss or diminution of capital.
Treasury bills are six-month instruments available
in $10,000 denominations. They offer market
interest rates with high security, can be easily
sold, and are not subject to state and local income
taxes.
More detailed information about the common types
of investments outlined here-as well as more
"exotic" investments ranging from oil drilling
ventures and real estate partnerships to precious
metals, commodities, or a relative's new business-
can be obtained from books, government
publications, and the agencies that regulate such
activities.
Planning for Retirement (Investments)
Although few working people require income from
their investments to meet routine expenses, most
people will require income from outside sources in
order to retire in security and comfort. There are
three potential providers of retirement income:
pension plans funded by an employer; government
retirement funds; and an individual's own
retirement fund. The best way to assure your own
financial security after retirement is to arrange
for retirement income from at least two or even all
three of these sources.
Employer-funded retirement plans can be pension
plans, profit-sharing plans, or a combination of
the two. Most pension plans define the benefits due
and eligibility qualifications required of each
employee in advance. They are designed to provide
employees with a guaranteed income after they reach
a certain age, generally 65, and retire. Some plans
allow for early retirement at reduced benefits. In
addition to providing income after retirement, many
plans also provide vested benefits for employees
who stop working for the company before they reach
the minimum retirement age, death benefits, medical
benefits, and a pension for surviving spouses.
Profit-sharing plans differ from pension plans in
that an employer's contributions to the fund are
dependent on company profits. Profit-sharing plans
also may have provisions for vesting at an earlier
age and withdrawal and loan privileges.
Social Security is the basic retirement plan
provided by the government. More than 90 percent
of the workers in the United States are earning
benefits under Social Security through
contributions they and their employers make in the
form of Social Security taxes. Social Security
provides monthly payments to qualified workers who
retire at age 62 or older, health insurance for the
elderly under Medicare, and monthly payments to
disabled workers and to spouses and children of
workers who retire, become disabled, or die. The
dollar amount of benefits is dependent on the rate
set by the government as well as on other sources
of income the retiree has available. Qualification
for Social Security benefits is earned on the basis
of "quarters of coverage." Workers earn one credit
toward coverage for a set amount of income they
earn, up to four credits each calendar year.
Coverage for retirement benefits starts when a
worker has earned 9.75 credits if he or she turns
62 in 1990 or 10 credits from 1991 on.
Individual retirement plans can be created
according to needs and financial resources using
many of the investments outlined above. The most
popular individual plan, the Individual Retirement
Account (IRA), allows some individuals to deduct
contributions of up to $2,000 a year from their
income taxes. Under rules that took effect in 1987,
married couples with adjusted gross incomes under
$40,000, and single people with gross incomes under
$25,000, may deduct up to $2,000 in contributions
to their IRAs, with deductions phased out over the
next $10,000 of adjusted gross income.
Investment Terms
accrued interest (Investment Terms)
Interest earned by a bond since the last payment
was made.
AMEX (Investment Terms)
The American Stock Exchange.
appreciation (Investment Terms)
The increase in value of an investment.
asset (Investment Terms)
Something owned by one or owed to one.
bear market (Investment Terms)
A declining stock market.
bid and asked price (Investment Terms)
The highest price offered for a security at a given
time (bid) and the lowest price accepted for that
security at that time (asked).
Big Board (Investment Terms)
The New York Stock Exchange.
blue chip (Investment Terms)
The stock of a top-rated company known for the
quality of its products and the security and return
on investment of its stock; also the company
itself.
bond (Investment Terms)
A corporation's note acknowledging indebtedness for
a certain amount and promising to pay interest at
a given rate on that amount as well as to pay back
the principal on a certain date. See also Treasury
bond.
book value (Investment Terms)
The theoretical worth of a share of stock as shown
on a company's balance sheet; this has little
relationship to the stock's market value.
bull market (Investment Terms)
A rising stock market.
capital gain or capital loss (Investment Terms)
The gain or loss resulting from the sale of an
asset.
capitalization (Investment Terms)
All securities issued by a company, including
bonds, common and preferred stock, and debentures.
capital stock (Investment Terms)
All shares of stock in a company, both common and
preferred.
collateral (Investment Terms)
Property or securities used by a borrower to secure
a loan.
convertible securities (Investment Terms)
Securities that can be exchanged by the holder for
common stock or another security.
coupon bond (Investment Terms)
A bond with coupons attached that are clipped by
the holder and presented for payment of interest
due.
current assets (Investment Terms)
The total amount of cash, securities, inventory,
and receivables expected during the normal business
cycle of a company.
current liabilities (Investment Terms)
The total amount of debt and other payments that
will be due during the normal business cycle of a
company, usually one year.
debenture (Investment Terms)
An unsecured promissory note backed by a company's
general credit.
discount (Investment Terms)
The amount of money below the issuing price of a
stock or bond by which it sells.
discretionary account (Investment Terms)
A securities account that leaves some or all
decisions about purchases and sales to the
discretion of a broker.
dividend (Investment Terms)
A payment by a company equally divided among its
stockholders. See also stock dividend.
Dow Jones average (Investment Terms)
The average price of selected stocks, used as an
indicator of the stock market's performance.
equity (Investment Terms)
The interest stockholders have in a company, or the
amount of property a propertyholder has actually
paid for as opposed to the portion held by a
mortgage.
ex-dividend (Investment Terms)
A stock that does not pay a recently declared
dividend to its new purchaser.
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) (Terms)
The federal agency that insures amounts up to
$100,000 deposited in qualified banks.
fiduciary (Investment Terms)
Someone who acts on behalf of another in financial
matters.
gilt-edged security (Investment Terms)
A high-grade preferred stock or bond issued by a
company with a strong performance record.
income fund (Investment Terms)
A mutual fund designed to provide current income.
Individual Retirement Account (IRA) (Terms)
A tax-deductible retirement plan.
interest (Investment Terms)
The money paid by a borrower to a lender for the
use of the borrowed money.
investment (Investment Terms)
The use of money to make more money.
Keogh plan (Investment Terms)
A tax-sheltered retirement plan for self-employed
people with no pension plans.
liabilities (Investment Terms)
All claims against and amounts owed by a company.
listed stock (Investment Terms)
Stock traded on a securities exchange.
margin (Investment Terms)
The portion of a stock's price paid by the buyer
when the broker arranges for the remainder to be
purchased on credit.
market order (Investment Terms)
An order to buy or sell at the current market price
of a security.
maturity (Investment Terms)
The date on which a bond or loan is to be paid off.
money market fund (Investment Terms)
A mutual fund that invests in short-term financial
securities.
municipal bond (Investment Terms)
A bond issued by a local government.
mutual fund (Investment Terms)
An investment company that continually offers new
stock and redeems outstanding shares on demand.
odd lot (Investment Terms)
An amount of stock bought or sold in units other
than 10 shares or 100 shares.
offer (Investment Terms)
The price at which someone is willing to sell.
over-the-counter market (Investment Terms)
The arena in which stocks not listed on exchanges
are bought and sold.
par (Investment Terms)
The issuing value of a share of common stock.
preferred stock (Investment Terms)
Stock that must receive its share of earnings
before payment is made on common stock.
premium (Investment Terms)
The amount over par value by which a preferred
stock is sold.
puts and calls (Investment Terms)
Options that give the right to sell or buy a
specified number of shares of stock at a specified
price within a specified time.
red herring (Investment Terms)
A preliminary prospectus issued to gauge interest
in a new stock issue.
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) (Terms)
The federal agency that oversees securities
trading.
stock (Investment Terms)
Ownership shares in a company.
stock dividend (Investment Terms)
Shares distributed to current shareholders in a
company in proportion to those they hold.
stock split (Investment Terms)
The division of currently outstanding shares into
a larger number of shares.
tax shelter (Investment Terms)
A way in which taxes on income may be legally
decreased, eliminated, or deferred.
tender offer (Investment Terms)
An offer by one company to purchase shares of stock
in another company directly from its stockholders.
Treasury bill (Investment Terms)
A short-term U.S. government security sold at
discount in competitive bidding.
Treasury bond (Investment Terms)
A long-term U.S. government bond issued in $1,000
denominations.
yield (Investment Terms)
The amount of dividend or interest expressed as a
percentage of the selling price.
zero-coupon bonds (Investment Terms)
Bonds that are sold at a discount from their face
value but that do not pay interest.
Real Estate Terms
amortization (Real Estate Terms)
A gradual paying off of a mortgage by periodic
installments.
appraisal (Real Estate Terms)
An estimation of a property's value, often made by
lenders before deciding the amount of a mortgage.
assessed valuation (Real Estate Terms)
A value placed on a property as a basis for
taxation.
assumable mortgage (Real Estate Terms)
A mortgage taken over from the seller of a property
by the buyer.
balloon payment (Real Estate Terms)
The final payment on a loan or mortgage, usually
larger than the previous payments.
binder (Real Estate Terms)
An agreement by the buyer to cover the down payment
on the purchase of real estate before a final
contract is drawn up.
broker (Real Estate Terms)
Usually a licensed agent who acts on behalf of the
seller of a property, making arrangements for the
sale.
closing (Real Estate Terms)
The meeting of a buyer, a seller, a banker, and
attorneys for all parties at which a real estate
sale is completed with the writing of checks; it
usually takes place 30 to 60 days after signing of
the contract.
commission (Real Estate Terms)
The amount paid to a real estate broker for
services rendered.
condominium (Real Estate Terms)
A form of individual ownership in a multiple-unit
dwelling, townhouse, or detached house in which the
owner buys title to a single unit and an interest
in common areas.
contract (Real Estate Terms)
A binding agreement between parties to transact
real estate under agreed-upon terms.
cooperative apartment (Real Estate Terms)
A form of individual ownership in a multiple-unit
dwelling in which buyers purchase shares in a
cooperative corporation that owns the building; the
shares entitle the holder to a proprietary lease
on an apartment in the building.
deed (Real Estate Terms)
A written document that conveys ownership of real
property.
equity (Real Estate Terms)
The value of an owner's real property after
deducting mortgages and liens.
escrow (Real Estate Terms)
A written agreement to place money or property with
someone else until it is due to be delivered to a
designated party; often used for payment of taxes
along with mortgage payments.
Fannie Mae (Real Estate Terms)
The Federal National Mortgage Association, the
largest secondary mortgage agency.
Federal Housing Administration (FHA) (Estate Terms)
A division of the federal government's Department
of Housing and Urban Development that insures
mortgages.
Freddie Mac (Real Estate Terms)
The Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, which
buys mortgages from lenders, allowing the lenders
to make new mortgages.
Ginnie Mae (Real Estate Terms)
The Government National Mortgage Association, which
buys FHA-insured loans from lenders.
indexing (Real Estate Terms)
A means of adjusting the interest rate on a loan
or mortgage according to an agreed-upon index or
indicator.
interest (Real Estate Terms)
Money paid to a lender for use of borrowed
principal.
lien (Real Estate Terms)
An interest in a property granted as collateral for
a loan or mortgage.
mortgage (Real Estate Terms)
A written instrument that creates a lien on a given
property in return for a loan.
point (Real Estate Terms)
An amount equal to 1 percent of a loan, charged to
the borrower by the lender.
prepayment penalty (Real Estate Terms)
An additional fee charged for paying off a mortgage
before it is due.
principal (Real Estate Terms)
The amount of money borrowed from a lender for a
mortgage, upon which interest is computed.
title (Real Estate Terms)
A written document that gives evidence of property
ownership.
Calculating Your Net Worth
Use the following chart to calculate your current
net worth. Be sure to include amounts held
individually and jointly to evaluate your family's
net worth.
Assets
Cash on hand and liquid assets
Checking and savings accounts _______
Cash value of life insurance _______
U.S. savings bonds _______
Equity in pension funds _______
Money market funds _______
Brokerage funds _______
Trusts _______
Debts owed you _______
Other _______
TOTAL _______
Personal holdings
Car(s) (current value) _______
Home(s) _______
Boat(s) _______
Major appliances _______
Furs and jewelry _______
Antiques and collectibles _______
Art _______
Other _______
TOTAL _______
Investments
Common stocks _______
Preferred stocks _______
Corporate and municipal bonds _______
Mutual funds _______
Certificates of deposit _______
Business investments _______
Real estate investments _______
IRAs _______
Other _______
TOTAL _______
TOTAL ASSETS _______
Liabilities
Bills due _______
Revolving charge and bank-card
debts _______
Taxes due _______
Outstanding mortgage _______
Outstanding loans (bank, insurance,
etc.) _______
Stock margin accounts payable _______
Other debts _______
TOTAL LIABILITIES _______
NET WORTH (Assets minus liabilities) _______
Tipping
The following list suggests what are generally
considered to be adequate amounts to tip various
people for services rendered. It should be kept in
mind that tips are a way of expressing
satisfaction. Larger tips should be left for those
who provide extraordinarily good service; smaller
tips or no tip at all should be left when service
is poor.
Location Person Amount
Restaurant waiter or waitress 15% of bill
headwaiter/maitre d' none, unless
special
services are
provided;
then, about
$5
wine steward 15% of wine
bill
bartender 10-15% of bar
bill
busboy none
servers at counter 15% of bill
coat check attendant $1 for one
or two coats
restroom attendant 50 cents
car park attendant 50 cents
Hotel chambermaid no tip for
one-night
stays; $1 a
night or $5-
$10 a week
for longer
stays
room-service waiter 15% of bill
bellhop $1 per bag
for bringing
you to your
room with
luggage; 50
cents for
opening and
showing the
room
lobby attendant none for
opening door
or calling
taxi from
stand; 50
cents or more
for help with
luggage or
finding a
taxi on the
street
desk clerk none unless
special
service is
given during
long stay;
then, $5
Train dining car waiter 15% of bill
stewards/bar-car
waiters 15% of bar
bill
redcaps posted rate
plus 50 cents
Airport skycaps $1 or more
for full
baggage cart
in-flight personnel none
Cruise ship cabin steward 2.5% to 4%
of total fare
dining-room steward 2.5% to 4%
of total fare
cabin boy, bath steward,
bar steward, wine
steward 5% to 7 1/2%
% of total
fare divided
among them,
paid at the
end of each
week
Taxi driver 15% of fare,
no less than
25 cents
Barbershop haircutter 15% of the
cost,
generally a
minimum of
$1
Beauty shop one operator 15% of bill
several operators 10% of bill
to person who
sets hair;
10% divided
among others
manicurist $1 or more,
depending on
cost
Sports arena usher 50 cents to
$1 per party
if shown to
your seat
Additional Sources of Information (Personal Finances)
Organizations and Services
Consult the following organizations for referrals
to reputable financial planners.
Institute of Certified Financial Planners
Two Denver Highlands
Suite 320
10065 East Harvard Avenue
Denver, CO 80231
303-751-7600
International Association for Financial Planning
Two Concourse Parkway
Suite 800
Atlanta, GA 30328
404-395-1605
The following publications offer substantial
coverage of events and trends that affect personal
finances. Addresses are for subscriptions.
Barron's National Business Weekly
200 Burnett Road
Chicopee, MA 01020
Business Week
1221 Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10020
Changing Times (monthly)
Editors Park, MD 20782
Money (monthly)
P.O. Box 54429
Boulder, CO 80322
Books
Donoghue, William E. William E. Donoghue's Lifetime
Financial Planner: Straight Talk About Your Money
Decisions. Harper & Row, 1988.
Dowd, Merle E. A Consumer's Guide to Financial
Planning: How to Get the Best Plan for Your Money.
Franklin Watts, 1987.
Klein, Robert J. The Money Book of Money: A
Lifetime Guide to Family Finances. Little, Brown,
1987.
Lerner, Joel J. Financial Planning for the Utterly
Confused. McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Loeb, Marshall. Marshall Loeb's Money Guide, 1989.
Little, Brown, 1988.
Passell, Peter. Personalized Money Strategies:
Fifteen No-Nonsense Investment Plans to Achieve
Your Goals. Warner Books, 1986.
Porter, Sylvia. Love and Money. Avon, 1986.
Porter, Sylvia. Sylvia Porter's Your Own Money.
Avon, 1983.
Shane, Dorlene V. Be Your Own Financial Planner:
The 21 Day Guide to Financial Success. Wiley, 1986.
Sheen, Brian J. Nest Egg Investing: The Lifelong
Program for Financial Independence. Putnam, 1987.
Stribling, Catherine. Growing Up Financially: A
Money Management Guide. Ballantine, 1986.
Thomsett, Michael C. Homeowners Money Management
Guide. Rodale Press, 1987.
Tobias, Andrew P. The Only Other Investment Guide
You'll Ever Need. Simon & Schuster, 1987.
Useful Addresses
Aging
Private Organizations (Aging)
American Association of Retired Persons
National Gerontology Resource Center
1909 K Street, NW
Washington, DC 20049
202-728-4880
American Association of Retired Persons
Widowed Persons Service
1909 K Street, NW
Washington, DC 20049
202-728-4370
American Society on Aging
833 Market Street
Suite 516
San Francisco, CA 94103
415-543-2617
Andrus Gerontology Center
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089
213-743-6060
Asociacion Nacional por Personas Mayores
Library Resource Center
2727 West 6th Street
Suite 270
Los Angeles, CA 90057
203-487-1922
National Senior Citizens Law Center
1636 West 8th Street
Suite 201
Los Angeles, CA 90017
213-388-1381
Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on
Aging
University of Southern California
c/o Rancho Los Amigos Hospital
7600 Consuelo Street
Downey, CA 90242
213-722-7402
Self-Help for the Elderly
640 Pine Street
San Francisco, CA 94108
415-982-9171
State Commissions and Offices
State commissions and offices on aging are
responsible for coordinating services for older
Americans. They can provide information on
programs, services, and opportunities for the
aging.
Alabama (State Commissions and Offices)
Commission on Aging
502 Washington Avenue
Montgomery, AL 36130
205-261-5743
Alaska (State Commissions and Offices)
Older Alaskans Commission
P.O. Box C
Juneau, AK 99811
907-465-3250
Arizona (State Commissions and Offices)
Aging and Adult Administration
1400 West Washington Avenue
P.O. Box 6123-950A
Phoenix, AZ 85007
602-255-4446
Arkansas (State Commissions and Offices)
Office on Aging and Adult Services
Department of Human Services
1428 Donaghey Building
7th and Main Streets
Little Rock, AR 72201
501-371-2441
California (State Commissions and Offices)
Department of Aging
Health and Welfare Agency
1020 19th Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
916-322-5290
Colorado (State Commissions and Offices)
Aging and Adult Services Division
Department of Social Services
1575 Sherman Street
Room 803
Denver, CO 80203
303-866-2586
Connecticut (State Commissions and Offices)
Department on Aging
175 Main Street
Hartford, CT 06106
203-566-7728
Delaware (State Commissions and Offices)
Division of Aging
Department of Health and Social Services
Delaware State Hospital
CT Building
1901 North DuPont Highway
New Castle, DE 19720
302-421-6791
District of Columbia (State Commissions and Offices)
D.C. Office on Aging
Special Assignment of the Mayor's Office
1424 K Street, NW
2nd Floor
Washington, DC 20005
202-724-5623
Florida (State Commissions and Offices)
Aging and Adult Services
Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services
1321 Winewood Boulevard
Building 2, Room 328
Tallahassee, FL 32301
904 488-2650
Georgia (State Commissions and Offices)
Office of Aging
Department of Human Resources
878 Peachtree Street, NE
Atlanta, GA 30309
404-894-5333
Hawaii (State Commissions and Offices)
Executive Office on Aging
Office of the Governor
State of Hawaii
1149 Bethel Street
Room 307
Honolulu, HI 96813
808-548-2593
Idaho (State Commissions and Offices)
Idaho Office on Aging
Statehouse
Room 114
Boise, ID 83720
208-334-3833
Illinois (State Commissions and Offices)
Department on Aging
421 East Capitol Avenue
Springfield, IL 62701
217-785-2870
Indiana (State Commissions and Offices)
Department on Aging and Community Services
115 North Pennsylvania Street
1350 Consolidated Building
Indianapolis, IN 46204
317-232-7006
Iowa (State Commissions and Offices)
Commission on Aging
914 Grand Avenue
Jewett Building
Suite 236
Des Moines, IA 50319
515-281-5187
Kansas (State Commissions and Offices)
Department on Aging
610 West 10th Street
Topeka, KS 66612
913-296-4986
Kentucky (State Commissions and Offices)
Division for Aging Services
Department for Social Services
275 East Main Street
6th Floor, West
Frankfort, KY 40621
502-564-6930
Louisiana (State Commissions and Offices)
Governor's Office of Elderly Affairs
P.O. Box 80374
Baton Rouge, LA 70898
504-925-1700
Maine (State Commissions and Offices)
Bureau of Maine's Elderly
Department of Human Services
State House, Station 11
Augusta, ME 04333
207-289-2561
Maryland (State Commissions and Offices)
Office on Aging
301 West Preston Street
10th Floor
Baltimore, MD 21201
301-383-2100
Massachusetts (State Commissions and Offices)
Department of Elder Affairs
38 Chauncey Street
2nd floor
Boston, MA 02111
617-727-7750, 51, 52
Michigan (State Commissions and Offices)
Office of Services to the Aging
101 North Pine Street
P.O. Box 30026
Lansing, MI 48909
517-373-8230
Minnesota (State Commissions and Offices)
Minnesota Board on Aging
204 Metro Square Building
121 East 7th Street
St. Paul, MN 55101
612-296-2544
Mississippi (State Commissions and Offices)
Council on Aging
301 West Pearl Street
Jackson, MS 39201
601-949-2013
Missouri (State Commissions and Offices)
Office of Aging
Department of Social Services
P.O. Box 1337
Broadway State Office Building
6th Floor
Jefferson City, MO 65102
314-751-2075
Montana (State Commissions and Offices)
Aging Branch
Contracts Bureau
Department of Social and Rehabilitation Services,
Community Services Division
P.O. Box 4210
Room 204
Helena, MT 59604
406-444-5650
Nebraska (State Commissions and Offices)
Nebraska Department of Aging
State House Station 95044
Lincoln, NE 68509
402-471-2307
Nevada (State Commissions and Offices)
Division for Aging Services
Department of Human Resources
505 East King Street
Room 101
Carson City, NV 89710
702-885-4210
New Hampshire (State Commissions and Offices)
Council on Aging
14 Depot Street
Concord, NH 03301
603-271-2751
New Jersey (State Commissions and Offices)
Division on Aging
Department of Community Affairs
363 West State Street, CN 807
Trenton, NJ 08625
609-292-4833
New Mexico (State Commissions and Offices)
State Agency on Aging
224 East Palace Avenue
La Villa Rivera Building
4th Floor
Santa Fe, NM 87501
505-827-7640
New York (State Commissions and Offices)
New York State Office for the Aging
Agency Building 2
Empire State Plaza
Albany, NY 12223
518-474-5731
North Carolina (State Commissions and Offices)
Division of Aging
Department of Human Resources
708 Hillsborough Street
Suite 200
Raleigh, NC 27603
919-733-3983
North Dakota (State Commissions and Offices)
Aging Services
Department of Human Services
State Capitol Building
Bismarck, ND 58505
701-224-2310
Ohio (State Commissions and Offices)
Ohio Commission on Aging
50 West Broad Street
9th Floor
Columbus, OH 43215
614-466-5500
Oklahoma (State Commissions and Offices)
Special Unit on Aging
Department of Human Services
P.O. Box 25352
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
405-521-2281
Oregon (State Commissions and Offices)
Senior Services Division
Human Resources Department
313 Public Service Building
Salem, OR 97310
503-378-4728
Pennsylvania (State Commissions and Offices)
Department of Aging
Barto Building
231 State Street
Harrisburg, PA 17101
717-783-1550
Rhode Island (State Commissions and Offices)
Department of Elderly Affairs
79 Washington Street
Providence, RI 02903
401-277-2880
South Carolina (State Commissions and Offices)
Commission on Aging
915 Main Street
Columbia, SC 29201
803-758-2576
South Dakota (State Commissions and Offices)
Office of Adult Services and Aging
Department of Social Services
700 North Illinois Street
Pierre, SD 57501
605-773-3656
Tennessee (State Commissions and Offices)
Commission on Aging
703 Tennessee Building
535 Church Street
Nashville, TN 37219
615-741-2056
Texas (State Commissions and Offices)
Texas Department on Aging
Capitol Station
P.O. Box 12786
Austin, TX 78711
512-475-2717
Utah (State Commissions and Offices)
Division of Aging
Department of Social Services
P.O. Box 45500
Salt Lake City, UT 84145
801-533-6422
Vermont (State Commissions and Offices)
Office on Aging
103 South Main Street
Waterbury, VT 05676
802-241-2400
Virginia (State Commissions and Offices)
Department for the Aging
101 North 14th Street
18th Floor
Richmond, VA 23219
804-225-2271
Washington (State Commissions and Offices)
Bureau of Aging and Adult Services
Department of Social and Health Services
Ob-43G
Olympia, WA 98504
206-753-2502
West Virginia (State Commissions and Offices)
Commission on Aging
State Capitol
Charleston, WV 25305
304-348-3317
Wisconsin (State Commissions and Offices)
Bureau on Aging
Department of Health and Social Services
Division of Community Services
One West Wilson Street
P.O. Box 7851
Madison, WI 53707
608-266-2536
Wyoming (State Commissions and Offices)
Commission on Aging
Hathaway Building
Cheyenne, WY 82002
307-777-7986
American Samoa (State Commissions and Offices)
Territorial Administration on Aging
Government of American Samoa
Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799
(written complaints only)
Guam (State Commissions and Offices)
Office of Aging
Social Service Department of Public Health
Government of Guam
P.O. Box 2816
Agana, GU 96910
(written complaints only)
Puerto Rico (State Commissions and Offices)
Gericulture Commission
Department of Social Services
P.O. Box 11398
Santurce, PR 00910
(written complaints only)
Virgin Islands (State Commissions and Offices)
Commission on Aging
P.O. Box 539
Charlotte Amalie
St. Thomas, VI 00801
(written complaints only)
Alcoholism and Drug Abuse
Alcoholism (Useful Addresses)
Alcohol and Drug Problems Association of
North America
444 North Capitol Street
Suite 181
Washington, DC 20001
202-737-4340
Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration
Public Health Service
Parklawn Building
5600 Fishers Lane
Room 12C-15
Rockville, MD 20857
301-443-3783
Alcohol Education for Youth and Community
362 State Street
Albany, NY 12210
518-436-9319
Alcoholics Anonymous World Services
P.O. Box 459
Grand Central Station
468 Park Avenue South
New York, NY 10163
212-686-1100
American Council on Alcohol Problems
2908 Patricia Drive
Des Moines, IA 50322
515-276-7752
Association of Halfway House Alcoholism Programs
of North America
786 East 7th Street
St. Paul, MN 55106
612-771-0933
Boost Alcohol Consciousness Concerning Health
of Students
124 Tigert Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL 32611
904-392-1261
Center for Alcohol Studies
Rutgers University
New Brunswick, NJ 08903
609-452-4851
Community Organization for Drug Abuse, Mental
Health, and Alcohol
124 West Thomas Road
No. 110
Phoenix, AZ 85013
602-234-0096
Do It Now Foundation
P.O. Box 5115
2050 East University Drive
Suite 7
Phoenix, AZ 85010
602-257-0797
Families Anonymous
P.O. Box 528
14617 Victory Boulevard
Suite 1
Van Nuys, CA 91408
818-989-7841
Hazelden Research Services
1400 Park Avenue South
Minneapolis, MN 55404
612-349-9400
National Association for Children of Alcoholics
31706 Coast Highway
Suite 201
San Laguna, CA 92677
714-499-3889
National Association of State Mental Health Program
Directors
1001 Third Street, SW
Suite 115
Washington, DC 20024
202-554-7807
National Clearinghouse for Alcohol Information
P.O. Box 2345
1776 East Jefferson Street
Rockville, MD 20852
301-468-2600
National Nurses Society on Addictions
2506 Gross Point Road
Evanston, IL 60201
312-475-7300
Drug Abuse (Useful Addresses)
American Council for Drug Education
6193 Executive Boulevard
Rockville, MD 20852
301-984-5700
American Medical Society on Alcoholism and Other
Drug Dependencies
12 West 12th Street
New York, NY 10010
212-206-6770
Committees of Correspondence
P.O. Box 232
Topsfield, MA 01983
508-774-2641
Division of Substance Abuse Medicine
Medical College of Virginia Hospital
P.O. Box 109
Richmond, VA 23298
804-786-9914
Do It Now Foundation
P.O. Box 5115
2050 East University Drive
Suite 7
Phoenix, AZ 85010
602-257-0797
Drug Abuse Warning Network
National Institute on Drug Abuse
Parklawn Building
5600 Fishers Lane
Room 11A-55
Rockville, MD 20857
301-443-6637
Drug and Alcohol Council
396 Alexander Street
Rochester, NY 14607
716-244-3190
Drug Information Center
462 Grider Street
Buffalo, NY 14215
716-898-3927
Families Anonymous
P.O. Box 528
14617 Victory Boulevard
Suite 1
Van Nuys, CA 91408
818-989-7841
Families in Action
National Drug Information Center
3845 North Druid Hills Road
Suite 300
Decatur, GA 30033
404-325-5799
Institute for Studies of Destructive Behaviors
and the Suicide Prevention Center
1041 South Menlo Avenue
Los Angeles, CA 90006
213-386-5111
Narcotics Anonymous
World Service Office
16155 Wyandotte Street
Van Nuys, CA 91406
818-780-3951
National Association of Alcoholism and Drug Abuse
Counselors
951 South George Mason Drive
Arlington, VA 22204
703-920-4644
National Association on Drug Abuse Problems
355 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-986-1170
National Cocaine Hotline
Fair Oaks Hospital
19 Prospect Street
Summit, NJ 07901
800-262-2463
National Federation of Parents for Drug-Free Youth
8730 Georgia Avenue
Suite 200
Silver Spring, MD 20910
301-585-5437
National Institute on Drug Abuse
Office of Science
5600 Fishers Lane
Room 10-16
Rockville, MD 20857
301-443-6480
NIDA Addiction Research Center
P.O. Box 5180
Baltimore, MD 21224
301-955-7502
Odyssey Institute Corporation
817 Fairfield Avenue
Bridgeport, CT 06604
203-334-3488
Operation PAR
6613 49th Street North
Pinellas Park, FL 33565
813-527-5866
Parent Resources Institute on Drug Education
100 Edgewood Avenue
Suite 1216
Atlanta, GA 30303
404-658-2548
PharmChem
3925 Bohannon Drive
Menlo Park, CA 94025
415-328-6200
Pills Anonymous
P.O. Box 473
Ansonia Station
New York, NY 10023
212-874-0700
Potsmokers Anonymous
316 East Third Street
New York, NY 10009
212-254-1777
PYRAMID
1777 North California Boulevard
Suite 200
Walnut Creek, CA 94596
415-939-6666
Therapeutic Communities of America
624 South Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60605
312-663-1130
Women in Crisis
133 West 21st Street
Suite 11
11th Floor
New York, NY 10011
212-242-3081
Children
Child Abuse (Useful Addresses)
American Association for Protecting Children
American Humane Association
P.O. Box 1266
Colorado Springs, CO 80910
719-596-6006
Children's Bureau Clearinghouse on Child Abuse
and Neglect Information
Department of Health and Human Services
P.O. Box 1182
400 Sixth Street, SW
Washington, DC 20013
202-245-2856
Children's Legal Rights Information and Training
Program
2008 Hillyer Place
Washington, DC 20009
202-332-6575
Kempe National Center for the Prevention
and Treatment of Child Abuse and Neglect
Department of Pediatrics
Health Sciences Center
University of Colorado
1205 Oneida Street
Denver, CO 80220
303-321-3963
National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse
332 South Michigan Avenue
Suite 1250
Chicago, IL 60604
312-663-3520
National Network of Youth Advisory Boards
P.O. Box 402036
Ocean View Beach
Miami, FL 33140
305-532-2607
Odyssey Institute Corporation
817 Fairfield Avenue
Bridgeport, CT 06604
203-334-3488
Parents Anonymous
7120 Franklyn Avenue
Los Angeles, CA 90046
213-876-9642
Handicapped Children (Useful Addresses)
Association for Children with Retarded Mental
Development
162 Fifth Avenue
11th Floor
New York, NY 10010
212-475-7200
Council for Exceptional Children Department of
Information Services
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 22091
703-620-3660
Foundation for Children with Learning Disabilities
99 Park Avenue
6th Floor
New York, NY 10016
212-687-7211
National Information Center for Handicapped Children
and Youth
P.O. Box 1492
Washington, DC 20001
1555 Wilson Boulevard
Rosslyn, VA
703-522-3332
Runaways (Useful Addresses)
American Youth Work Center
1522 Connecticut Avenue, NW
4th Floor
Washington, DC 20036
202-785-0764
Contact Center
P.O. Box 81826
Superior Industrial Park
Lincoln, NE 68501
402-464-0602
Metro-Help National Runaway Switchboard
2210 North Halsted Street
Chicago, IL 60614
312-880-9860
800-621-4000
800-972-6004 (in Illinois)
Missing Children Help Center
410 Ware Boulevard
Suite 400
Tampa, FL 33619
813-623-KIDS
Consumers
Better Business Bureaus
Better Business Bureaus (BBBs) are nonprofit
organizations sponsored by local businesses.
There are some 170 BBBs in the United States
today. BBBs offer a variety of consumer
education programs and materials, provide
general information on companies, handle
consumer inquiries, mediate and arbitrate
complaints, and maintain records of consumer
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with individual
companies.
United States Bureaus
National Headquarters (Better Business Bureaus)
Council of Better Business Bureaus
1515 Wilson Boulevard
Arlington, VA 22209
703-276-0100
Local Bureaus
Alabama (Better Business Bureaus)
1214 South 20th Street
Birmingham, AL 32503
205-933-2893
108 Jefferson Street
Huntsville, AL 35801
205-533-1640
707 Van Antwerp Building
Mobile, AL 36602
205-433-5494
Union Bank Building
Commerce Street
Suite 810
Montgomery, AL 36104
205-262-5606
Alaska (Better Business Bureaus)
417 Barrow
3605 Arctic Boulevard #BB
Anchorage, AK 99503
907-276-5901
Arizona (Better Business Bureaus)
4428 North 12th Street
Phoenix, AZ 85013
602-264-1721
100 East Alameda Street
Suite 403
Tucson, AZ 85701
602-622-7651 (inquiries)
602-622-7654 (complaints)
Arkansas (Better Business Bureaus)
1216 South University
Little Rock, AR 72204
501-664-7274
California (Better Business Bureaus)
705 18th Street
Bakersfield, CA 93301
805-322-2074
1265 North La Cadena
Colton, CA 92324
714-825-7280
5070 North Sixth Street
Suite 176
Fresno, CA 93720
209-222-8111
639 South New Hampshire Avenue
3rd Floor
Los Angeles, CA 90005
213-383-0992
508 16th Street
Room 1500
Oakland, CA 94612
415-839-5900
1401 21st Street
Suite 305
Sacramento, CA 95814
916-443-6843
Union Bank Building
Suite 301
San Diego, CA 92101
619-234-0966
4310 Orange Avenue
San Diego, CA 92105
619-283-3927
2740 Van Ness Avenue 210
San Francisco, CA 94109
415-775-3300
P.O. Box 8110
1505 Meridian Avenue
San Jose, CA 95125
408-978-8700
P.O. Box 294
20 North San Mateo Drive
San Mateo, CA 94401
415-347-1251, 1252, 1253
P.O. Box 746
111 North Milpas Street
Santa Barbara, CA 93102
805-963-8657
1111 North Center Street
Stockton, CA 95202
209-948-4880
17662 Irvine Boulevard
Suite 15
Tustin, CA 92680
714-544-6942 (inquiries)
714-544-5842 (complaints)
Colorado (Better Business Bureaus)
524 South Cascade
Suite 2
Colorado Springs, CO 80903
719-636-1155
1780 South Bellaire
Suite 700
Denver, CO 80222
303-758-2100
140 West Oak Street
Fort Collins, CO 80524
303-484-1348
Connecticut (Better Business Bureaus)
Fairfield Woods Plaza
2345 Black Rock Turnpike
Fairfield, CT 06430
203-374-6161
P.O. Box 2068
100 South Turnpike Road
New Haven, CT 06473
203-269-2700 (inquiries)
203-269-4457 (complaints)
630 Oakwood Avenue
Suite 223
West Hartford, CT 06110
203-247-8700
Delaware (Better Business Bureaus)
P.O. Box 300
20 South Walnut Street
Milford, DE 19963
302-856-6969
P.O. Box 4085
1901-B West 11th Street
Wilmington, DE 19807
302-652-3833
District of Columbia (Better Business Bureaus)
1012 14th Street, NW
Prudential Building
14th Floor
Washington, DC 20005
202-393-8000
Florida (Better Business Bureaus)
3969 Ulmerton Road
Clearwater, FL 33520
813-577-6040
8600 NE 2nd Avenue
Miami, FL 33138
305-757-3446
3080 Tamiami Trail North
Naples, FL 33940
813-261-0606
608 Gulf Drive West
Suite 3
New Port Richey, FL 33552
813-842-5459
132 East Colonial Drive
Orlando, FL 32801
407-843-8873
P.O. Box 1511
Pensacola, Florida 32597
904-433-6111
3015 Exchange Court
West Palm Beach, FL 33409
407-686-2200
Georgia (Better Business Bureaus)
100 Edgewood Avenue
Suite 1012
Atlanta, GA 30303
404-688-4910
P.O. Box 2085
624 Ellis Street
Suite 106
Augusta, GA 30903
404-722-1574
8 13th Street
Columbus, GA 31901
404-324-0712, 0713
P.O. Box 13956
6822 Abercom Extension
Savannah, GA 31406
912-354-7521
Hawaii (Better Business Bureaus)
677 Ala Moana Boulevard
Suite 614
Honolulu, HI 96813
808-531-8131, 8132, 8133
Idaho (Better Business Bureaus)
409 West Jefferson
Boise, ID 83702
208-342-4649
Illinois (Better Business Bureaus)
35 East Wacker Drive
Chicago, IL 60601
312-444-1188 (inquiries)
312-346-3313 (complaints)
109 Southwest Jefferson Street
Suite 305
Peoria, IL 61602
309-673-5194
3 West-Old Capitol Plaza
Room 14
Springfield, IL 62701
319-366-5401
Indiana (Better Business Bureaus)
P.O. Box 405
118 South Second Street
Elkhart, IN 46515
219-293-5731
113 SE Fourth Street
Evansville, IN 47708
812-422-6879
1203 Webster Street
Fort Wayne, IN 46802
219-423-4433
4231 Cleveland Street
Gary, IN 46408
219-980-1511
22 East Washington Street
Suite 310
Indianapolis, IN 46204
317-637-0197
204 Iroquois Building
Marion, IN 46952
317-668-8954
Ball State University BBB
Whitinger Building
Room 192
Muncie, IN 47306
317-285-5666
Iowa (Better Business Bureaus)
Alpine Center
2435 Kimberly Road
Suite 110 North
Bettendorf, IA 52722
319-355-6344
3 Irvine Building
417 First Avenue, SE
Suite 3
Cedar Rapids, IA 52401
319-366-5401
615 Insurance Exchange Building
Des Moines, IA 50309
515-243-8137
318 Badgerow Building
Sioux City, IA 51101
712-252-4501
Kansas (Better Business Bureaus)
501 Jefferson
Suite 24
Topeka, KS 66607
913-232-0454, 0455
300 Kaufman Building
Wichita, KS 67202
316-263-3146
Kentucky (Better Business Bureaus)
629 North Broadway
Lexington, KY 40508
606-252-4492
844 South Fourth Street
Louisville, KY 40203
502-583-6546
Louisiana (Better Business Bureaus)
1407 Murray Street
Suite 101
Alexandria, LA 71306
318-473-4494
2055 Wooddale Boulevard
Baton Rouge, LA 70806
504-926-3010
300 Bond Street
Box 9129
Houma, LA 70360
504-868-3456
P.O. Box 3651
804 Jefferson Street
Lafayette, LA 70501
318-234-8341
P.O. Box 1681
1413 Ryan Street
Suite C
Lake Charles, LA 70602
318-433-1633
141 De Siard Street
ONB Building
Suite 114
Monroe, LA 71201
318-837-4600, 4601
301 Camp Street
Suite 403
New Orleans, LA 70130
504-581-6222
1407 North Market Street
Shreveport, LA 71107
318-221-8352
Maryland (Better Business Bureaus)
401 North Howard Street
Baltimore, MD 21201
301-468-3405
6917 Arlington Road
Bethesda, MD 20814
301-468-3405
Massachusetts (Better Business Bureaus)
8 Winter Street
Boston, MA 02108
617-482-9151 (inquiries)
617-482-9190 (complaints)
106 State Road
Suite 4
Dartmouth, MA 02747
508-999-6060
One Kendall Street
Suite 307
Framingham, MA 01701
508-872-5585
The Federal Building
Suite 1
78 North Street
Hyannis, MA 02601
508-771-3022
316 Essex Street
Lawrence, MA 01840
508-687-7666
293 Bridge Street
Suite 324
Springfield, MA 01103
413-734-3114
P.O. Box 379
32 Franklin Street (16108)
Worcester, MA 01601
508-755-2548
Michigan (Better Business Bureaus)
150 Michigan Avenue
Detroit, MI 48226
313-962-7566 (inquiries)
313-962-6785 (complaints)
1 Peoples Building
Grand Rapids, MI 49503
616-744-8236
Holland/Zeeland 616-772-6063
Muskegon 616-722-0707
Minnesota (Better Business Bureaus)
1745 University Avenue
St. Paul, MN 55104
612-646-4631
Mississippi (Better Business Bureaus)
502 Edgewater Gulf Drive
Building C - Suite 10
Biloxi, MS 39531
601-388-9244
105 Fifth Avenue
Columbus, MS 39701
601-327-8594
P.O. Box 2090
510 George Street
Suite 107
Jackson, MS 39225
601-948-4732
601 22nd Avenue
Suite 313
Meridian, MS 39301
601-482-8752
Missouri (Better Business Bureaus)
306 East 12th Street
Suite 1024
Kansas City, MO 64106
816-421-7800
Mansion House Center
440 North Fourth Street
St. Louis, MO 63102
314-241-3100
205 Park Central East
Suite 312
Springfield, MO 65806
417-862-9231
Nebraska (Better Business Bureaus)
719 North 48th Street
Lincoln, NE 68504
402-467-5261
1613 Farnam Street
Room 417
Omaha, NE 68102
402-346-3033
Nevada (Better Business Bureaus)
1829 East Charleston Boulevard
Suite 103
Las Vegas, NV 89104
702-322-0657
P.O. Box 2932
372-A Casazza Drive (89502)
Reno, NV 89505
702-735-6900
New Hampshire (Better Business Bureaus)
One Pillsbury Street
Concord, NH 03301
603-224-1991
New Jersey (Better Business Bureaus)
P.O. Box 303
836 Haddon Avenue
Collingswood, NJ 08108
609-854-8467
690 Whitehead Road
Lawrenceville, NJ 08648
609-396-1199 (Mercer County)
201-536-6306 (Monmouth County)
201-329-6854, 55 (Middlesex, Somerset,
and Hunterdon counties)
34 Park Place
Newark, NJ 07102
201-643-3025
2 Forest Avenue
Paramus, NJ 07652
201-845-4044
1721 Route 37 East
Toms River, NJ 06753
201-270-5577
New Mexico (Better Business Bureaus)
4520 Montgomery, NE
Suite B-1
Albuquerque, NM 87109
505-884-0500
308 North Locke
Farmington, NM 87401
505-326-6501
Santa Fe Division
227 East Palace Avenue
Suite C
Santa Fe, NM 87501
505-988-3648
New York (Better Business Bureaus)
775 Main Street
Buffalo, NY 14203
716-856-7180
266 Main Street
Farmingdale, NY 11735
516-420-0500 (Long Island)
257 Park Avenue South
New York, NY 10010
212-533-6200 (inquiries and complaints)
212-533-7500 (other)
212-533-6200 (Harlem)
1122 Sibley Tower
Rochester, NY 14604
716-546-6776
200 University Building
Syracuse, NY 13202
315-479-6635
209 Elizabeth Street
Utica, NY 13501
315-724-3129
158 Westchester Avenue
White Plains, NY 10601
914-428-1230, 1231
120 East Main
Wappingers Falls, NY 12590
914-297-6550
North Carolina (Better Business Bureaus)
29 1/2 Page Avenue
Ashville, NC 28801
704-253-2392
202 North Tryon Street
Charlotte, NC 28202
704-332-7151
3608 West Friendly Avenue
Greensboro, NC 27410
919-852-4240, 4241, 4242
Northwestern Bank Building
11 South College Avenue
Suite 203
Newton, NC 28658
704-464-0372
P.O. Box 95066
3120 Poplarwood Drive
Suite G-1 (27604)
Raleigh, NC 27625
919-872-9240
2110 Cloverdale Avenue
Suite 2-B
Winston-Salem, NC 27103
919-725-8348
Ohio (Better Business Bureaus)
P.O. Box F 596
Akron, OH 44308
216-253-4590
1434 Cleveland Avenue North
Canton, OH 44713
216-454-9401
898 Walnut Street
Cincinnati, OH 45202
513-421-3015
1720 Keith Building
Cleveland, OH 44115
216-241-7678
527 South High Street
Columbus, OH 43215
614-221-6336
40 West Fourth Street
Suite 280
Dayton, OH 45402
513-222-5825
P.O. Box 1706
130 West Second Street (44902)
Mansfield, OH 44901
419-522-1700
405 North Huron Street
Toledo, OH 43604
419-241-6276
P.O. Box 1495
Mahoning Valley
Youngstown, OH 44501
216-744-3111
Oklahoma (Better Business Bureaus)
606 North Dewey
Oklahoma City, OK 73102
405-239-6081, 82, 83
4833 South Sheridan
Suite 412
Tulsa, OK 74145
918-664-1266
Oregon (Better Business Bureaus)
520 SW Sixth Avenue
Suite 600
Portland, OR 97204
503-226-3981
Pennsylvania (Better Business Bureaus)
528 North New Street
Dodson Building
Bethlehem, PA 18018
215-866-8780
53 North Duke Street
Lancaster, PA 17602
717-291-1151
717-846-2700 (York County residents)
511 North Broad Street
Philadelphia, PA 19123
215-574-3600
610 Smithfield Street
Pittsburgh, PA 15222
412-456-2700
601 Connell Building
North Washington Avenue
Scranton, PA 18503
717-342-9129
Puerto Rico (Better Business Bureaus)
155 Jose Padin Street
Huyke Urb.
Hato Rey, PR 00918
(packages, UPS)
G.P.O. Box 70212
San Juan, PR 00936
(general correspondence)
809-756-5400
Rhode Island (Better Business Bureaus)
270 Weybosset Street
Providence, RI 02903
401-272-9800
South Carolina (Better Business Bureaus)
1338 Main Street
Suite 500
Columbia, SC 29201
803-254-2525
608 East Washington Street
Greenville, SC 29601
803-242-5052
Tennessee (Better Business Bureaus)
Park Plaza Building
1010 Market Street
Suite 200
Chattanooga, TN 37402
615-266-6144
P.O. Box 3608
124 West Summit Hill Drive
Knoxville, TN 37902
615-522-1300
P.O. Box 41406
1835 Union
Suite 312
Memphis, TN 38104
901-272-9641
506 Nashville City Bank Building
Nashville, TN 37201
615-254-5872
Texas (Better Business Bureaus)
Bank of Commerce Building
Suite 320
Abilene, TX 79605
915-691-1533
1008 West 10th Street
Amarillo, TX 79101
806-374-3735
1005 American Plaza
Austin, TX 78701
512-476-6943
P.O. Box 2988
476 Oakland Avenue (77701)
Beaumont, TX 77704
713-835-5348
202 Varisco Building
Bryan, TX 77803
713-823-8148
109 North Chaparral
Suite 101
Corpus Christi, TX 78401
512-888-5555
2001 Bryan Street
Suite 850
Dallas, TX 75201
214-220-2000
6024 Gateway East
El Paso, TX 79905
915-778-7000
709 Sinclair Building
106 West 5th Street
Forth Worth, TX 76102
817-332-7585
2707 North Loop West
Suite 900
Houston, TX 77008
713-868-9500
910 East Marshall Street
Longview, TX 75601
214-236-3339
P.O. Box 1178
1015 15th Street
Lubbock, TX 79401
806-763-0459
P.O. Box 6006
Air Terminal Building
Room 216
Midland, TX 79711
915-563-1880 (inquiries)
915-563-1881 (complaints)
115 South Randolph
San Angelo, TX 76903
915-653-2318
1800 Northeast Loop 410
Suite 400
San Antonio, TX 78217
512-828-9441
P.O. Box 7203
608 New Road (76710)
Waco, TX 76714
817-772-7530
1106 Brook Avenue
Wichita Falls, TX 76301
817-723-5526
Utah (Better Business Bureaus)
1588 South Main Street
Salt Lake City, UT 84115
801-487-4656
Virginia (Better Business Bureaus)
105 East Annandale Road
Suite 210
Falls Church, VA 22046
703-533-1900
P.O. Box 11133
2019 Llewellyn Avenue
Norfolk, VA 23517
804-627-5651
804-851-9101 (peninsula area)
701 East Franklin
Suite 100
Richmond, VA 23219
804-648-0016
151 West Campbell Avenue, SW
Roanoke, VA 24011
703-342-3455
Washington (Better Business Bureaus)
2200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA 98121
206-622-8067, 8068
South 176 Stevens Street
Suite A
Spokane, WA 99204
509-747-1155
1101 Fawcett Avenue
Tacoma, WA 98401
206-383-5561
424 Washington Mutual Building
Yakima, WA 98907
509-248-1326
Wisconsin (Better Business Bureaus)
740 North Plankinton Avenue
Milwaukee, WI 53203
414-273-1600
Canadian (Better Business Bureaus)
National Headquarters (Better Business Bureaus)
2180 Steeles Avenue W 219
Concord, ON L4K 2Z5
416-669-1248
Local Bureaus (Better Business Bureaus)
Newfoundland and Labrador
2 Forbes Street #9
Box 516
St. John's, NF A1C 5K4
709-722-2222
New Brunswick
236 St. George Street
Box 1002
Moncton, NB E1C 8P2
506-857-3255
Nova Scotia
1731 Barrington Street
Box 2124
Halifax, NS B3J 3B7
902-422-6581
Quebec
475 rue Richelieu
Quebec, QC G1R 1K2
418-523-2555
Montreal
2055 Peel Street
460
Montreal, QC H3A 1V4
514-286-9281
Ottawa and Hull
Sovereign Building
71 Bank Street 503
Ottawa, ON K1P 5N2
613-233-3562
Metropolitan Toronto
1 St. John's Road 501
Toronto, ON M6P 4C7
416-766-5744
South Central Ontario
170 Jackson Street, E.
Hamilton, ON L8N 1L4
416-526-1111
London and District
304 York Street
Box 2153, Station A
London, ON N6A 4E3
519-673-3222
Mid-Western Ontario
58 Scott Street
Kitchener, ON N2H 2R1
519-579-3080
Windsor and District
500 Riverside Drive
West Windsor, ON N9A 5K6
519-258-7222
Winnipeg and Manitoba
365 Hargrave Street 204
Winnipeg, MB R3B 2K3
204-943-1486
Saskatchewan
2049 Lorne Street
Regina, SK S4P 2M4
306-352-7601
Calgary and Southern Alberta
630 8th Avenue SW 404
Calgary, AB T2P 1G6
403-269-3905
Central and Northern Alberta
600 Guardian Building
10240 124th Street
Edmonton, AB T5N 3W6
403-482-2341
British Columbia
#404
788 Beatty Street
Vancouver, BC V6B 2M1
604-682-2711
Vancouver Island
635 Humboldt Street
Victoria, BC V8W 1A7
604-386-6348
State, County, and City Government Consumer
Protection Offices
Listed below are consumer protection offices that
are part of state, county, and city governments.
Some are located in governors' offices, state
attorney generals' offices, or mayors' offices.
Check in your state to see which office can help
resolve complaints, furnish information or helpful
publications, or provide other services. As a
general rule, the first place to go for help with
a consumer problem is the local office nearest your
home. Since most offices require that complaints
be in writing, you might save time by writing,
rather than calling, with your initial complaint.
Alabama (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Director
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
560 South McDonough Street
Montgomery, AL 36104
205-261-4200
800-392-5658 (toll free-Alabama only)
Alaska (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Section
1031 West Fourth Avenue
Suite 300
Anchorage, AK 99501
907-279-0428
Branch Offices
Office of Attorney General
First National Center
100 Cushman Street
Suite 400
Fairbanks, AK 99707
907-456-8588
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Section
Pouch K
Juneau, AK 99811
907-465-3692
Arizona (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Chief Counsel
Office of Attorney General
Financial Fraud Division
1275 West Washington Street
Phoenix, AZ 85007
602-255-5763 (fraud only)
800-352-8431 (toll free-Arizona only)
Branch Office
Office of Attorney General
Financial Fraud Division
402 West Congress Street
Suite 315
Tucson, AZ 85701
602-628-5501 (fraud only)
County Offices
Chief Investigator
Cochise County Attorney's Office
P.O. Drawer CA
Bisbee, AZ 85603
602-432-5703 (ext. 470)
Director
Pima County Attorney's Office
Consumer Protection/Economic Crime Unit
111 West Congress
Ninth Floor
Tucson, AZ 85701
602-792-8668
Yuma County Attorney's Office
P.O. Box 1048
Yuma, AZ 85364
602-782-4534 (ext. 55)
City Offices
Supervising Attorney
Tucson City Attorney's Office
P.O. Box 27210
2302 East Speedway
Room 202
Tucson, AZ 85726
602-791-4886
Arkansas (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Director
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
Justice Building
Little Rock, AR 72201
501-371-2341
800-482-8982 (toll free-Arkansas only)
California (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Office of Attorney General
Public Inquiry Unit
1515 K Street
Suite 511
Sacramento, CA 95814
916-322-3360
800-952-5225 (toll free-California only)
Director
California Department of Consumer Affairs
1020 N Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
916-445-0660 (complaints, 10:00 - 3:00 daily)
916-445-1254 (consumer information)
Consumer Advisory Council
1020 N Street
Room A603
Sacramento, CA 95814
916-322-0548
California Department of Consumer Affairs
Bureau of Automotive Repair
3116 Bradshaw Road
Sacramento, CA 95827
916-366-5050
800-952-5210 (toll-free-California only; auto
repair only)
Branch Offices
California Department of Consumer Affairs
107 South Broadway
Room 8020
Los Angeles, CA 90012
213-620-4360
Complaint Assistance Unit
1020 N Street
Room 586
Sacramento, CA 95814
916-445-0660
County Offices
Chairperson
Alameda County Consumer Affairs Commission
10910 East 14th Street
Oakland, CA 94603
415-639-4812
Contra Costa County District Attorney
Special Operations Division
P.O. Box 670
725 Court Street
4th Floor
Martinez, CA 94553
415-372-4500 (ext. 4620)
Fresno County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Division
1100 Van Ness Avenue
Fresno, CA 93721
209-488-3141
District Attorney
Kern County District Attorney's Office
Consumer and Major Business Fraud Section
1215 Truxton Avenue
Bakersfield, CA 93301
805-861-2421
Deputy District Attorney
Los Angeles County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Protection Division
320 West Temple Street
Room 540
Los Angeles, CA 90012
213-974-3970
Director
Los Angeles County Department of Consumer Affairs
500 West Temple Street
Room B-96
Los Angeles, CA 90012
213-974-1452
Director
Madera County Weights and Measures
Consumer Protection Unit
902 North Gateway Drive
Madera, CA 93637
209-675-7809
District Attorney
Mendocino County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Division
P.O. Box 1000
Ukiah, CA 95482
707-463-4211
Coordinator
Monterey County Office of Consumer Affairs
P.O. Box 1369
Salinas, CA 93902
408-758-4626
Deputy District Attorney
Napa County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Affairs Division
1125 Third Street
Napa, CA 94559
707-253-4427
Deputy District Attorney
Orange County District Attorney's Office
Major Fraud Consumer Protection Unit
P.O. Box 808
700 Civic Center Drive West
Santa Ana, CA 92702
714-834-3600
Director
Orange County Office of Consumer Affairs
1300 South Grand Avenue
Building B
Santa Ana, CA 92711
714-834-6100
Deputy District Attorney
Riverside County District Attorney's Office
Economic Crime Division
4080 Lemon Street
Riverside, CA 92501
714-787-6372
Supervising Deputy District Attorney
Sacramento County District Attorney's Fraud
Division
P.O. Box 749
Sacramento, CA 95804
916-440-6174
Director
San Diego County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Division
P.O. Box X-1011
San Diego, CA 92112
619-236-2474
Attorney in Charge
San Francisco County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud/Economic Crime Unit
732 Brennan Street
San Francisco, CA 94103
415-552-6400
Deputy District Attorney in Charge
San Joaquin County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud and Regulatory Agencies Division
P.O. Box 50
222 East Weber
Stockton, CA 95201
209-944-3811
District Attorney
San Luis Obispo County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Unit
Room 450
County Government Center
1050 Monterey Street
San Luis Obispo, CA 93408
805-549-5800
Deputy District Attorney
San Mateo County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Unit
Hall of Justice and Records
401 Marshall Street
Redwood City, CA 94063
415-363-4656
Deputy District Attorney
Santa Barbara County District Attorney's Office
Consumer/Business Law Section
118 East Figueroa
Santa Barbara, CA 93101
805-963-6158
Director
Santa Clara County Department of Consumer Affairs
1553 Berger Drive
San Jose, CA 95112
408-299-4211
Deputy District Attorney
Santa Clara County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Unit
70 West Hedding Street, West Wing
San Jose, CA 95110
408-299-7435
Coordinator
Santa Cruz County District Attorney's Office
Division of Consumer Affairs
701 Ocean Street
Room 240
Santa Cruz, CA 95060
408-425-2054
Deputy District Attorney
Solano County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Affairs Unit
600 Union Avenue
Fairfield, CA 94533
707-429-6451
Consumer Affairs Director
Stanislaus County Office of Consumer Affairs
1100 H Street
2nd Floor
Modesto, CA 95354
209-571-6211
Deputy District Attorney
Stanislaus County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Unit
P.O. Box 442
Modesto, CA 95353
209-571-5550
Deputy District Attorney
Ventura County District Attorney's Office
Consumer and Environmental Protection Division
800 South Victoria Avenue
Ventura, CA 93009
805-654-3110
Deputy District Attorney
Yolo County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Division
P.O. Box 1247
Woodland, CA 95695
916-666-8180
City Offices
Supervising Deputy City Attorney
Los Angeles City Attorney's Office
Consumer Protection Section
200 North Main Street
1600 City Hall East
Los Angeles, CA 90012
213-485-4515
Deputy City Attorney
San Diego City Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Unit
Union Bank Building
525 B Street
Suite 2100
San Diego, CA 92101
619-236-6007
Consumer Affairs Specialist
Santa Monica City Attorney's Office
Consumer Division
1685 Main Street
Room 310
Santa Monica, CA 90401
213-458-8336
Colorado (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Office of Attorney General
Antitrust and Consumer Protection Enforcement
Section
1525 Sherman Street
3rd Floor
Denver, CO 80203
303-866-3611
Consumer Specialist
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Unit
1525 Sherman Street
Room 215
Denver, CO 80203
303-866-3611
Consumer and Food Specialist
Department of Agriculture
1525 Sherman Street
4th Floor
Denver, CO 80203
303-866-3561
County Offices
District Attorney
Archuleta, LaPlata and San Juan Counties District
Attorney's Office
P.O. Box 3455
Durango, CO 81302
303-247-8850
District Attorney
Boulder County District Attorney's Consumer Office
P.O. Box 471
Boulder, CO 80306
303-441-3700
Executive Director
Denver County District Attorney's Consumer
Fraud Office
303 West Colfax
Suite 1308
Denver, CO 80204
303-575-3555 (inquiries)
303-575-3557 (complaints)
Chief Deputy District Attorney
El Paso and Teller Counties District Attorney's
Consumer Office
Economic Crime Division
326 South Tejon
Colorado Springs, CO 80903
719-520-6002
Investigator
Larimer County District Attorney's Office
Rocky Mountain Bank Building
P.O. Box 1489
Fort Collins, CO 80522
303-221-7200
District Attorney
Pueblo County District Attorney's Consumer Office
Courthouse
Tenth and Main Streets
Pueblo, CO 81003
719-544-0075
District Attorney
Weld County District Attorney's Consumer Office
P.O. Box 1167
Greeley, CO 80632
303-356-4000 ext. 4734
Connecticut (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Commissioner
Department of Consumer Protection
State Office Building
165 Capitol Avenue
Hartford, CT 06106
203-566-4999
800-842-2649 (toll free-Connecticut only)
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Antitrust Consumer Protection
30 Trinity Street
Hartford, CT 06106
203-566-5374
City Office
Director
Middletown Office of Consumer Protection
City Hall
Middletown, CT 06457
203-344-3400
Delaware (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
Division of Consumer Affairs
Department of Community Affairs
820 North French Street
4th Floor
Wilmington, DE 19801
302-571-3250
Deputy in Charge
Economic Crime/Consumer Rights Division
820 North French Street
Wilmington, DE 19801
302-571-3849
District of Columbia (Consumer Protection Offices)
Director
District of Columbia
Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs
614 H Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001
202-727-7000
Florida (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
Division of Consumer Services
508 Mayo Building
Tallahassee, FL 32301
904-488-2221
800-342-2176 (toll free-Florida only)
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
State Capitol
Tallahassee, FL 32301
904-488-9105
Branch Office
Consumer Counsel
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
401 NW Second Avenue
Suite 450
Miami, FL 33128
305-377-5619
County Offices
Assistant State Attorney
Office of State Attorney
Brevard County Consumer Fraud Division
County Courthouse
Titusville, FL 32780
407-269-8112
Director
Broward County Consumer Affairs Division
115 South Andrews Avenue
Room 119
Fort Lauderdale, FL 33301
305-357-6030
Director
Metropolitan Dade County Consumer Protection
Division
44 West Flagler Street
Suite 2303
Miami, FL 33130
305-579-4222
Consumer Advocate
Metropolitan Dade County
111 Northwest First Street
17th Floor
Miami, FL 33128
305-375-4206
Chief
Office of State Attorney
Dade County Economic Crime Unit
1351 NW 12th Street
Miami, FL 33125
305-547-7041
Consumer Affairs Officer
Duval County Division of Consumer Affairs
Department of Human Resources
614 City Hall
Jacksonville, FL 32202
904-633-3429, 3940
Director
Hillsborough County Department of Consumer Affairs
412 East Madison Street
Room 1001
Tampa, FL 33602
813-272-6750
State Attorney for Manatee, Sarasota and DeSoto
Counties
Office of State Attorney
2002 Ringling Boulevard
Sarasota, FL 33577
813-955-9310
Chief
Investigative Unit
Orange County Consumer Fraud Unit
P.O. Box 1673
250 North Orange Avenue
Orlando, FL 32802
407-420-3880
Director
Palm Beach County Department of Consumer Affairs
301 North Olive Avenue
Suite 301
West Palm Beach, FL 33401
407-837-2670
Citizens Intake
Office of State Attorney
P.O. Drawer 2905
West Palm Beach, FL 33402
407-837-3560
Administrator
Pasco County Consumer Affairs Division
7530 Little Road
New Port Richey, FL 33553
813-847-8110
Director
Pinellas County Office of Consumer Affairs
P.O. Box 5145
Largo, FL 34294
813-586-5402
Coordinator
Seminole County Consumer Fraud Division
Office of State Attorney
P.O. Box 2112
Sanford, FL 32772-2114
407-322-7534
City Offices
Chairman
Lauderhill Consumer Affairs Committee
1176 NW 42nd Way
Lauderhill, FL 33313
305-583-1045
Chairman
Tamarac Board of Consumer Affairs
5811 NW 88th Avenue
Tamarac, FL 33321
305-722-5900 (ext. 26, 10:00 - 12:00 daily)
Georgia (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Administrator
Governor's Office of Consumer Affairs
2 Martin Luther King, Jr. Drive
Plaza Level-East Tower
Atlanta, GA 30334
404-656-3790
800-282-5808 (toll free-Georgia only)
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
210 State Judicial Building
Atlanta, GA 30334
404-656-3345
Hawaii (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Director
Department of Commerce and Consumer Affairs
Office of Consumer Protection
P.O. Box 3767
250 South King Street
Room 520
Honolulu, HI 96812
808-548-2560 (administrative and legal-Hawaii
only)
808-548-2540 (complaints and investigations-Hawaii
only)
Branch Office
Investigator
Department of Commerce and Consumer Affairs
Office of Consumer Protection
75 Aupuni Street
Hilo, HI 96720
808-961-7433
Illinois (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Special Assistant to the Governor
Governor's Office of Citizen's Assistance
100 West Randolph Street
Chicago, IL 60601
312-793-2773
Assistant Attorney General and Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
500 South Second Street
Springfield, IL 62706
217-782-9011
Chief
Consumer Protection Division
Office of Attorney General
100 West Randolph
12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60601
312-917-3580
Regional Offices
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Carbondale Regional Office
626A East Walnut Street
Carbondale, IL 62901
618-457-3505
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Champaign Regional Office
34 Main Street
Champaign, IL 61820
217-333-7691
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Decatur Regional Office
140 South Water Street
Decatur, IL 62523
217-428-5076
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
East St. Louis Regional Office
8712 State Street
East St. Louis, IL 62203
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Granite City Regional Office
1314 Niedringhaus
Granite City, IL 62040
618-877-0404
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Kankakee Regional Office
270 East Court Street
Kankakee, IL 60901
815-935-8500
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
LaSalle Regional Office
143 Gooding
LaSalle, IL 61301
815-224-4861
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Mt. Vernon Regional Office
718 East Main
Mt. Vernon, IL 62864
618-242-8200
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Peoria Regional Office
323 Main Street
Peoria, IL 61602
309-671-3191
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Quincy Regional Office
523 Main Street
Quincy, IL 62301
217-223-2221
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Rockford Regional Office
110 North Church
Rockford, IL 61101
815-987-7580
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Rock Island Regional Office
310 20th Street
Rock Island, IL 61201
309-793-0950
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
West Frankfort Regional Office
222 East Main Street
West Frankfort, IL 62896
618-937-6453
Branch Offices
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Addison Regional Office
19 West 340 Lake Street
Addison, IL 60101
312-628-1912
Office of Attorney General
Community Center
1616 North Arlington Heights Road
Arlington Heights, IL 60004
312-259-7730 (Wednesdays only)
Special Assistant to the Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
McClean County Chamber of Commerce Building
210 Southeast Street
Bloomington, IL 61701
309-829-6344
Consumer Protection Division
Office of Attorney General
520 Jackson Street
Charleston, IL 61920
217-345-5651
Assistant Attorney General
Chicago North, Regional Office
Office of Attorney General
Office of Citizen Advocacy
2329 West Chicago Avenue
Chicago, IL 60622
312-278-0403
Office Director
Chicago South, Regional Office
Office of Attorney General
Office of Citizen Advocacy
7906 South Cottage Grove
Chicago, IL 60619
312-488-2600
Indiana (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Chief Counsel and Director
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
219 State House
Indianapolis, IN 46204
317-232-6330, 6331
800-382-5516 (toll free-Indiana only)
County Offices
Director
Lake County Prosecutor's Office
Consumer Protection Division
2293 North Main Street
Crown Point, IN 46307
219-738-9055
Marion County Prosecuting Attorney
560 City-County Building
Indianapolis, IN 46204
317-236-3522
Vanderburgh County Prosecuting Attorney
First Judicial Circuit
Courts Building
Civic Center Complex
Room 220
Evansville, IN 47708
812-426-5150
City Office
Director
Gary Office of Consumer Affairs
Annex East
1100 Massachusetts Street
Gary, IN 46407
219-886-0145
Iowa (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
1300 East Walnut Street
2nd Floor
Des Moines, IA 50319
515-281-5926
Iowa Citizens' Aide/Ombudsman
515 East 12th Street
Des Moines, IA 50319
515-281-3592
800-358-5510 (toll free-Iowa only)
Kansas (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Deputy Attorney General and Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection and Antitrust Division
Kansas Judicial Center
2nd Floor
Topeka, KS 66612
913-296-3751
800-432-2310 (toll free-Kansas only)
County Offices
Assistant District Attorney and Head
Johnson County District Attorney's Office Consumer
Fraud Division
Johnson County Courthouse, Box 728
Olathe, KS 66061
913-782-5000 (ext. 318)
Director
Sedgwick County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud and Economic Crime Division
Sedgwick County Courthouse
Wichita, KS 67203
316-268-7921
Assistant District Attorney
Shawnee County District Attorney's Office
Shawnee County Courthouse
Room 212
Topeka, KS 66603
913-295-4330
City Office
Assistant City Attorney
City Attorney's Office
Topeka Consumer Protection Division
215 East Seventh Street
Topeka, KS 66603 - 3979
913-295-3883
Kentucky (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Director
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
209 Saint Clair Street
Frankfort, KY 40601
502-564-2200
800-432-9257 (toll free-Kentucky only)
County Office
Administrator
Jefferson County Consumer Protection Department
517 Court Place
Room 606
Louisville, KY 40202
502-581-6280
Louisiana (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
State Office of Consumer Protection
P.O. Box 94455
Baton Rouge, LA 70804
504-925-4401
800-272-8478 (toll free-Louisiana only)
Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Section
1885 Wooddale Boulevard
Suite 1208
Baton Rouge, LA 70806
504-925-4181
Assistant Commissioner
Department of Agriculture
Office of Marketing
P.O. Box 44184
Capitol Station
Baton Rouge, LA 70804
504-292-3600
Branch Office
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Section
234 Loyola Avenue
7th Floor
New Orleans, LA 70112
504-568-5575
County Office
Director
Jefferson Parish District Attorney's Office
Consumer Protection and Commercial Fraud Division
200 Huey P. Long Avenue
Gretna, LA 70053
504-361-8139
Maine (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer and Antitrust Division
State House Station No. Six
Augusta, ME 04333
207-289-3716 (9:00 - 10:00 A.M.)
Superintendent
Bureau of Consumer Credit Protection
Department of Business, Occupational, and
Professional Regulation
State House Station No. 35
Augusta, ME 04333
207-289-3731
Maryland (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
Motor Vehicle Administration
Office of Licensing and Consumer Services
6601 Ritchie Highway, NE
Glen Burnie, MD 21062
301-768-7420
Director
Office of Attorney General
Consumer and Investor Affairs and Chief, Consumer
Protection Division
Seven North Calvert Street
Baltimore, MD 21202
301-528-8662 (8:30 - 4:30)
Branch Offices
Director
Office of Attorney General
Western Maryland Branch Office
Consumer Protection Division
138 East Antietam Street
Suite 210
Hagerstown, MD 21740
301-791-4780
Consumer Specialist
Office of Attorney General
Eastern Shore Branch Office
Consumer Protection Division
State Office Complex
Salisbury, MD 21801
301-546-4407
County Offices
Administrator
Howard County Office of Consumer Affairs
Carroll Building
3450 Courthouse Drive
Ellicott City, MD 21043
301-922-2176
Executive Director
Montgomery County Office of Consumer Affairs
100 Maryland Avenue
3rd Floor
Rockville, MD 20850
301-251-7373
Executive Director
Prince George's County Consumer Protection
Commission
1142 County Administration Building
Upper Marlboro, MD 20772
301-952-4700
Massachusetts (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Executive Office of Consumer Affairs and Business
Regulation
One Ashburton Place
Room 1411
Boston, MA 02108
617-727-7780 (information and referral)
Chief
Department of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
One Ashburton Place
19th Floor
Boston, MA 02108
617-727-8400
Branch Offices
Assistant Attorney General
Department of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
436 Dwight Street
Springfield, MA 01103
413-785-1951
County Offices
District Attorney's Office
Franklin County Consumer Protection Agency
55 Federal Street
Greenfield, MA 01301
413-774-5102
Director
Hampden County Consumer Action Center
P.O. Box 1449
17 Wilbrahan Road
Springfield, MA 01101
413-737-4376
Director
Hampshire County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Protection Agency
Courthouse
15 Gothic Street
Northampton, MA 01060
413-584-1597
Project Coordinator
Worcester County Consumer Rights Project
332 Main Street
Suite 320
Worcester, MA 01608
508-752-3410 (Monday - Friday 1:00 - 4:00 P.M.)
City Offices
Commissioner
Boston Mayor's Office of Consumer Affairs
1 City Hall Plaza
Room 703
Boston, MA 02201
617-725-3320
Director
Consumer Division
Lowell Community Team Work, Inc.
167 Dutton Street
Lowell, MA 01852
508-452-0908
Michigan (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
670 Law Building
Lansing, MI 48913
517-373-1140
Executive Director
Michigan Consumers Council
414 Hollister Building
106 West Allegan Street
Lansing, MI 48933
517-373-0947
Director
Bureau of Automotive Regulation
Michigan Department of State
Lansing, MI 48918
517-373-7857
800-292-4204 (toll free-Michigan only)
County Offices
Prosecuting Attorney
Bay County Consumer Protection Unit
Bay County Building
Bay City, MI 48708
517-893-3594
Prosecuting Attorney
Office of Prosecuting Attorney
Genesee County Consumer Affairs Division
2065 South Center Road
Burton, MI 48529
313-257-3161
Chief
Macomb County Office of Prosecuting Attorney
Consumer Fraud Unit
Macomb Court Building
6th Floor
Mt. Clemens, MI 48043
313-469-5350
Director
Washtenaw County Consumer Services
4133 Washtenaw Road
Ann Arbor, MI 48107
313-971-6054
City Office
Director
City of Detroit Consumer Affairs Department
1600 Cadillac Tower
Detroit, MI 48226
313-224-3508
Minnesota (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Director
Office of Attorney General
Office of Consumer Services
124 Ford Building
117 University Avenue
St. Paul, MN 55155
612-296-2331
Branch Office
Regional Supervisor
Office of Attorney General
Office of Consumer Services
320 West Second Street
Duluth, MN 55802
218-723-4891
County Office
Hennepin County Attorney's Office Citizen
Protection Unit
Legal Services Adviser
C2000 County Government Center
Minneapolis, MN 55487
612-348-4528
City Office
Director
Minneapolis Department of Licenses and Consumer
Services
Consumer Affairs Division
101A City Hall
Minneapolis, MN 55415
612-348-2080
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Skokie Regional Office
4738 West Dempster
Skokie, IL 60076
312-673-2540
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Waukegan Regional Office
32 North Utica
Waukegan, IL 60085
312-336-2207
County Offices
Supervisor
Consumer Fraud Division
Cook County Office of State Attorney
500 Daley Center
Room 303
Chicago, IL 60602
312-443-4364
State's Attorney
Madison County Office of State Attorney
103 Purcell Street
3rd Floor
Edwardsville, IL 62025
618-692-6280
Director
Consumer Protection Division
Rock Island County State Attorney's Office
County Court House
Rock Island, IL 61201
309-786-4451 (ext. 228)
City Offices
Commissioner
Chicago Department of Consumer Services
121 North LaSalle Street
Room 808
Chicago, IL 60602
312-744-4090
Administrator
Des Plaines Consumer Protection Commission
1420 Miner Street
Des Plaines, IL 60016
312-391-5363
Mississippi (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Assistant Attorney General and Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
P.O. Box 220
Jackson, MS 39205
601-359-3095
Director
Department of Agriculture and Commerce
Consumer Protection Division
P.O. Box 1609
High and President Streets
Jackson, MS 39215
601-359-3648
800-222-7622 (toll free-Mississippi only)
Missouri (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
Department of Economic Development
P.O. Box 1157
Jefferson City, MO 65102
314-751-4996
Chief Counsel
Office of Attorney General
Trade Offense Division
P.O. Box 899
Jefferson City, MO 65102
314-751-2616
800-372-8222 (toll free-Missouri only)
Branch Offices
Office of Attorney General
Trade Offense Division
Penn Tower
31 Broadway
Suite 609
Kansas City, MO 64111
816-531-4207
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Trade Offense Division
111 North Seventh Street
Suite 903
St. Louis, MO 63101
314-444-6815
Montana (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Department of Commerce
Consumer Affairs Unit
1424 Ninth Avenue
Helena, MT 59620
406-444-4312
County Office
Missoula County Attorney
County Courthouse
Missoula, MT 59802
406-721-5700
Nebraska (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Assistant Attorney General
Department of Justice
Consumer Protection Division
605 South 14th Street
Lincoln, NE 68509
402-471-2682
County Office
Director
Douglas County Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Division
909 Omaha-Douglas Civic Center
Omaha, NE 68183
402-444-7625
Nevada (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Commissioner of Consumer Affairs
Department of Commerce
State Mail Room Complex
Las Vegas, NV 89158
702-386-5293
Branch Office
Investigator
Department of Commerce
Consumer Affairs Division
201 Nye Building
Capitol Complex
Carson City, NV 86710
702-885-4340
800-992-0900 (ext. 4340, toll free-Nevada only)
County Office
Investigator
Washoe County District Attorney's Office
P.O. Box 11130
Reno, NV 89520
702-785-5652
New Hampshire (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection and Antitrust Division
State House Annex
Concord, NH 03301
603-271-3641
New Jersey (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
Division of Consumer Affairs
Department of Law and Public Safety
1100 Raymond Boulevard
Room 504
Newark, NJ 07102
201-648-4010
Acting Public Advocate
CN 850
Justice Complex
Trenton, NJ 08625
609-292-7087
Deputy Attorney General
1100 Raymond Boulevard
Room 335
Newark, NJ 07102
201-648-8510
New Jersey Office of Consumer Protection
1100 Raymond Boulevard
Room 405
Newark, NJ 07102
201-648-4019
County Offices
Director
Atlantic County Consumer Affairs
1333 Atlantic Avenue
8th Floor
Atlantic City, NJ 08401
609-345-6700
Director
Bergen County Consumer Affairs
355 Main Street
Hackensack, NJ 07601
201-646-2650
Director
Burlington County Office of Consumer Affairs
49 Rancocas Road
Mount Holly, NJ 08060
609-261-5054
Director
Cape May County Consumer Affairs
DN-310 Central Mail Room
Cape May Court House
Cape May, NJ 08210
609-465-7111 (ext. 206)
Director
Cumberland County Consumer Affairs
788 East Commerce Street
Bridgeton, NJ 08302
609-451-8000
Director
Essex County Consumer Services
900 Bloomfield Avenue
Verona, NJ 07044
201-226-1571
Director
Gloucester County Consumer Affairs
The Cotton Building
One South Broad Street, Box 337
Woodbury, NJ 08096
609-853-3349
Counsel
Hudson County Consumer Affairs
County Administration Building
595 Newark Avenue
Jersey City, NJ 07306
201-795-6462, 6295, 6296, 6297
Director
Hunterdon County Consumer Affairs
P.O. Box 125
Stanton, NJ 08885
201-236-2249
Division Chief
Mercer County Consumer Affairs
640 South Broad Street
Trenton, NJ 08650
609-989-6671
Director
Middlesex County Consumer Affairs
841 Georges Road
North Brunswick, NJ 08902
201-745-4242
Director
Monmouth County Consumer Affairs
P.O. Box 1255
Hall of Records Annex
Main Street
Freehold, NJ 07728
201-431-7900
Director
Morris County Consumer Affairs
Court House
32 Washington Street
Morristown, NJ 07960
201-829-8123
Director
Ocean County Consumer Affairs
C.N. 2191, County Administration Building
Room 203-2
Toms River, NJ 08753
201-929-2105
609-693-5011
Director
Passaic County Consumer Affairs
County Administration Building
309 Pennsylvania Avenue
Paterson, NJ 07503
201-881-4499, 4549
Director
Somerset County Consumer Affairs
P.O. Box 3000
County Administration Building
Somerville, NJ 08876
201-231-7000 (ext. 7400)
Director
Union County Consumer Affairs
P.O. Box 186
300 North Avenue East
Westfield, NJ 07090
201-233-0502
Director
Warren County Consumer Affairs
Court House Annex
Belvedere, NJ 07823
201-475-5361 (ext. 353)
City Offices
Director
Belleville Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
Belleville, NJ 07109
201-450-3399
Director
Brick Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
401 Chambers Bridge Road
Brick, NJ 08723
201-477-3000 (ext. 260)
Cedar Grove Consumer Affairs
123 Tierney Drive
Cedar Grove, NJ 07009
201-239-8725
Director
Cinnaminson Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
1621 Riverton Road
Cinnaminson, NJ 08077
(609)-829-6000
Director
Clark Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
Westfield Avenue
Clark, NJ 07066
201-388-3600
Clifton Consumer Affairs
City Hall
900 Clifton Avenue
Clifton, NJ 07013
201-473-2600 (ext. 297)
Director
East Brunswick Consumer Affairs
Jean Walling Civic Center
East Brunswick, NJ 08816
201-390-6954
East Orange Community Development Corporation
490 Main Street
East Orange, NJ 07017
201-266-5315
Director
Edison Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
Edison, NJ 08817
201-287-0900 (ext. 234)
Director
Elizabeth Consumer Affairs
City Hall
60 West Scott Place
Elizabeth, NJ 07201
201-820-4183
Director
Fort Lee Consumer Protection Board
Borough Hall
309 Main Street
Fort Lee, NJ 07024
201-592-3579
201-947-5235
Director
Freehold Consumer Affairs
Municipal Plaza
Schanck Road
Freehold, NJ 07728
201-431-7900
Director
Garwood Consumer Affairs
Borough Hall
Center Street
Garwood, NJ 07027
201-789-0689
Director
Glen Rock Consumer Affairs
Borough Hall
Harding Plaza
Glen Rock, NJ 07452
201-447-2555
Director
Hackensack Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
65 Central Avenue
Hackensack, NJ 07602
201-342-3000 (ext. 216)
Director
Hoboken Consumer Affairs
City Hall
Washington Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030
201-420-2038
Jersey City Consumer Affairs
415 Marin Boulevard
Room 19
Jersey City, NJ 07302
201-547-4663
Director
Kearny Consumer Affairs
26 North Midland Avenue
Kearny, NJ 07032
201-991-9282
Director
Livingston Consumer Affairs
Township Hall
357 South Livingston Avenue
Livingston, NJ 07039
201-992-2244
Lodi Consumer Affairs
Borough Hall
1 Memorial Drive
Lodi, NJ 07644
201-365-4039 (ext. 234)
Director
Middlesex Borough Consumer Affairs
Middlesex, NJ 08846
201-356-8090
Montclair Neighborhood Development Corporation
228 Bloomfield Avenue
Montclair, NJ 07042
201-744-9094
Mountainside Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
Mountainside, NJ 07092
201-232-6600
Manager
Newark Office of Consumer Services
City Hall
920 Broad Street
Room B-4
Newark, NJ 07102
201-733-8000
New Milford Consumer Affairs
Borough Hall
930 River Road
New Milford, NJ 07640
201-262-6100
Director
Nutley Consumer Affairs
City Hall
228 Chestnut Street
Nutley, NJ 07110
201-667-3300 (ext. 227)
Old Bridge Township
1 Old Bridge Plaza
Old Bridge, NJ 08857
201-721-5600 (ext. 202)
Director
Paramus Consumer Affairs
Borough Hall
Jockish Square
Paramus, NJ 07652
201-265-8129
Director
Parsippany Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
1001 Parsippany Boulevard
Parsippany, NJ 07054
201-263-7152
Director
Perth Amboy Consumer Affairs
City Hall
44 Market Street
Perth Amboy, NJ 08861
201-826-0290 (ext. 61)
Director
City of Plainfield, Division of Community
Relations and Social Services
City Hall Annex
510 Watchtung Avenue
Plainfield, NJ 07060
201-753-3519
Rochelle Park Township Consumer Affairs
127 Chestnut Street
Rochelle Park, NJ 07662
201-843-7862, 7866
Director
Secaucus Department of Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
1203 Paterson Plank Road
Secaucus, NJ 07094
201-330-2000
CALA Officer
Summit Consumer Affairs
City Hall
512 Springfield Avenue
Summit, NJ 07901
201-273-6474
Director
Teaneck Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
818 Teaneck Road
Teaneck, NJ 07666
201-837-1600 (ext. 14)
Director
Union City Consumer Affairs
507 26th Street
Union City, NJ 07087
201-330-3816
Director
Union Township Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
1976 Morris Avenue
Union, NJ 07083
201-688-2800 (ext. 16)
Director
Wayne Township Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
475 Valley Road
Wayne, NJ 07470
201-694-1800 (ext. 246)
Weehawken Consumer Affairs
City Hall
400 Park Avenue
Weehawken, NJ 07087
201-867-1715 (ext. 230)
Director
West New York Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
428 60th Street
West New York, NJ 07093
201-861-7000 (ext. 230)
Director
West Orange Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
66 Main Street
West Orange, NJ 07052
201-325-4121
Director
Wildwood Action Line
4400 New Jersey Avenue
Wildwood, NJ 08260
609-729-4444
Director
Willingboro Consumer Affairs
Municipal Complex
Salem Road
Willingboro, NJ 08046
609-877-2200 (ext. 221)
Woodbridge Township Consumer Affairs
Municipal Building
One Main Street
Woodbridge, NJ 07095
201-634-4500 (ext. 231)
New Mexico (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Director
Office of Attorney General
Consumer and Economic Crime Division
P.O. Drawer 1508
Santa Fe, NM 87504
505-827-6910
County Office
Director
Bernatillo County District
Consumer Affairs Division
Attorney's Office
415 Tijeras, NW
Albuquerque, NM 87102
505-841-7200
New York (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Chairperson and Executive Director
New York State Consumer Protection Board
99 Washington Avenue
Albany, NY 12210
518-474-8583
Executive Director
New York State Consumer Protection Board
Two World Trade Center
Room 2508
25th Floor
New York, NY 10047
212-488-5666
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Frauds and Protection
State Capitol
Albany, NY 12224
518-474-5481
Branch Offices
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Frauds and Protection
59 - 61 Court Street
Binghamton, NY 13905
607-773-7798
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Frauds and Protection
65 Court Street
Buffalo, NY 14202
716-847-7184
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Frauds and Protection
State Office Building
Veterans Memorial Highway
Hauppauge, NY 11788
516-360-6196
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Frauds and Protection
Two World Trade Center
New York, NY 10047
212-488-7450
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Frauds and Protection
70 Clinton Street
Plattsburgh, NY 12901
518-563-8012
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Frauds and Protection
235 Main Street
Poughkeepsie, NY 12601
914-485-3920
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Frauds and Protection
900 Reynolds Arcade
16 East Main Street
Rochester, NY 14614
716-454-3412
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Frauds and Protection
333 East Washington Street
Syracuse, NY 13202
315-428-4282
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Frauds and Protection
207 Genesee Street
Utica, NY 13501
315-793-2225
County Offices
Consumer Affairs Specialist
Broome County Bureau of Consumer Services
P.O. Box 1766
Governmental Plaza
Binghamton, NY 13902
607-772-2168
Assistant District Attorney
Erie County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Bureau
25 Delaware Avenue
Buffalo, NY 14202
716-855-2424
Commissioner
Nassau County Office of Consumer Affairs
160 Old Country Road
Mineola, NY 11501
516-535-2600
Chief
Nassau County Commercial Frauds and Environmental
Investigations Bureau
310 Old Country Road
Garden City, NY 11530
516-535-2164
Director
Oneida County Consumer Affairs
County Office Building
800 Park Avenue
Utica, NY 13501
315-798-5601
Director
Onondaga County Office of Consumer Affairs
County Civic Center
421 Montgomery Street
Syracuse, NY 13202
315-425-3479
Director
Orange County Department of Weights and Measures
and Consumer Affairs
Courthouse Annex
99 Main Street
Goshen, NY 10924
914-294-5151 (ext. 162)
District Attorney
Orange County District Attorney's Office of
Consumer Affairs
County Government Center
Goshen, NY 10924
914-294-5471
Director
Putnam County Department of Consumer Affairs
Two County Center
Carmel, NY 10512
914-225-3641 (ext. 275)
Director
Rockland County Office of Consumer Protection
County Office Building
18 New Hempstead Road
New City, NY 10956
914-638-5282
Director
Steuben County Department of Weights and Measures
and Consumer Affairs
40 East Steuben Street
Bath, NY 14810
607-776-4949
Commissioner
Suffolk County Department of Consumer Affairs
Suffolk County Center
Hauppauge, NY 11788
516-360-4618
Director
Ulster County Consumer Fraud Bureau
285 Wall Street
Kingston, NY 12401
914-339-5680 (ext. 240, 243, 244)
Director
Westchester County Department of Consumer Affairs
Michaelian Office Building
Room 104
White Plains, NY 10601
914-285-2155
Chief
Westchester County District Attorney's Office
Frauds Bureau
County Courthouse
111 Grove Street
White Plains, NY 10601
914-285-3303
City Offices
Chairman
Babylon Consumer Protection Board
200 East Sunrise Highway
Lindenhurst, NY 11757
516-957-3021
Town of Colonie Consumer Protection Board
Memorial Town Hall
Newtonville, NY 12128
518-783-2790
Director
Huntington Consumer Protection Board
100 Main Street
Huntington, NY 11743
516-351-3007
Ombudsman
Islip Town Citizens Action Bureau
Islip Town Hall
401 Main Street
Islip, NY 11751
516-224-5510
Commissioner
Mt. Vernon Office of Consumer Affairs
City Hall
Mt. Vernon, NY 10550
914-668-6000 (ext. 231)
Commissioner
New York City Department of Consumer Affairs
80 Lafayette Street
New York, NY 10013
212-577-0111
Branch Offices
New York City Department of Consumer Affairs
Bronx Neighborhood Office
1932 Arthur Avenue
Bronx, NY 10457
212-579-6766
New York City Department of Consumer Affairs
Brooklyn Neighborhood Office
209 Joralemon Street
Room 6
Brooklyn, NY 11201
718-596-4780
Director
New York City Department of Consumer Affairs
Harlem Neighborhood Office
227 East 116th Street
New York, NY 10029
212-348-0600
Director
New York City Department of Consumer Affairs
Queens Neighborhood Office
120-55 Queens Boulevard
Room 301A
Kew Gardens, NY 11424
718-261-2922
Director
New York City Department of Consumer Affairs
Staten Island Neighborhood Office
Staten Island Borough Hall
Room 422
Staten Island, NY 10301
718-390-5154
Director
Oswego Office of Consumer Affairs, Weights and
Measures
City Hall
Oswego, NY 13126
315-342-5600 (ext. 66)
Chairperson
Ramapo Consumer Protection Board
Ramapo Town Hall
237 Route 59
Suffern, NY 10901
914-357-5100 (ext. 267)
Director
Schenectady Bureau of Consumer Protection
22 City Hall
Jay Street
Schenectady, NY 12305
518-382-5061
Director
Syracuse Consumer Affairs Office
422 City Hall
233 East Washington Street
Syracuse, NY 13202
315-473-3240
Director
White Plains Department of Weights and Measures
279 Hamilton Avenue
White Plains, NY 10601
914-682-4278
Yonkers Office of Consumer Protection and Weights
and Measures
201 Palisade Avenue
Yonkers, NY 10703
914-964-3563, 3564, 3565
North Carolina (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Special Deputy Attorney General and Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
P.O. Box 629
Department of Justice Building
Raleigh, NC 27602
919-733-7741
North Dakota (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Attorney General for the State of North Dakota
State Capitol Building
Bismarck, ND 58505
701-224-2210
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Fraud Division
State Capitol Building
Bismarck, ND 58505
701-224-3404
800-472-2600 (toll free-North Dakota only)
County Office
Executive Director
Quad County Community
Action Agency
27 1/2 South Third Street
Grand Forks, ND 58201
701-746-5431
Ohio (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Consumers' Counsel
137 East State Street
Columbus, OH 43215
614-466-9605
800-282-9448 (toll free-Ohio only)
Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Frauds and Crimes Section
30 East Broad Street
15th Floor
Columbus, OH 43215
614-466-8831, 4986
800-282-0515 (toll free-Ohio only)
County Offices
Franklin County Office of Prosecuting Attorney
Economic Crime Division
Hall of Justice
369 South High Street
Columbus, OH 43215
614-462-3248
County Investigator
Lake County Office of Prosecuting Attorney
Consumer Protection Division
Lake County Court House
Painesville, OH 44077
216-357-2683
Assistant Prosecuting Attorney
Montgomery County Fraud Section
County Courts Building
41 North Perry
Dayton, OH 45422
513-225-5757
Prosecuting Attorney
Portage County Prosecutor's Office
Consumer Protection Division
466 South Chestnut Street
Ravenna, OH 44266
216-296-4593
Prosecuting Attorney
Summit County Bureau of Investigations
53 East Center Street
Akron, OH 44308
216-379-2784
City Offices
Akron Division of Consumer Protection
161 South High Street
Akron, OH 44308
216-375-2730
Director, Office of Consumer Affairs
218 Cleveland Avenue, SW
6th Floor
Room 605B
Canton, OH 44702
Cincinnati Office of Consumer Protection
Division of Human Services
City Hall
Room 105
Cincinnati, OH 45202
513-352-3971
Director
Cleveland Office of Consumer Affairs
1230 East Sixth Street
Cleveland, OH 44114
216-664-320
Administrator
City of Columbus Community Human Services
50 West Gay Street
Room 601
Columbus, OH 43215
614-222-7144
Director
Youngstown Division of Consumer Affairs
City Hall
26 South Phelps Street
Youngstown, OH 44502
216-742-8700
Oklahoma (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
Department of Complaints, Investigation and
Mediation
Oklahoma Corporation Commission
Jim Thorpe Building
Room 680
Oklahoma City, OK 73105
405-521-4113
Administrator
Department of Consumer Credit
B82 Jim Thorpe Building
Oklahoma City, OK 73105
405-521-3653
Assistant Attorney General for Consumer Protection
Office of Attorney General
112 State Capitol Building
Oklahoma City, OK 73105
405-521-3921
Oregon (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Attorney in Charge
Department of Justice
Financial Fraud Section
Justice Building
Salem, OR 97310
503-378-4732
503-378-4320 (consumer hotline-Oregon only)
Pennsylvania (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Protection
Strawberry Square
14th Floor
Harrisburg, PA 17120
717-787-9707
Consumer Advocate
Office of Attorney General
Office of Consumer Advocate-Utilities
1425 Strawberry Square
14th Floor
Harrisburg, PA 17120
717-783-5048 (utilities only)
Branch Offices
Deputy Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Protection
27 North Seventh Street
Allentown, PA 18101
215-821-6690
Deputy Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Protection
919 State Street
Room 203
Erie, PA 16501
814-871-4371
Deputy Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Protection
Strawberry Square
14th Floor
Harrisburg, PA 17120
717-787-7109
Deputy Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Protection
1009 State Office Building
1400 West Spring Garden Street
Philadelphia, PA 19130
215-560-2414
Deputy Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Protection
564 Forbes Avenue
Manor Building
4th Floor
Pittsburgh, PA 15219
412-565-5135
Deputy Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Bureau of Consumer Protection
State Office Building
Room 358
100 Lackawanna Avenue
Scranton, PA 18503
717-963-4913
County Offices
Chairperson
Beaver County Alliance for Consumer Protection
699 Fifth Street
Beaver, PA 15009
412-728-7267
Director
Bucks County Bureau of Consumer Protection and
Weights and Measures
Courthouse Annex
Broad and Union Streets
Doylestown, PA 18901
215-348-7442
Director
Chester County Bureau of Consumer Protection and
Weights and Measures
F&M Building
5th Floor
High and Market Streets
West Chester, PA 19380
215-431-6150
Director
Cumberland County Bureau of Consumer Affairs
Courthouse
Carlisle, PA 17013
717-249-5802
Director
Delaware County Office of Consumer Affairs and
Weights and Measures
Government Center Building
Second and Olive Streets
Media, PA 19063
215-891-4865
Director
Indiana County Bureau of Consumer Affairs
P.O. Box 187
Indiana, PA 15701
412-465-2657
Lancaster County Consumer Protection Commission
P.O. Box 3480
50 North Duke Street
Lancaster, PA 17603
717-299-7921
Director
Montgomery County Consumer Affairs Department
County Courthouse
Norristown, PA 19404
215-278-3565
City Offices
Division Chief
Action Center - Consumer Services
121 City Hall
Philadelphia, PA 19107
215-686-7595
Chief
Philadelphia District Attorney's Office
Economic Crime Unit
1300 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
215-875-6036
Rhode Island (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Assistant Attorney General and Chief
Department of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Unit
72 Pine Street
Providence, RI 02903
401-274-3400
Executive Director
Rhode Island Consumers' Council
365 Broadway
Providence, RI 02909
401-277-2764
South Carolina (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Administrator
Department of Consumer Affairs
P.O. Box 5757
Columbia, SC 29250
803-758-2040
800-922-1594 (toll free-South Carolina only)
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Fraud and Antitrust Section
P.O. Box 11549
Columbia, SC 29211
803-758-3040
State Ombudsman
Office of Executive Policy and Program
1205 Pendleton Street
Room 412
Columbia, SC 29201
803-758-2249
South Dakota (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Division of Consumer Protection
Anderson Building
Pierre, SD 57501
605-773-4400
800-592-1865 (toll free-South Dakota only)
Tennessee (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
Department of Commerce and Insurance
Division of Consumer Affairs
206 State Office Building
Nashville, TN 37204
615-741-4737
800-342-8385 (toll free-Tennessee only)
Deputy Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Antitrust and Consumer Protection Division
450 James Robertson Parkway
Nashville, TN 37219
615-741-2672
Texas (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Assistant Attorney General and Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
P.O. Box 12548
Capitol Station
Austin, TX 78711
512-475-1801
Branch Offices
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
Renaissance Place
7th Floor
714 Jackson Street
Dallas, TX 75202
214-742-8944
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
4824 Alberta Street
Suite 160
El Paso, TX 79905
915-533-3484
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
1001 Texas Avenue
Suite 700
Houston, TX 77002-3111
713-223-5886
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
806 Broadway
Suite 312
Lubbock, TX 79401
806-747-5238
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
4309 North Tenth
Suite B
McAllen, TX 78501
512-682-4547
Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
200 Main Plaza
Suite 400
San Antonio, TX 78205
512-225-4191
County Offices
Dallas County Consumer Fraud Division
2720 Stemmons Expressway
400 Stemmons Tower South
Dallas, TX 75207
214-630-6300
Assistant District Attorney
Office of District Attorney
Harris County Consumer Fraud Division
201 Fannin
Suite 200
Houston, TX 77002
713-221-5836
Assistant District Attorney
Tarrant County Economic Crimes
200 West Belknap Street
Fort Worth, TX 76196
817-334-1111 (criminal consumer fraud)
City Offices
Director
Dallas Department of Consumer Services
1500 Marilla 1D South
Dallas, TX 75201
214-670-3168
Fort Worth Office of Consumer Affairs and Weights
and Measures
1800 University Drive
Room 208
Fort Worth, TX 76107
817-870-7570
Utah (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
Department of Business Regulation
Division of Consumer Protection
P.O. Box 45802
Heber M. Wells Building
160 East 300 South
Salt Lake City, UT 84115
801-530-6619
Assistant Attorney General for Consumer Affairs
Office of Attorney General
130 State Capitol
Salt Lake City, UT 84114
801-533-5319
Vermont (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Assistant Attorney General and Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
109 State Street
Montpelier, VT 05602
802-828-3186
800-642-5149 (toll free-Vermont only)
Director
Weights and Measures Division
Department of Agriculture
116 State Street
Montpelier, VT 05602
802-828-2436
Virginia (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Senior Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
Division of Consumer Counsel
Supreme Court Building
101 North Eighth Street
5th Floor
Richmond, VA 23219
804-786-3433
Director
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services
State Office of Consumer Affairs
Washington Building
1100 Bank Street
Room 110
Richmond, VA 23219
804-786-2042
800-552-9963 (toll free for complaints regarding
state agencies-Virginia only)
Branch Office
Coordinator
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services
Northern Virginia Branch
State Office of Consumer Affairs
100 North Washington Street
Suite 412
Falls Church, VA 22046
703-532-1613
County Offices
Director
Arlington County Office of Consumer Affairs
1400 North Courthouse Road
Room 16
Arlington, VA 22201
703-558-2142
Director
Fairfax County Department of Consumer Affairs
3959 Pender Drive
Fairfax, VA 22030
703-691-3214
Administrator
Prince William County Office of Consumer Affairs
15960 Cardinal Drive
Woodridge, VA 22191
703-335-7370
City Offices
Director
Alexandria Office of Citizens Assistance
P.O. Box 178
City Hall
Alexandria, VA 22313
703-838-4350
Chief
Norfolk Division of Consumer Protection
804 City Hall Building
Norfolk, VA 23501
804-441-2821
Assistant to the City Manager
Roanoke Consumer Protection Division
353 Municipal Building
215 Church Avenue, SW
Roanoke, VA 24011
703-981-2583
Consumer Protection Officer
Virginia Beach Division of Consumer Protection
City Hall
Virginia Beach, VA 23456
804-427-8983
Washington (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Consumer Specialist (Agriculture)
Department of Agriculture
Office of Consumer Services
406 General Administration Building, AX41
Olympia, WA 98504
206-754-2195
Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection/Antitrust Division
Temple of Justice
Olympia, WA 98504
206-753-6210
Assistant Attorney General Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection/Antitrust Division
1366 Dexter Horton Building
Seattle, WA 98104
206-464-7744
800-551-4636 (toll free-Washington only)
Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection/Antitrust Division
West 1116 Riverside Avenue
Spokane, WA 99201
509-456-3123
Chief
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection/Antitrust Division
949 Market Street
Tacoma, WA 98402
206-593-2904
County Office
Chief Deputy Prosecuting Attorney
Fraud Division
King County Prosecuting Attorney's Office
E531 King County Courthouse
Seattle, WA 98104
206-583-4513
City Offices
Inspector
Everett Weights and Measures Department
3200 Cedar Street
Everett, WA 98201
206-259-8745
Director
Seattle Department of Licenses and Consumer
Affairs
102 Municipal Building
Seattle, WA 98104
206-625-2536 (inquiries)
206-625-5500 (complaints)
West Virginia (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Director
Office of Attorney General
Consumer Protection Division
1204 Kanawha Boulevard East
Charleston, WV 25301
304-348-8986
Director
Weights and Measures Capitol Complex
Department of Labor
1900 Washington Street East
Charleston, WV 25305
304-348-7890
City Office
Director
Charleston Consumer Protection Department
P.O. Box 2749
Charleston, WV 25330
304-348-8173
Wisconsin (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Offices
Assistant Attorney General
Department of Justice
Office of Consumer Protection
P.O. Box 7856
Madison, WI 53707
608-266-1852
800-362-8189 (toll free-Wisconsin only)
Administrator
Department of Agriculture, Trade, and Consumer
Protection
Division of Trade and Consumer Protection
P.O. Box 8911
801 West Badger Road
Madison, WI 53708
608-266-9836
800-362-3020 (toll free-Wisconsin only)
Director
Department of Justice
Office of Consumer Protection
Milwaukee State Office Building
819 North 6th Street
Room 520
Milwaukee, WI 53203
414-224-1867
Branch Offices
Supervisor
Department of Agriculture, Trade, and Consumer
Protection
Division of Trade and Consumer Protection
927 Loring Street
Altoona, WI 54720
715-836-2537
Regional Supervisor
Department of Agriculture, Trade, and Consumer
Protection
Consumer Protection Bureau
200 North Jefferson Street
Suite 146A
Green Bay, WI 54301
414-497-4087
Supervisor
Department of Agriculture, Trade, and Consumer
Protection
Division of Trade and Consumer Protection
10320 West Silver Spring Drive
Milwaukee, WI 53225
414-438-4844
County Offices
Consumer Investigator
Kenosha County District Attorney's Office
912 56th Street
Kenosha, WI 53140
414-656-6480
District Attorney
Marathon County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Unit
Marathon County Court House
Wausau, WI 54401
715-847-5555
Assistant District Attorney
Milwaukee County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Unit
821 West State Street
Room 412
Milwaukee, WI 53233
414-278-4792
District Attorney
Portage County District Attorney's Office
Consumer Fraud Unit
Portage County Court House
Stevens Point, WI 54481
715-346-1300
Consumer Fraud Investigator
Racine County Sheriff's Department
717 Wisconsin Avenue
Racine, WI 53403
414-636-3125
Wyoming (Consumer Protection Offices)
State Office
Senior Assistant Attorney General
Office of Attorney General
123 State Capitol Building
Cheyenne, WY 82002
307-777-7841, 6286
American Samoa (Consumer Protection Offices)
Assistant Attorney General
Consumer Protection Bureau
P.O. Box 7
Pago Pago. American Samoa 96799
684-633-4163, 1786
Puerto Rico (Consumer Protection Offices)
Department of Consumer Affairs
P.O. Box 41059
Manillas Governmental Center
Torre Norte Building
De Diego Avenue, Stop 22
Santurce, PR 00940
809-722-7555
Secretary
Department of Justice
P.O. Box 192
Old San Juan, PR 00902
809-721-2900
809-725-8158
Virgin Islands (Consumer Protection Offices)
Director
Consumer Services Administration
P.O. Box 5468
Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas
U.S. Virgin Islands 00801
809-774-3130
Domestic Violence Hotlines (Useful Addresses)
Alabama Coalition Against Domestic Violence
205-767-3076
Collect, 24 hours
Arkansas Coalition Against Violence to Women and
Children
501-442-9811
Collect, 24 hours
Northern California Shelter Support Services
415-342-0850
Collect, 24 hours
Southern California Coalition on Battered Women
213-392-9874
Collect, 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., weekdays
Connecticut Task Force on Abused Women
203-524-5890
Collect, 24 hours
Delaware Families in Transition
302-422-8058
302-856-4919
Collect, 24 hours
Florida Women in Distress
305-467-6333
800-342-9152
24 hours
Georgia Network Against Domestic Violence
404-536-5860
Collect, 24 hours
Indiana Coalition Against Domestic Violence
812-334-8378
Collect, 8 A.M. to 5 P.M., weekdays
Kansas Association of Domestic Violence Programs
800-257-2255
24 hours
Kentucky Domestic Violence Association/Women's Crisis
Center
606-491-3335
Collect, 24 hours
Maine Family Violence Assistance Project
207-623-3569
Collect, 24 hours
Massachusetts Coalition of Battered Women's Service
Groups
617-426-8492
Collect, 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., weekdays
Michigan Coalition Against Domestic Violence:
Harbor Hotline
800-292-3925
24 hours
Mississippi Coalition Against Domestic Violence
601-435-1968
Collect, 24 hours
New Hampshire Coalition Against Domestic and Sexual
Violence
603-224-8893
800-852-3311
Collect, 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., weekdays
New Jersey Women's Referral Central
800-322-8092
24 hours
New Mexico Coalition Against Domestic Violence/La
Casa
505-526-6661
Collect, 24 hours
New York State Domestic Violence Hotline
800-942-6906
24 hours
New York State Bilingual Domestic Violence Hotline-
in Spanish
800-942-6908
9 A.M. to 5 P.M., weekdays
North Dakota Council on Abused Women's Services:
Domestic Violence Hotline
800-472-2911
24 hours
Ohio Womanshelter
216-297-9999
Collect, 24 hours
Oklahoma Domestic Violence Safeline
800-522-7233
24 hours
Oregon Coalition Against Domestic and Sexual
Violence/Portland Women's Crisis Line
503-235-5333
Collect, 24 hours
Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence
800-932-4632
9 A.M. to 5 P.M., weekdays
Rhode Island Council on Domestic Violence
401-723-3051
Collect, 24 hours
South Carolina Coalition Against Domestic Violence
and Sexual Assault/Sistercare Crisis and Information
Line
803-765-9428
Collect, 24 hours
South Dakota Coalition Against Domestic Violence
605-226-1212
Collect, 24 hours
Tennessee Coalition Against Domestic Violence: Safe
Space Hotline
615-623-3125
Collect, 24 hours
Texas Council on Family Violence
512-482-8200
Collect, 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., weekdays
Washington Domestic Violence Hotline
800-562-6025
24 hours
Wyoming Family Violence and Sexual Assault Statewide
Referral
800-442-8337
24 hours
Family Planning (Useful Addresses)
Association for Voluntary Sterilization
122 East 42nd Street
18th Floor
New York, NY 10168
212-573-8350
Birth Control Institute
1242 West Lincoln Avenue
Suite 7 - 10
Anaheim, CA 92805
714-956-4630
Human Life and Natural Family Planning Foundation
5609 Broadmoor Street
Alexandria, VA 22310
703-836-3377
Institute for Family Research Education
Slocum Hall
Room 110
Syracuse, NY 13210
315-423-4584
International Planned Parenthood Federation
105 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10016
212-679-2230
National Clearinghouse for Family Planning
Information
P.O. Box 12921
1700 North Moore St.
Arlington, VA 22209
703-558-7932
Planned Parenthood Federation of America
Educational Resources Clearinghouse
810 Seventh Avenue
New York, NY 10019
212-541-7800
Planned Parenthood Federation of America
Katharine Dexter McCormick Library
810 Seventh Avenue
New York, NY 10019
212-603-4637
Population Institute
110 Maryland Avenue, NE
No. 207
Washington, DC 20002
202-544-3300
Resolve
P.O. Box 474
497 Common Street
Belmont, MA 02178
617-484-2424
Genealogy (Useful Addresses)
American Archives Association
1350 New York Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20005
Children of the American Revolution
1776 D Street, NW
Washington, DC 20006
Library of Congress
Local History and Genealogy
Reading Room
10 First Street, SE
Washington, DC 20540
National Archives and Records Administration
Public Programs and Exhibits
8th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20408
National Archives and Records Administration
Reference Services Branch
8th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20408
National Genealogical Society
1921 Sunderland Place, NW
Washington, DC 20036
National Society of Colonial Dames of America
2715 Q Street, NW
Washington, DC 20007
National Society, Colonial Dames XVII Century
1300 New Hampshire Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20036
National Society, Daughters of the American
Revolution
2205 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20008
National Society, Daughters of the American
Revolution
1776 D Street, NW
Washington, DC 20006
National Society, Daughters of Founders and Patriots
of America
2540 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20008
National Society, Sons and Daughters of the Pilgrims
2540 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20008
National Society, U.S. Daughters of 1812
1461 Rhode Island Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20036
Government Agencies and Bureaus (Useful Addresses)
Agriculture Department
14th Street and Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20250
AMTRAK Office of Customer Relations
400 North Capitol Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001
Auto Safety Hotline Transportation Department
Washington, DC 20590
202-426-0123
800-424-9393
Civil Rights Commission Congressional and Community
Relations
1121 Vermont Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20425
Commerce Department Consumer Affairs
14th Street and Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20230
Commodity Futures Trading Commission Office of
Governmental Affairs
2033 K Street, NW
Washington, DC 20581
Consumer Affairs Council
1725 I Street, NW
Washington, DC 20201
Consumer Information Center
Pueblo, CO 81009
Consumer Product Safety Commission
Office of the Secretary
Washington, DC 20207
Consumer Services Administration
Consumer Information Center
18th and F Streets, NW
Washington, DC 20405
Defense Department
Manpower, Installations, and Logistics
The Pentagon
Washington, DC 20301
Education Department Consumer Affairs
400 Maryland Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20202
Energy Department
1000 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20585
Environmental Protection Agency Public Affairs
401 M Street, NW
Washington, DC 20460
Federal Communications Commission Public Affairs,
Consumer Assistance, and Information
1919 M Street, NW
Washington, DC 20554
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Consumer
Programs
550 17th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20429
Federal Emergency Management Agency Public Affairs
500 C Street, SW
Washington, DC 20472
Federal Home Loan Bank Board Examination and
Supervision
1700 G Street, NW
Washington, DC 20552
Federal Maritime Commission Informal Inquiries and
Complaints
1100 L Street, NW
Washington, DC 20573
Federal Reserve System Consumer and Community Affairs
20th and C Streets, NW
Washington, DC 20551
Federal Trade Commission Bureau of Consumer
Protection
6th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20580
Food and Drug Administration Health and Human
Services Department Consumer Affairs
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, MD 20857
Interior Department Public Affairs
Main Interior Building
Washington, DC 20240
Interstate Commerce Commission Compliance and
Consumer Assistance
12th Street and Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20423
Justice Department Consumer Litigation
Washington, DC 20530
Labor Department
200 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20210
Merit Systems Protection Board
1120 Vermont Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20419
National Bureau of Standards Commerce Department
Route I-270 and Quince Orchard Road
Gaithersburg, MD 20899
National Credit Union Administration Supervision and
Examination
1776 G Street, NW
Washington, DC 20456
National Labor Relations Board
1717 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Room 701
Washington, DC 20570
Nuclear Regulatory Commission Public Affairs
7735 Old Georgetown Road
Bethesda, MD
(mailing address: Washington, DC 20555)
Peace Corps
Volunteer Program Information
199 K Street, NW
Washington, DC 20526
800-424-8580
DC: 202-254-6886
Postal Rate Commission Consumer Advocate
1333 H Street, NW
Washington, DC 20268
Postal Service Consumer Affairs
475 L'Enfant Plaza, SW
Washington, DC 20260
Securities and Exchange Commission Consumer Affairs
450 5th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20549
Small Business Administration
1441 L Street, NW
Washington, DC 20416
Transportation Department Public Affairs and Public
Liaison
Main Treasury Building
Washington, DC 20220
Veterans Administration Public and Consumer Affairs
810 Vermont Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20420
Federal Information Centers (Useful Addresses)
Alabama
Birmingham: 205-322-8591
Mobile: 205-438-1421
Alaska
Anchorage: 907-271-3650
Arizona
Phoenix: 602-261-3313
Arkansas
Little Rock: 501-378-6177
California
Los Angeles: 213-894-3800
Sacramento: 916-551-2380
San Diego: 619-293-6030
San Francisco: 415-556-6600
Santa Ana: 714-836-2386
Colorado
Denver: 303-844-6575
Colorado Springs: 719-471-9491
Pueblo: 719-544-9523
Connecticut
Hartford: 203-527-2617
New Haven: 203-624-4720
Florida
Ft. Lauderdale: 305-522-8531
Jacksonville: 904-354-4756
Miami: 305-536-4155
Orlando: 407-422-1800
St. Petersburg: 813-893-3495
Tampa: 813-229-7911
West Palm Beach: 407-833-7566
Georgia
Atlanta: 404-331-6891
Hawaii
Honolulu: 808-546-8620
Illinois
Chicago: 312-353-4242
Indiana
Gary: 219-883-4110
Indianapolis: 317-269-7373
Iowa
800-532-1556
Kansas
800-432-2934
Kentucky
Louisville: 502-582-6261
Louisiana
New Orleans: 504-589-6696
Maryland
Baltimore: 301-962-4980
Massachusetts
Boston: 617-565-8121
Michigan
Detroit: 313-226-7016
Grand Rapids: 616-451-2628
Minnesota
Minneapolis: 612-349-5333
Missouri
St. Louis: 314-425-4106
Other cities: 800-392-7711
Nebraska
Omaha: 402-221-3353
Other cities: 800-642-8383
New Jersey
Newark: 201-645-3600
Trenton: 609-396-4400
New Mexico
Albuquerque: 505-766-3091
New York
Albany: 518-463-4421
Buffalo: 716-846-4010
New York: 212-264-4464
Rochester: 716-546-5075
Syracuse: 315-476-8545
North Carolina
Charlotte: 704-376-3600
Ohio
Akron: 216-375-5638
Cincinnati: 513-684-2801
Cleveland: 216-522-4040
Columbus: 614-221-1014
Dayton: 513-223-7377
Toledo: 419-241-3223
Oklahoma
Oklahoma City: 405-231-4868
Tulsa: 918-584-4193
Oregon
Portland: 503-221-2222
Pennsylvania
Philadelphia: 215-597-7042
Pittsburgh: 412-644-3456
Rhode Island
Providence: 401-331-5565
Tennessee
Chattanooga: 615-265-8231
Memphis: 901-521-3285
Nashville: 615-242-5056
Texas
Austin: 512-472-5494
Dallas: 214-767-8585
Fort Worth: 817-334-3624
Houston: 713-229-2552
San Antonio: 512-224-4471
Utah
Salt Lake City: 801-524-5353
Virginia
Norfolk: 804-441-3101
Richmond: 804-643-4928
Roanoke: 703-982-8591
Washington
Seattle: 206-442-0570
Tacoma: 206-383-5230
Wisconsin
Milwaukee: 414-271-2273
Handicapped
Operator Services (Useful Addresses)
Hearing- and speech-impaired people who use a
telecommunications device for the deaf (known as
TDD or TTY) can get help with calls made from a TDD
to a TDD by using the following service:
TDD/TTY Operator Services 800-855-1155
The TDD operator can help you if you have
telecommunications devices for the deaf to make:
-Credit card calls (if you have a telephone
credit card)
-Collect calls (calls paid for by the person you
are calling)
-Third number telephone calls (calls billed to
a number other than the one you are calling to or
from)
-Person-to-person calls (calls to a specific
person)
-Calls from a hotel or motel
-Calls from a coin phone (credit card, collect,
or bill to third number calls only)
The TDD operator can also help you:
-Get the number if you have a problem with a call
-Get assistance for problems with calls
-Get telephone numbers that you cannot find in
the telephone book
-Report problems with your telephone
The TDD operator cannot interpret voice to TDD or
TDD to voice.
Remember, most calls made with the help of an
operator are more expensive, so dial calls yourself
when you can to save money.
Federal TDD Numbers
Many federal departments and agencies have
telephone numbers for your use if you have a
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD).
Agriculture Department (Federal TDD Numbers)
Central Employment and Selective Placement Office
14th Street and Independence Avenue, SW
Room 1078 South
Washington, DC 20250
202-447-2436
Architectural and Transportation Barriers
MES Building
330 C Street, SW
Room 1010
Washington, DC 20202
202-245-1801
202-245-1591
202-472-2700
Equal Employment Opportunity Office
14th Street and Independence Avenue. SW
Auditors Building
Room 2405
Washington, DC 20250
202-447-7327
Meat and Poultry Hotline
Food Safety and Inspection Service
South Building
Room 1163
Washington, DC 20250
202-447-3333
800-535-4555
Commerce Department (Federal TDD Numbers)
14th Street and Constitution Avenue, NW
Room 1894
Washington, DC 20230
202-377-5588
Consumer Product Safety Commission (TDD Numbers)
1111 18th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20207
800-492-8104 (toll free-Maryland)
800-638-8270 (toll free elsewhere)
Education Department (Federal TDD Numbers)
Captioning and Media Services
330 C Street, SW
Washington, DC 20202
202-732-1177
Handicapped Concerns Staff
330 C Street, SW
MES Building
Room 3124
Washington DC 20202
202-472-3731
National Institute of Handicapped Research
330 C Street, SW
MES Building
Room 3431
Washington, DC 20201
202-732-1198
Office for Civil Rights
Office of Program Review and Assistance
Division of External Technical Assistance
330 C Street, SW
MES Building
Room 5613
Washington, DC 20202
202-732-1467
Office of Deafness and Communicative Disorders
(RSA)
330 C Street, SW
MES Building
Room 3414
Washington, DC 20202
202-245-0591, 0574, 0584
Office of Public Affairs
330 C Street, SW
MES Building
Room 5120
Washington, DC 20202
202-245-8717
Rehabilitation Services Administration
330 C Street, SW
Washington, DC 20202
202-732-1298 TDD
Education Department Regional Offices (TDD Numbers)
Region I - Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New
Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont
Office for Civil Rights
140 Federal Street
Boston, MA 02110
617-233-1111
Rehabilitation Services Administration
John F. Kennedy Federal Building
Room E-400
Boston, MA 02203
617-223-6820
Region II - New York, New Jersey, Puerto Rico,
Virgin Islands
Office for Civil Rights
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10278
212-264-9464
Rehabilitation Services Administration
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10278
212-264-4714
Region III - Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West Virginia, District of Columbia
Technical Assistance Office
Gateway Building
3535 Market Street
Philadelphia, PA 19101
215-596-6794
Rehabilitation Services Administration
Gateway Building
3535 Market Street
Room 3350
Philadelphia, PA 19101
215-596-0319
Region IV-Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina,
Tennessee
Office for Civil Rights
101 Marietta Street
Atlanta, GA 30323
404-221-2910
Rehabilitation Services Administration
101 Marietta Street
Atlanta, GA 30323
404-221-2910
Region V-Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota,
Ohio, Wisconsin
Rehabilitation Services Administration
160 North LaSalle
Room 1020
Chicago, IL 60601
312-793-3040
Region VI-Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, Texas
Office for Civil Rights
1200 Main Tower
Dallas, TX 75202
214-767-6599
Rehabilitation Services Administration
1200 Main Tower
Dallas, TX 75202
214-767-2961
Region VII-Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska
Office for Civil Rights
324 East 11th Street
24th Floor
Kansas City, MO 64106
816-374-5025
Region VIII-Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South
Dakota, Utah, Wyoming
Office for Civil Rights
1961 Stout Street
Denver, CO 80294
303-844-3417
Rehabilitation Services Administration
1961 Stout Street
Denver, CO 80294
303-844-2135
Region IX-Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada,
Guam, Trust Territory of Pacific Islands, American
Samoa
Office for Civil Rights
1275 Market Street
San Francisco, CA 94103
415-556-1933
Region X-Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington
Office for Civil Rights
2901 Third Avenue
Mail Stop 106
Seattle, WA 98121
206-442-4542
Rehabilitation Services Administration
2901 3rd Avenue
Mail Stop 106
Seattle, WA 98121
206-442-4442
Environmental Protection Agency (Federal TDD Numbers)
Civil Rights Office
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
202-382-4565 TDD
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (TDD Numbers)
1900 E Street, NW
Washington, DC 20415
202-632-6272 v/TDD
Executive Office of the President (TDD Numbers)
The White House
1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20500
202-456-6213
United States Senate
Washington, DC 20510
202-224-4049 TDD
202-224-4048 Voice
U.S. Congress
Washington, DC 20515
202-225-1904 v/TDD
Federal Bureau of Investigation (Federal TDD Numbers)
Technological Office
9th and Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20535
202-324-2333 TDD
Federal Communications Commission (Federal Numbers)
Consumer Assistance Office
1919 M Street, NW
Washington, DC 20554
202-632-6999 TDD
Federal Trade Commission (Federal TDD Numbers)
Public Reference Branch
6th and Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20580
202-523-3638 TDD
General Services Administration (Federal TDD Numbers)
National Archives and Records Service
8th and Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20408
202-523-0774 TDD
Health and Human Services Department
Food and Drug Administration
200 C Street, SW
Room 1825
Washington, DC 20204
202-245-1284
Food and Drug Administration
5600 Fishers Lane
Parklawn Building
Room 12B03
Rockville, MD 20857
301-443-1818
Handicapped Employment Program
200 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20201
202-245-6568
National Library of Medicine, NIH
8600 Rockville Pike
Rockville, MD 20857
301-496-5511 TDD
Office of Civil Rights
200 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20201
202-472-2916
Public Health Service
5600 Fishers Lane
Parklawn Building
Room 5B07
Rockville, MD 20857
301-443-4229
Social Security Administration
6401 Security Boulevard
Baltimore, MD 21235
800-325-0788
Social Security Administration (Missouri only)
4300 Goodfellow Boulevard
St. Louis, MO 63120
800-325-0778 TDD
800-392-0812 TDD
Department of Housing and Urban Development
451 Seventh Street, SW
Washington, DC 20410
202-426-6030
Department of Interior (Federal TDD Numbers)
Clara Barton House
MacArthur Boulevard
Glen Echo, MD 20768
301-492-6296 v/TDD
Old Stone House
3051 M Street, NW
Washington, DC 20007
202-426-6851 v/TDD
Interstate Commerce Commission (Federal TDD Numbers)
Constitution Avenue and 12th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20011
202-275-1721 TDD
Catoctin Mountain Park
Fairmont, MD 21788
301-663-9330 v/TDD
Frederick Douglass Home
1411 W Street, SE
Washington, DC 20020
202-426-5963 v/TDD
National Park Service
Special Programs Branch
Washington, DC 20013
202-343-3679 v/TDD
National Park Service
George Washington Memorial Parkway
McLean, VA 22101
703-285-2620 v/TDD
Justice Department (Federal TDD Numbers)
Coordination and Review Section
320 1st Street, NW
Washington, DC 20530
202-724-7678 TDD
Equal Employment Opportunity Office
10th Street and Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20530
202-633-3696
Library of Congress (Federal TDD Numbers)
1st Street and Independence Avenue, SE
Washington, DC 20540
202-287-6200
Merit Systems Protection Board (Federal TDD Numbers)
1120 Vermont Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20419
202-653-8896 TDD
Office of Personnel Management (Federal TDD Numbers)
Federal Job Information Center
1900 E Street, NW
Washington, DC 20415
202-632-6063
Selective Placement Program Division
1900 E Street, NW
Room 7H17
Washington, DC 20415
202-632-9594
Employment of the Handicapped (Federal TDD Numbers)
1111 20th Street, NW
Suite 600
Washington, DC 20036
202-653-5112
Securities and Exchange Commission (Federal Numbers)
Personnel
450 Fifth Street, NW
Room 1C45
Washington, DC 20549
202-272-2552
Small Business Administration (Federal TDD Numbers)
1441 L Street, NW
Washington, DC 20416
202-653-7561 TDD
Department of Transportation (Federal TDD Numbers)
400 Seventh Street, SW
Washington, DC 20590
202-755-7687
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
400 Seventh Street, SW
Room 6125
Washington, DC 20590
202-426-2989
Department of the Treasury (Federal TDD Numbers)
15th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20226
202-287-4097
Bureau of the Public Debt
13th and C Street, SW
Washington, DC 20590
202-287-4087 TDD
Internal Revenue Service
1111 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20224
800-424-1040
Telecommunications Center
15th and Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20020
202-566-2673 TDD
United States Information Agency (Federal Numbers)
Equal Opportunity
301 4th Street, SW
Washington, DC 20547
202-485-7157 v/TDD
Books for Blind and Physically Handicapped Persons
The Library of Congress has a free reading program
for blind and physically handicapped individuals
and offers publications in Braille and recorded
books and magazines to persons who cannot hold a
book or see well enough to read regular print.
Special playback equipment is available on a loan
basis from the Library of Congress, and cassettes
and recordings on discs can be ordered from about
160 cooperating libraries. Anyone who is
medically certified as unable to hold a book or
read ordinary print because of a visual
handicap can borrow these materials postage-free
and return them in the same manner.
For more information, send name and address to:
National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped
The Library of Congress
Washington, DC 20542
Recording for the Blind
(RFB) is a national nonprofit service organization
that provides free cassettes of educational
textbooks to medically certified individuals.
Eligibility extends to visually, physically, and
perceptually handicapped individuals. One of RFB's
special services is a collection of cassettes of
a wide variety of consumer publications from the
federal government.
For more information and an application, contact:
Student Services-CI
Recording for the Blind, Inc.
20 Roszel Road
Princeton, NJ 08540
609-452-0606
800-221-4792 (toll free outside New Jersey)
Services for Handicapped Children
Association for Children with Retarded Mental
Development
162 Fifth Avenue
11th Floor
New York, NY 10010
212-475-7200
Council for Exceptional Children
Department of Information Services
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 22091
703-620-3660
Foundation for Children with Learning Disabilities
99 Park Avenue
6th Floor
New York, NY 10016
212-687-7211
National Information Center for Handicapped
Children and Youth
P.O. Box 1492
Washington, DC 20001
1555 Wilson Boulevard
Rosslyn, VA 22209
703-522-3332
Health and Nutrition
AIDS Hotline
800-342-AIDS
Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders
Association
70 East Lake Street
Chicago, IL 60601
312-853-3060
American Dietetic Association
430 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60611
312-280-5000
American Health and Wellness Association
781 West Oakland Park Boulevard
Suite 273
Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33311
305-761-1279
American Institute of Nutrition
9650 Rockville Pike
Bethesda, MD 20814
301-530-7050
American Medical Association
Food and Nutrition Program
535 North Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60610
312-645-5070
American Prevention Institute
1425 Engracia Avenue
Torrance, CA 90501
213-328-6338
Cancer Hotline
800-638-6070 (toll free-Alaska)
800-4-CANCER (toll free elsewhere)
202-636-5700 (District of Columbia)
808-524-1234 (Hawaii)
212-794-7982 (New York City)
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
Food and Drug Administration
200 C Street, SW
Room 3321
Washington, DC 20204
Centers for Disease Control
Atlanta, GA 30333
Community Nutrition Institute
2001 S Street, NW
Washington, DC 20009
202-462-4700
Health and Human Services Department
U.S. Office of Consumer Affairs
1725 I Street, NW
Washington, DC 20201
202-634-4140
Health Care Financing Administration
Health and Human Services Department
6325 Security Boulevard
Baltimore, MD 21207
301-594-9086
TTY for the deaf: 301-594-9016
Health Maintenance Organizations
Division of Private Sector Initiatives
Parklawn Building
Room 17A55
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, MD 20857
301-443-2778
Human Nutrition Information Service
Food and Consumer Services
USDA
6505 Belcrest Road
Hyattsville, MD 20782
301-436-7725
National Gay Health Foundation
P.O. Box 784
New York, NY 10036
212-563-6313
National Health Information Clearinghouse
1555 Wilson Boulevard
Suite 600
Rosslyn, VA 22209
800-336-4979
703-522-2590 (District of Columbia)
Office of Information and Consumer Affairs
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Labor Department
Washington, DC 20210
202-523-8151
Public Health Service
Centers for Disease Control
U.S. Public Health Service
1600 Clifton Road, NE
Atlanta, GA 30333
404-639-3534
Second Surgical Opinion Program
Health and Human Services Department
Hubert Humphrey Building
Room 313H
Washington, DC 20201
800-492-6603 (toll free Maryland)
800-638-6833 (toll free elsewhere)
Society for Nutrition Education
1736 Franklin Street
Suite 900
Oakland, CA 94612
415-444-7133
Vitamin Information Bureau
664 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60611
312-751-2223
ZIP Codes
Five-digit ZIP (Zoning Improvement Plan) Codes were
introduced in 1964 to identify each postal delivery
area in the United States. In some communities, two
cities may share a ZIP Code; in others, such as New
York City, one geographic area may have many ZIP
Codes, including separate ZIP codes for each major
office building. In this book, the ZIP Codes are
representative rather than specific for the larger
cities. In New York City, for example, the indicated
ZIP Code is 10001, which is technically the ZIP Code
for the Manhattan borough postmaster. For the ZIP
Code for a specific address in any area served by
the U.S. Postal Service, the reader should consult a
copy of the "U.S. Postal Service National Five-Digit
ZIP Code & Post Office Directory", available at any
local post office and revised yearly.
Aberdeen, SD 57401 Beaumont, TX 77704
Abilene, TX 79604 Beavercreek, OH 45401
Addison, IL 60101 Beaverton, OR 97005
Akron, OH 44309 Bell, CA 90201
Alameda, CA 94501 Belleville, Il 62220
Albany, GA 31706 Belleville, NJ 07109
Albuquerque, NM 87101 Bellevue, WA 98009
Alexandria, LA 71301 Bellflower, CA 90706
Alexandria, VA 22313 Bell Gardens, CA 90201
Alhambra, CA 91802 Bellingham, WA 98225
Allen Park, MI 48101 Beloit, WI 53511
Allentown, PA 18101 Bergenfield, NJ 07621
Alton, IL 62002 Berkeley, CA 94704
Altoona, PA 16603 Berwyn, IL 60402
Amarillo, TX 79120 Bessemer, AL 35020
Ames, IA 50010 Bethel Park, PA 15102
Anaheim, CA 92803 Bethlehem, PA 18016
Anchorage, AK 99502 Bettendorf, IA 52722
Anderson, In 46018 Beverly, MA 01915
Anderson, SC 29621 Beverly Hills, CA 90213
Annapolis, MD 21401 Billings, MT 59101
Ann Arbor, MI 48106 Biloxi, MS 39530
Anniston, AL 36201 Binghamton, NY 13902
Antioch, CA 94509 Birmingham, AL 35203
Appleton, WI 54911 Bismarck, ND 58501
Arcadia, CA 91006 Blacksburg, VA 24060
Arlington, TX 76010 Blaine, MN 55433
Arlington Hts., IL 60004 Bloomfield, NJ 07003
Arvada, CO 80001 Bloomington, IL 61701
Asheville, NC 28810 Bloomington, IN 47401
Ashland, KY 41101 Bloomington, MN 55420
Athens, GA 30601 Blue Springs, MO 64015
Atlanta, GA 30304 Boca Raton, FL 33432
Atlantic City, NJ 08401 Bolingbrook, IL 60439
Attleboro, MA 02703 Bossier City, LA 71111
Auburn, AL 36830 Boston, MA 02205
Auburn, NY 13021 Boulder, CO 80302
Auburn, WA 98002 Bountiful, UT 84010
Augusta, GA 30901 Bowie, MD 20715
Aurora, CO 80010 Bowling Green, KY 42101
Aurora, IL 60507 Bowling Green, OH 43402
Austin, TX 78710 Boynton Beach, FL 33435
Azusa, CA 91702 Bradenton, FL 33506
Bakersfield, CA 93302 Brea, CA 92621
Baldwin Park, CA 91706 Bremerton, WA 98310
Baltimore, MD 21233 Bridgeport, CT 06602
Bangor, ME 04401 Bristol, CT 06010
Barberton, OH 44203 Brockton, MA 02403
Bartlesville, OK 74003 Broken Arrow, OK 74012
Baton Rouge, LA 70821 Brookfield, WI 53005
Battle Creek, MI 49016 Brooklyn Ctr., MN 55429
Bay City, MI 48706 Brooklyn Park, MN 55007
Bayonne, NJ 07002 Brook Park, OH 44142
Baytown, TX 77520 Brownsville, TX 78520
Brunswick, OH 44212 Clifton, NJ 07015
Bryan, TX 77801 Clinton, IA 52732
Buena Park, CA 90622 Clovis, CA 93612
Buffalo, NY 14240 Clovis, NM 88010
Burbank, CA 91505 College Sta., TX 77840
Burbank, IL 60459 Colorado Spgs, CO 80901
Burlingame, CA 94010 Columbia, MO 65201
Burlington, IA 52601 Columbia, SC 29201
Burlington, NC 27215 Columbia, TN 38401
Burlington, VT 05401 Columbus, GA 31908
Burnsville, MN 55337 Columbus, IN 47201
Burton, MI 48502 Columbus, MS 39701
Butte, MT 59701 Columbus, OH 43216
Calumet City, IL 60409 Compton, CA 90220
Camarillo, CA 93010 Concord, CA 94520
Cambridge, MA 02140 Concord, NH 03301
Camden, NJ 08101 Coon Rapids, MN 55433
Campbell, CA 95008 Coral Gables, FL 33114
Canton, OH 44711 Coral Springs, FL 33065
Cape Coral, FL 33910 Corona, CA 91720
Cape Girardeau, MO 63701 Corpus Christi,TX 78408
Carbondale, IL 62901 Corvallis, OR 97333
Carlsbad, CA 92008 Costa Mesa, CA 92626
Carrollton, TX 75006 Council Bluffs,IA 51501
Carson, CA 90749 Covina, CA 91722
Carson City, NV 89701 Covington, KY 41011
Casper, WY 82601 Cranston, RI 02910
Cedar Falls, IA 50613 Crystal, MN 55428
Cedar Rapids, IA 52401 Culver City, CA 90230
Cerritos, CA 90701 Cumberland, MD 21502
Champaign, Il 61820 Cupertino, CA 95014
Chandler, AZ 85224 Cuyahoga Falls,OH 44222
Chapel Hill, NC 27514 Cypress, CA 90630
Charleston, SC 29423 Dallas, TX 75260
Charleston, WV 25301 Daly City, CA 94015
Charlottesville, VA 22906 Danbury, CT 06810
Chattanooga, TN 37401 Danville, IL 61832
Chelsea, MA 02150 Danville, VA 24541
Chesapeake, VA 23320 Davenport, IA 52802
Chester, PA 19013 Davis, CA 95616
Cheyenne, WY 82001 Dayton, OH 45401
Chicago, IL 60607 Daytona Beach, FL 32015
Chicago Hts., IL 60411 Dearborn, MI 48120
Chico, CA 95926 Dearborn Hts., MI 48127
Chicopee, MA 01021 Decatur, AL 35602
Chula Vista, CA 92010 Decatur, IL 62521
Cicero, IL 60650 Deerfield Bch, FL 33441
Cincinnati, OH 45234 De Kalb, IL 60115
Claremont, CA 91711 Del City, OK 73115
Clarksville, TN 37041 Delray Beach, FL 33444
Clearwater, FL 33575 Del Rio, TX 78840
Cleveland, OH 44101 Denton, TX 76201
Cleveland, TN 37311 Denver, CO 80202
Cleveland Hts., OH 44118 Des Moines, IA 50318
Des Plaines, IL 60018 Fayetteville, NC 28302
Detroit, MI 48233 Ferndale, MI 48220
Dothan, AL 36303 Findlay, OH 45840
Downers Grove, IL 60515 Fitchburg, MA 01420
Downey, CA 90241 Flagstaff, AZ 86001
Dubuque, IA 52001 Flint, MI 48502
Duluth, MN 55806 Florence, AL 35631
Duncanville, TX 75138 Florence, SC 29501
Dunedin, FL 33528 Florisant, MO 63033
Durham, NC 27701 Fond du Lac, WI 54935
East Chicago, IN 46312 Fontana, CA 92335
East Cleveland, OH 44112 Fort Colllins, CO 80521
East Detroit, MI 48021 Fort Dodge, IA 50501
East Lansing, MI 48823 Ft. Lauderdale,FL 33450
Easton, PA 18042 Fort Lee, NJ 07024
East Orange, NJ 07019 Fort Myers, FL 33906
East Point, GA 30364 Fort Pierce, FL 33450
E. Providence, RI 02914 Fort Smith, AR 72901
East St. Louis, IL 62201 Fort Wayne, IN 46802
Eau Claire, WI 54701 Fort Worth, TX 76101
Edina, MN 55424 Fountain Vly., CA 92728
Edmond, OK 73034 Frankfort, KY 40601
Edmonds, WA 98020 Frederick, MD 21701
El Cajon, CA 92020 Freeport, IL 61032
El Dorado, AR 71730 Freeport, NY 11520
Elgin, IL 60120 Fremont, CA 94538
Elizabeth, NJ 07207 Fresno, CA 93706
Elk Grove, IL 60007 Fridley, MN 55432
Elkhart, IN 46515 Fullerton, CA 92631
Elmhurst, IL 60126 Gadsen, AL 35901
Elmira, NY 14901 Gainesville, FL 32602
El Monte, CA 91734 Gaithersburg, MD 20877
El Paso, TX 79910 Galesburg, IL 61401
Elyria, OH 44035 Galveston, TX 77553
Emporia, KS 66801 Gardena, CA 90247
Englewood, CO 80110 Garden City, MI 48135
Enid, OK 73701 Garden Grove, CA 92640
Erie, PA 16515 Garfield, NJ 07026
Escondido, CA 92025 Garfield Hts., OH 44125
Euclid, OH 44117 Garland, TX 75040
Eugene, OR 97401 Gary, IN 46401
Evanston, IL 60204 Gastonia, NC 28052
Evansville, IN 47708 Glendale, AZ 85301
Everett, MA 02149 Glendale, CA 91209
Everett, WA 98201 Glendora, CA 91740
Fairborn, OH 45324 Glenview, Il 60025
Fairfield, CA 94533 Gloucester, MA 01930
Fairfield, OH 45014 Goldsboro, NC 27530
Fair Lawn, NJ 07410 Grand Forks, ND 58201
Fall River, MA 02722 Grand Island, NE 68801
Fargo, ND 58102 Grand Junction,CO 81501
Farmington, NM 87401 Grand Prairie, TX 75051
Farmington Hls., MI 48024 Grand Rapids, MI 49501
Fayetteville, AR 72701 Granite City, IL 62040
Great Falls, MT 59403 Idaho Falls, ID 83401
Greeley, CO 80631 Independence, MO 64501
Green Bay, WI 54301 Indianapolis, In 46206
Greenfield, WI 53220 Inglewood, CA 90311
Greensboro, NC 27420 Inkster, MI 48141
Greenville, MS 38701 Iowa City, IA 52240
Greenville, NC 27834 Irvine, CA 92713
Greenville, SC 29600 Irving, TX 75061
Gresham, OR 97030 Irvington, NJ 07111
Gulfport, MS 39503 Ithaca, NY 14850
Hackensack, NJ 07602 Jackson, MI 49201
Hagerstown, MD 21740 Jackson, MS 39205
Hallandale, FL 33009 Jackson, TN 38301
Haltom City, TX 76117 Jacksonville, AR 72076
Hamilton, OH 45012 Jacksonville, FL 32203
Hammond, IN 46320 Jamestown, NY 14701
Hampton, VA 23670 Janesville, WI 53545
Hanover Park, IL 60103 Jefferson City,MO 65101
Harlingen, TX 78551 Jersey City, NJ 07303
Harrisburg, PA 17105 Johnson City, TN 37601
Hartford, CT 06101 Johnstown, PA 15901
Harvey, IL 60426 Joliet, IL 60436
Hattiesburg, MS 39401 Jonesboro, AR 72401
Haverhill, MA 01830 Joplin, MO 64801
Hawthorne, CA 90250 Kalamazoo, MI 49001
Hayward, CA 94544 Kankakee, IL 60901
Hazelton, PA 18201 Kansas City, KS 66110
Hempstead, NY 11551 Kansas City, MO 64108
Hialeah, FL 33010 Kearny, NJ 07032
Highland, IN 46322 Kenner, LA 70062
Highland Park, IL 60035 Kennewick, WA 99336
Highland, MI 48203 Kenosha, WI 53141
High Point, NC 27260 Kent, OH 45429
Hillsboro, OR 97123 Kentwood, MI 49508
Hilo, HI 96720 Kettering, OH 45429
Hobbs, NM 88240 Killeen, TX 76541
Hoboken, NJ 07030 Kingsport, TN 37662
Hoffman Estates, IL 60195 Kingston, NC 28501
Holland, MI 49423 Kingsville, TX 78363
Hollywood, FL 33022 Kirkwood, MO 63122
Holyoke, MA 01040 Knoxville, TN 37901
Honolulu, HI 96820 Kokomo, IN 46902
Hopkinsville, KY 42240 La Crosse, WI 54601
Hot Springs, AR 71901 Lafayette, IN 47901
Houma, LA 70360 Lafayette, LA 70501
Houston, TX 77201 La Habra, CA 90631
Huber Heights, OH 45424 Lake Charles, LA 70601
Huntington, WV 25704 Lakeland, FL 33802
Huntington Bch., CA 92647 Lakewood, CA 90714
Huntington Park, CA 90255 Lakewood, CO 80215
Huntsville, AL 35813 Lakewood, OH 44107
Hurst, TX 76053 Lake Worth, FL 33461
Hutchinson, KS 67501 La Mesa, CA 92041
La Mirada, CA 90638 Lincoln, NE 68501
Lancaster, CA 93534 Lincoln Park, MI 48146
Lancaster, OH 43130 Linden, NJ 07036
Lancaster, PA 17604 Lindenhurst, NY 11757
Lansing, IL 60438 Little Rock, AR 72231
Lansing, MI 48924 Littleton, CO 80120
La Puenta, CA 91747 Livermore, CA 94550
Laredo, TX 78041 Livonia, MI 48150
Largo, FL 33540 Lodi, CA 95240
Las Cruces, NM 88001 Logan, UT 84321
Las Vegas, NV 89114 Lombard, IL 60148
Lauderdale Lks., FL 33313 Lompoc, CA 93436
Lauderhill, FL 33313 Long Beach, CA 90809
Lawrence, IN 46226 Long Beach, NY 11561
Lawrence, KS 66044 Long Branch, NJ 07740
Lawrence, MA 01842 Longmont, CO 80501
Lawton, OK 73501 Longview, TX 75602
Leavenworth, KS 66048 Longview, WA 98632
Lebanon, PA 17042 Lorain, OH 44052
Lee's Summit, MO 64063 Los Altos, CA 94022
Leominster, MA 01453 Los Angeles, CA 90052
Lewiston, ID 83501 Los Gatos, CA 95030
Lewiston, ME 04240 Louisville, KY 40231
Lexington, KY 40511 Loveland, CO 80537
Lima, OH 45802 Lowell, MA 01853
Lubbock, TX 79408 Lynchburg, VA 24506
Lufkin, TX 75901 Lynn, MA 01901
Lynwood, CA 90262 Missoula, MT 59806
Macon, GA 31213 Mobile, AL 36601
Madison, WI 53707 Modesto, CA 95350
Madison Heights, MI 48071 Moline, IL 61265
Malden, MA 02148 Monroe, LA 71203
Manchester, NH 03103 Monroeville, PA 15146
Manhattan, KS 66502 Monrovia, CA 91016
Manhattan Beach, CA 90266 Montclair, NJ 07042
Manitowoc, WI 54220 Montebello, CA 90640
Mankato, MN 56001 Monterey, CA 93940
Mansfield, OH 44901 Monterey Park, CA 91754
Maple Heights, OH 44137 Montgomery, AL 36119
Maplewood, MN 55109 Moore, OK 73153
Margate, FL 33063 Moorhead, MN 56560
Marietta, GA 30060 Morgantown, WV 26505
Marion, IN 46952 Mountain View, CA 94042
Marion, OH 43302 Mt. Prospect, IL 60056
Marlborough, MA 01752 Mount Vernon, NY 10551
Marshalltown, IA 50158 Muncie, IN 47032
Mason City, IA 50401 Murfreesboro, TN 37130
Massillon, OH 44646 Murray, UT 84107
Maywood, IL 60153 Muskegon, MI 49440
McAllen, TX 78501 Muskogee, OK 74401
McKeesport, PA 15134 Nacogdoches, TX 75961
Medford, MA 02155 Nampa, ID 83651
Medford, OR 97501 Napa, CA 94558
Melbourne, FL 32901 Naperville, IL 60566
Melrose, MA 02176 Nashua, NH 03061
Memphis, TN 38101 Nashville, TN 37202
Menlo Park, CA 94025 National City, CA 92050
Menomonee Falls, WI 53051 Naugatuck, CT 06770
Mentor, OH 44060 New Albany, IN 47150
Merced, CA 95340 Newark, CA 94560
Meriden, CT 06450 Newark, DE 19711
Meridian, MS 39301 Newark, NJ 07102
Merrillville, IN 46410 Newark, OH 43055
Mesa, AZ 85201 New Bedford, MA 02741
Mesquite, TX 75149 New Berlin, WI 53151
Miami, FL 33152 New Britain, CT 06050
Miami Beach, FL 33139 New Brunswick, NJ 08901
Michigan City, IN 46360 New Castle, PA 16101
Middletown, CT 06457 New Haven, CT 06511
Middletown, OH 45042 New Iberia, LA 70560
Midland, MI 48640 New London, CT 06320
Midland, TX 79702 New Orleans, LA 70113
Midwest City, OK 73140 Newport, RI 02840
Milford, CT 06460 Newport Beach, CA 92660
Milpitas, CA 95035 Newport News, VA 23607
Milwaukee, WI 53201 New Rochelle, NY 10802
Minneapolis, MN 55401 Newton, MA 02158
Minnetonka, MN 55343 New York, NY 10001
Minot, ND 58701 Niagara Falls, NY 14302
Miramar, FL 33023 Niles, IL 60648
Mishawaka, IN 46544 Norfolk, VA 23501
Normal, IL 61761 Park Forest, IL 60466
Norman, OK 73070 Park Ridge, IL 60068
Norristown, PA 19401 Parma, OH 44129
Northampton, MA 01060 Pasadena, CA 91109
Northbrook, IL 60062 Pasadena, TX 77501
N. Charleston, SC 29406 Pascagoula, MS 39567
North Chicago, IL 60064 Passaic, NJ 07055
Northglenn, CO 80233 Paterson, NJ 07510
N. Las Vegas, NV 89030 Pawtucket, RI 02860
N. Little Rock, AR 72114 Peabody, MA 01960
North Miami, FL 33161 Pembroke Pines,FL 33024
N. Miami Beach, FL 33160 Pensacola, FL 32501
North Olmstead, OH 44070 Peoria, IL 61601
N.Richland Hls., TX 76118 Perth Amboy, NJ 08861
North Tonowanda, NY 14120 Petaluma, CA 94952
Norwalk, CA 90650 Petersburg, VA 23804
Norwalk, CT 06856 Phenix City, AL 36867
Norwich, CT 06360 Philadelphia, PA 15219
Norwood, OH 45212 Phoenix, AZ 85026
Novato, CA 94947 Pico Rivera, CA 90660
Nutley, NJ 97110 Pine Bluff, AR 71601
Oak Forest, IL 60452 Pinellas Park, FL 33565
Oakland, CA 94615 Pittsburg, CA 94565
Oak Lawn, IL 60454 Pittsburgh, PA 15219
Oak Park, IL 60301 Pittsfield, MA 01201
Oak Park, MI 48237 Placentia, CA 92670
Oak Ridge, TN 37830 Plainfield, NJ 07061
Ocala, FL 32678 Plano, TX 75074
Oceanside, CA 92054 Plantation, FL 33318
Odessa, TX 79760 Pleasant Hill, CA 94523
Ogden, UT 84401 Pleasanton, CA 94566
Oklahoma City, OK 73125 Plum, PA 15239
Olathe, KS 66061 Plymouth, MN 55447
Olympia, WA 98501 Pocatello, ID 83201
Omaha, NE 68108 Pomona, CA 91766
Ontario, CA 91761 Pompano Beach, FL 33060
Orange, CA 92667 Ponca City, Ok 74601
Orem, UT 84057 Pontiac, MI 48056
Orlando, FL 32802 Portage, IN 46368
Oshkosh, WI 54901 Portage, MN 49081
Ottumwa, IA 52501 Port Arthur, TX 77640
Overland Park, KS 66204 Port Huron, MI 48060
Owensboro, KY 43201 Portland, ME 04101
Oxnard, CA 93030 Portland, OR 97208
Pacifica, CA 94044 Portsmouth, NH 03801
Paducah, KY 42001 Portsmouth, OH 45662
Palatine, IL 60067 Portsmouth, VA 23705
Palm Springs, CA 92263 Poughkeepsie, NY 12601
Palo Alto, CA 94303 Prichard, AL 36610
Panama City, FL 32401 Providence, RI 02940
Paramount, CA 90723 Provo, UT 84603
Paramus, NJ 07652 Pueblo, CO 81003
Paris, TX 75460 Parkersburg, WV 26101
Quincy, IL 62301 Quincy, MA 02269
Racine, WI 53401 Salina, KS 67401
Rahway, NJ 07065 Salinas, CA 93907
Raleigh, NC 27611 Salt Lake City,UT 84119
Rancho Cucamonga,CA 91730 San Angelo, TX 76902
Rancho Palos San Antonio, TX 78284
Verdes,CA 90274 San Bernardino,CA 92403
Rapid City, SD 57701 San Bruno, CA 94066
Raytown, MO 64133 San Buenaventura
Reading, PA 19603 (Ventura), CA 93002
Redding, CA 96001 San Clemente, CA 92672
Redlands, CA 92373 San Diego, CA 92199
Redondo Beach, CA 90277 Sandusky, OH 44870
Redwood City, CA 94064 Sandy City, UT 84070
Reno, NV 89510 San Francisco, CA 94188
Renton, WA 98057 San Gabriel, CA 91776
Revere, MA 02151 San Jose, CA 95101
Rialto, CA 92376 San Leandro, CA 94577
Richardson, TX 75080 San Luis Obispo,CA93401
Richfield, MN 55423 San Mateo, CA 94402
Richland, WA 99352 San Rafael, CA 94901
Richmond, CA 94802 Santa Ana, CA 94901
Richmond, IN 47374 Santa Barbara, CA 93102
Richmond, VA 23232 Santa Clara, CA 95050
Ridgewood, NJ 07451 Santa Cruz, CA 95060
Riverside, CA 92507 Santa Fe, NM 87501
Riviera Beach, FL 33404 Santa Maria, CA 93456
Roanoke, VA 24022 Santa Monica, CA 90406
Rochester, MN 55901 Santa Rosa, CA 95402
Rochester, NY 14692 Sarasota, FL 33578
Rockford, IL 61125 Saratoga, CA 95070
Rock Hill, SC 29730 Savannah, GA 31401
Rock Island, IL 61201 Sayreville, NJ 09972
Rockville, MD 20850 Schaumburg, IL 60194
Rockville Ctr., NY 11570 Schenectady, NY 12301
Rocky Mount, NC 27801 Scottsdale, AZ 85251
Rome, GA 30161 Scranton, PA 18505
Rome, NY 13440 Seal Beach, CA 90740
Rosemead, CA 91770 Seaside, CA 93955
Roseville, MI 48066 Seattle, WA 98109
Roseville, MN 55113 Selma, AL 36701
Rosewell, NM 88201 Shaker Hghts., OH 44120
Royal Oak, MI 48068 Shawnee, KS 66202
Sacramento, CA 95813 Shawnee, OK 74801
Saginaw, MI 48065 Sheboygan, WI 53081
St. Charles, MO 63301 Shelton, CT 06484
St. Clair Shores,MI 48080 Sherman, TX 75090
St. Cloud, MN 56301 Shreveport, LA 71102
St. Joseph, MO 64501 Simi Valley, CA 83065
St. Louis, MO 63155 Sioux City, IA 51101
St. Louis Park, MN 55426 Sioux Falls, SD 57101
St. Paul, MN 55101 Skokie, IL 60076
St. Petersburg, FL 33730 Slidell, LA 70458
Salem, MA 01970 Somerville, MA 02143
Salem, OR 97301 Somerville, NJ 08876
South Bend, IN 46624 Twin Falls, ID 83301
South Euclid, OH 44121 Tyler, TX 75712
Southfield, MI 48037 Union City, CA 94587
South Gate, CA 90280 Union City, NJ 07087
Southgate, MI 48195 University Cty,MO 68130
S. San Francisco,CA 94080 Upland, CA 91786
Sparks, NV 89431 Upper Arlington,OH43221
Spartanburg, SC 29301 Urbana, IL 61801
Spokane, WA 99210 Utica, NY 13504
Springfield, IL 62703 Vacaville, CA 95688
Springfield, MA 01101 Valdosta, GA 31601
Springfield, MO 65801 Vallejo, CA 94590
Springfield, OH 45501 Valley Stream, NY 11580
Springfield, OR 97477 Vancouver, WA 98661
Stamford, CT 06904 Vicksburg, MS 39180
State College, PA 16801 Victoria, TX 77901
Sterling Hts., MI 48077 Vineland, NJ 08360
Steubenville, OH 43952 Virginia Beach,VA 23450
Stillwater, OK 74074 Visalia, CA 93277
Stockton, CA 95208 Vista, CA 92083
Stow, OH 44224 Waco, TX 76701
Strongsville, OH 44136 Walla Walla, WA 99362
Suffolk, VA 23434 Walnut Creek, CA 94596
Sunnyvale, CA 94086 Waltham, MA 02154
Sunrise, FL 33338 Warner Robins, GA 31093
Superior, WI 54880 Warren, MI 48089
Syracuse, NY 13220 Warren, OH 44481
Tacoma, WA 98413 Warwick, RI 02887
Tallahassee, FL 32301 Washington, DC 20013
Tamarac, FL 33320 Waterbury, CT 06701
Tampa, FL 33630 Waterloo, IA 50701
Taunton, MA 02780 Watertown, NY 13601
Taylor, MI 48180 Waukegan, IL 60085
Tempe, AZ 85282 Waukesha, WI 53186
Temple, TX 76501 Wausau, WI 54401
Terre Haute, IN 47808 Wauwatosa, WI 53213
Texarkana, TX 75501 Weirton, WV 26062
Texas City, TX 75501 West Allis, WI 53213
Thornton, CO 80229 West Covina, CA 91793
Thousand Oaks, CA 91360 Westfield, MA 01085
Tinley Park, IL 60477 Westfield, NJ 07090
Titusville, FL 32780 West Haven, CT 06516
Toledo, OH 43601 West Jordan, UT 84084
Topeka, KS 66603 Westland, MI 48185
Torrance, CA 90510 West Memphis, AR 72301
Torrington, CT 06790 West Mifflin, PA 15122
Trenton, NJ 08650 Westminster, CA 92683
Troy, MI 48099 Westminster, CO 80030
Troy, NY 12180 West New York, NJ 07093
Tucson, AZ 85726 West Orange, NJ 07052
Tulsa, OK 74101 W. Palm Beach, FL 33401
Turlock, CA 95380 Wheaton, IL 60187
Tuscaloosa, AL 35403 Wheat Ridge, CO 80033
Tustin, CA 92680 Wheeling, WV 26003
White Plains, NY 10602 Woodland, CA 95695
Whittier, CA 90605 Woonsocket, RI 02895
Wichita, KS 67276 Worcester, MA 01613
Wichita Falls, TX 76307 Wyandotte, MI 48192
Wilkes-Barre, PA 18701 Wyoming, MI 49509
Williamsport, PA 17701 Yakima, WA 98903
Wilmette, IL 60091 Yonkers, NY 10701
Wilmington, DE 19850 Yorba Linda, CA 92686
Wilmington, NC 28402 York, PA 17405
Wilson, NC 27893 Youngstown, OH 44501
Winona, MN 55987 Yuma, AZ 85364
Winston-Salem, NC 27102 Zanesville, OH 43701
Woburn, MA 01801
Magazines and Newspapers
Magazines
Consumerism (Magazines)
-----------
Accent on Living Backpacker
P O Box 700 1515 Broadway
Gillum Road and High Drive 11th Floor
Bloomington, IL 61701 New York, NY 10036
Bicycling Magazine Boating
Rodale Press Ziff-Davis Publishing Co.
33 East Minor Street 1 Park Avenue
Emmaus, PA 18049 New York, NY 10016
Camera 35 Camping Magazine
150 East 58th Street 5000 State Road
New York, NY 10022 Martinsville, IN 46151
Car and Driver Changing Times
2002 Hogback Road The Kiplinger Magazine
Ann Arbor, MI 48104 1729 H Street NW
Washington, DC 20006
Concern Consumer Reports
Consumer Education 256 Washington Street
Resource Network Mount Vernon, NY 10553
1500 Wilson Boulevard
Suite 800
Rosslyn, VA 22209
Consumers Digest Forbes
5705 North Lincoln Avenue 60 Fifth Avenue
Chicago, IL 60659 New York, NY 10011
Gray Panther Network High Fidelity
311 South Juniper Street ABC Leisure Magazines
Suite 601 825 Seventh Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19107 New York, NY 10019
Modern Maturity Modern Photography
American Association ABC Leisure Magazines
of Retired Persons 825 Seventh Avenue
3200 East Carson Street New York, NY 10019
Lakewood, CA 90712
Money
Time, Inc.
Time & Life Building
New York, NY 10020
Subscriptions:
Time, Inc.
591 North Fairbanks Court
Chicago, IL 60611
Cooking and Dining (Magazines)
------------------
Better Homes and Bon Appetit
Gardens Holiday Cooking 5900 Wilshire Boulevard
and Entertaining Los Angeles, CA 90036
Locust and 17th
Des Moines, IA 50336
Gourmet
560 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10022
Entertainment (Magazines)
-------------
Back Stage National Enquirer
330 West 42nd Street 600 SE Coast Avenue
New York, NY 10036 Lake Worth, FL 33464
Star Magazine TV Guide Magazine
660 White Plains Road 4 Radnor Corporate Center
Tarrytown, NY 10591 Radnor, PA 19088
General Interest (Magazines)
----------------
Ebony LIFE
820 South Michigan Avenue Time & Life Building
Chicago, IL 60605 New York, NY 10020
National Geographic People
17th and M Streets NW Time & Life Building
Washington, DC 20036 Rockefeller Center
New York, NY 10020
Psychology Today Reader's Digest
One Park Avenue Pleasantville, NY 10570
New York, NY 10016
The Saturday Evening Post Smithsonian
1100 Waterway Boulevard 900 Jefferson Drive SW
Indianapolis, IN 46202 Washington, DC 20560
Health and Nutrition (Magazines)
--------------------
East West Journal Prevention
17 Station Street 33 East Minor Street
Brookline, MA 02146 Emmaus, PA 18049
Weight Watchers Magazine
360 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10017
Home and Gardening (Magazines)
------------------
Better Homes and Gardens The Family Handyman
1716 Locust Street 1999 Shepard Road
Des Moines, IA 50336 Saint Paul, MN 55116
Horticulture House and Garden
755 Boylston Street The Condé Nast Building
Boston, MA 02116 350 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10017
House Beautiful Metropolitan House
1700 Broadway Locust at 17th
New York, NY 10019 Des Moines, IA 50336
Literary (Magazines)
--------
The Atlantic Harper's Magazine
8 Arlington Street 666 Broadway
Boston, MA 02116 New York, NY 10012
The New Yorker Saturday Review Magazine
25 West 43rd Street 214 Massachusetts Ave.,NE
New York, NY 10036 Suite 460
Washington, DC 20002
Men's Interests (Magazines)
---------------
Esquire Gentlemen's Quarterly(GQ)
2 Park Avenue 350 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10016 New York, NY 10017
Penthouse Playboy
909 Third Avenue 919 North Michigan Avenue
New York, NY 10022 Chicago, IL 60611
News (Magazines)
----
Newsweek Time
444 Madison Avenue Time & Life Building
New York, NY 10022 New York, NY 10022
U.S. News & World Report
2400 N Street NW
Washington, DC 20037
Parenting (Magazines)
---------
American Baby Expecting
575 Lexington Avenue 685 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10022 New York, NY 10017
Parents Magazine
685 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10017
Public, Social, and Political Affairs (Magazines)
-------------------------------------
Note: See also News section
Entrepreneur Mother Jones
1541 NW 15th Street 1663 Mission Street
Fort Lauderdale, FL 33311 San Francisco, CA 94103
The Nation The New Republic
72 Fifth Avenue 1220 19th Street NW
New York, NY 10011 Washington, DC 20036
Science and Mechanics (Magazines)
---------------------
Home Mechanix Popular Mechanics Magazine
1515 Broadway 224 West 57th Street
New York, NY 10036 New York, NY 10019
Science Digest Scientific American
1775 Broadway 415 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10019 New York, NY 10017
Sports (Magazines)
------
Field and Stream
1515 Broadway, 12th Floor
New York, NY 10036
Travel (Magazines)
------
Travel & Leisure
1120 Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10036
Women's Interests (Magazines)
-----------------
Bride's Cosmopolitan
The Condè Nast Building 224 West 57th Street
350 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10019
New York, NY 10017
Essence Family Circle
1500 Broadway 110 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10036 New York, NY 10011
Glamour Good Housekeeping
350 Madison Avenue 959 Eighth Avenue
New York, NY 10017 New York, NY 10019
Ladies' Home Journal Mademoiselle
100 Park Avenue 350 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10017 New York, NY 10017
McCall's Modern Bride
230 Park Avenue 1 Park Avenue
New York, NY 10169 New York, NY 10016
Ms. New Woman
119 West 40th Street 215 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10018 New York, NY 10016
Playgirl Redbook
801 Second Avenue 224 West 57th Street
New York, NY 10017 New York, NY 10019
Vogue Woman's Day
350 Madison Avenue 1515 Broadway
New York, NY 10017 New York, NY 10036
Women's Circle Working Woman
23 Herrick Road 342 Madison Avenue
Peabody, MA 01960 New York, NY 10173
National Newspapers
USA Today
1000 Wilson Boulevard
Arlington, VA 22209
Wall Street Journal
200 Liberty Street
New York, NY 10281
Daily Newspapers by State
Alabama (Daily Newspapers)
-------
Birmingham News Birmingham Post-Herald
2200 4th Avenue, N 2200 4th Avenue, N
Birmingham, AL 35202 Birmingham, AL 35202
Huntsville News Alabama Journal
2117 West Clinton Avenue 200 Washington Avenue
Huntsville, AL 35801 Montgomery, AL 36102
Montgomery Advertiser
200 Washington Avenue
Montgomery, AL 36102
Alaska (Daily Newspapers)
------
Anchorage Daily News Anchorage Times
1001 Northway Drive 820 West 4th Avenue
Anchorage, AK 99508 Anchorage, AK 99501
Arizona (Daily Newspapers)
-------
Arizona Republic Phoenix Gazette
120 East Van Buren Street 120 East Van Buren St.
Phoenix, AZ 85004 Phoenix, AZ 85004
Arizona Daily Star Tucson Citizen
4850 South Park Avenue 4850 South Park Avenue
Tucson, AZ 85726 Tucson, AZ 85726
Arkansas (Daily Newspapers)
--------
Arkansas Gazette Little Rock Arkansas
112 West Third Democrat
Little Rock, AR 72201 Capitol Ave. & Scott St.
Little Rock, AR 72201
California (Daily Newspapers)
----------
Press-Telegram Los Angeles Daily
604 Pine Avenue Journal
Long Beach, CA 90844 210 South Spring Street
Los Angeles, CA 90012
L.A. Herald Examiner Los Angeles Times
1111 South Broadway Times Mirror Square
Los Angeles, CA 90015 Los Angeles, CA 90053
The Tribune Sacramento Bee
409 13th Street 21st and Q Streets
Oakland, CA 94623 Sacramento, CA 95813
San Diego Transcript San Diego Union
2131 Third Avenue 350 Camino de la Reina
San Diego, CA 92101 San Diego, CA 92108
San Francisco Chronicle San Francisco Examiner
901 Mission Street 110 5th Street
San Francisco, CA 94103 San Francisco, CA 94103
Colorado (Daily Newspapers)
--------
Boulder Daily Camera Daily Journal
1048 Pearl Street 101 University Boulevard
Boulder, CO 80302 Denver, CO 80206
Denver Post
650 15th Street
Denver, CO 80202
Connecticut (Daily Newspapers)
-----------
Hartford Courant New Haven Register
285 Broad Street 40 Sargent Drive
Hartford, CT 06115 New Haven, CT 06511
The Advocate
75 Tresser Boulevard
Stamford, CT 06901
Delaware (Daily Newspapers)
--------
Evening Journal
831 Orange Street
Wilmington, DE 19801
District of Columbia (Daily Newspapers)
--------------------
Washington Post
1150 15th Street NW
Washington, DC 20071
Florida (Daily Newspapers)
-------
Fort Lauderdale News Miami Herald
101 N. New River Dr., E No. 1 Herald Plaza
Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33302 Miami, FL 33132
Orlando Sentinel
633 North Orange Avenue
Orlando, FL 32801
Georgia (Daily Newspapers)
-------
Atlanta Daily World Atlanta Journal
145 Auburn Avenue, NE 72 Marietta Street
Atlanta, GA 30335 Atlanta, GA 30303
Hawaii (Daily Newspapers)
------
Hawaii Hochi Honolulu Advertiser
917 Kokea Street 605 Kapiolana Boulevard
Honolulu, HI 96817 Honolulu, HI 96813
Idaho (Daily Newspapers)
-----
Idaho Statesman
1200 North Curtis Road
Boise, ID 83706
Illinois (Daily Newspapers)
--------
Chicago Defender Chicago Sun Times
2400 South Michigan Ave. 401 North Wabash Avenue
Chicago, IL 60616 Chicago, IL 60611
Chicago Tribune
435 North Michigan Ave.
Chicago, IL 60611
Indiana (Daily Newspapers)
-------
Herald-Telephone Indianapolis News
1900 South Walnut 307 N. Pennsylvania St.
Bloomington, IN 47401 Indianapolis, IN 46204
Indianapolis Star
307 N. Pennsylvania St.
Indianapolis, IN 46204
Iowa (Daily Newspapers)
----
Des Moines Register Des Moines Tribune
715 Locust Street 715 Locust Street
Des Moines, IA 50304 Des Moines, IA 50304
Kansas (Daily Newspapers)
------
Kansas City Kansan Lawrence Journal World
901 North 8th Street 6th and North H Streets
Kansas City, KS 66101 Lawrence, KS 66044
Capital-Journal Wichita Eagle-Beacon
616 Jefferson 825 East Douglas
Topeka, KS 66607 Wichita, KS 67202
Kentucky (Daily Newspapers)
--------
Courier-Journal
525 West Broadway
Louisville, KY 40202
Louisiana (Daily Newspapers)
---------
Baton Rouge Advocate Daily Record
525 Lafayette Street 931 Canal Street
Baton Rouge, LA 70802 518 Audubon Building
New Orleans, LA 70112
Times-Picayune
3800 Howard Avenue
New Orleans, LA 70140
Maine (Daily Newspapers)
-----
Evening Express Portland Press Herald
390 Congress Street 390 Congress Street
Portland, ME 04104 Portland, ME 04104
Maryland (Daily Newspapers)
--------
The Baltimore Sun
Calvert and Center Streets
Baltimore, MD 21278
Massachusetts (Daily Newspapers)
-------------
Boston Globe Boston Herald
135 Morrissey Boulevard 1 Herald Square
Boston, MA 02107 Boston, MA 02106
Michigan (Daily Newspapers)
--------
Detroit Free Press Detroit News
321 Lafayette Boulevard 615 Lafayette Boulevard
Detroit, MI 48231 Detroit, MI 48231
Minnesota (Daily Newspapers)
---------
Minneapolis Star St. Paul Pioneer Press
and Tribune and Dispatch
425 Portland Avenue 345 Cedar Street
Minneapolis, MN 55488 Saint Paul, MN 55101
Mississippi (Daily Newspapers)
-----------
Jackson Clarion-Ledger
311 East Pearl Street
Jackson, MS 39205
Missouri (Daily Newspapers)
--------
Kansas City Star Kansas City Times
1729 Grand Avenue 1729 Grand Avenue
Kansas City, MO 64108 Kansas City, MO 64108
Saint Louis Post-Dispatch
900 North Tucker Blvd.
Saint Louis, MO 63101
Montana (Daily Newspapers)
-------
Billings Gazette Great Falls Tribune
401 North Broadway 205 River Drive, S
Billings, MT 59101 Great Falls, MT 59403
Nebraska (Daily Newspapers)
--------
Lincoln Star-Journal Daily Record
P.O. Box 81609 2511 Leavenworth
926 P Street Omaha, NE 68105
Lincoln, NE 68501
Omaha World-Herald
World-Herald Square
Omaha, NE 68102
Nevada (Daily Newspapers)
------
Las Vegas Review-Journal Las Vegas Sun
1111 West Bonanza 121 South Highland
Las Vegas, NV 89125 Las Vegas, NV 89127
Reno Gazette Journal
955 Kuenzli Street
Reno, NV 89520
New Hampshire (Daily Newspapers)
-------------
Nashua Telegraph
60 Main Street
Nashua, NH 03061
New Jersey (Daily Newspapers)
----------
Press and Sunday Press Star-Ledger
1900 Atlantic Avenue Star-Ledger Plaza
Atlantic City, NJ 08404 Newark, NJ 07101
The Times
500 Perry Street
Trenton, NJ 08605
New Mexico (Daily Newspapers)
----------
Albuquerque Journal Albuquerque Tribune
7777 Jefferson, NE 7777 Jefferson, NE
Albuquerque, NM 87109 Albuquerque, NM 87109
New York (Daily Newspapers)
--------
New York Daily News New York Newsday
220 East 42nd Street 780 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10017 New York, NY 10017
New York Post New York Times
210 South Street 229 West 43rd Street
New York, NY 10002 New York, NY 10036
North Carolina (Daily Newspapers)
--------------
Charlotte Observer Durham Sun
600 South Tryon Street 115 Market Street
Charlotte, NC 28202 Durham, NC 27702
News and Observer Raleigh Times
215 South McDowell Street 215 South McDowell Street
Raleigh, NC 27602 Raleigh, NC 27602
North Dakota (Daily Newspapers)
------------
Bismarck Tribune
707 East Front Avenue
Bismarck, ND 58501
Ohio (Daily Newspapers)
----
Cincinnati Enquirer Cincinnati Post
617 Vine Street 125 East Court Street
Cincinnati, OH 45201 Cincinnati, OH 45202
Cleveland Plain Dealer Columbus Dispatch
1801 Superior Avenue 34 South Third Street
Cleveland, OH 44114 Columbus, OH 43215
Oklahoma (Daily Newspapers)
--------
Daily Oklahoman Tulsa Daily Business
500 North Broadway Journal
Oklahoma City, OK 73125 8545 East 41st Street
Tulsa, OK 74145
Tulsa Tribune
315 South Boulder Avenue
Tulsa, OK 74102
Oregon (Daily Newspapers)
------
Daily Journal of Commerce The Oregonian
2014 NW 24th Avenue 1320 SW Broadway
Portland, OR 97210 Portland, OR 97201
Pennsylvania (Daily Newspapers)
------------
Philadelphia Daily News Philadelphia Enquirer
400 North Broad Street 400 North Broad Street
Philadelphia, PA 19101 Philadelphia, PA 19101
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Pittsburgh Press
50 Boulevard of Allies 34 Boulevard of Allies
Pittsburgh, PA 15222 Pittsburgh, PA 15230
Rhode Island (Daily Newspapers)
------------
Evening Bulletin Providence Journal
75 Fountain Street 75 Fountain Street
Providence, RI 02902 Providence, RI 02902
South Carolina (Daily Newspapers)
--------------
Charleston News Columbia Record
and Courier Stadium Road
134 Columbus Street Columbia, SC 29202
Charleston, SC 29402
South Dakota (Daily Newspapers)
------------
Argus Leader
200 South Minnesota Avenue
Sioux Falls, SD 57117
Tennessee (Daily Newspapers)
---------
Commercial Appeal Knoxville Journal
495 Union Avenue 210 West Church Avenue
Memphis, TN 38101 Knoxville, TN 37901
Nashville Banner The Tennessean
1100 Broadway 1100 Broadway
Nashville, TN 37202 Nashville, TN 37202
Texas (Daily Newspapers)
-----
Austin American-Statesman Dallas Morning News
166 East River Drive Communications Center
Austin, TX 78704 Dallas, TX 75265
Dallas Times Herald El Paso Herald-Post
1101 Pacific 401 Mills Avenue
Dallas, TX 75202 El Paso, TX 79901
Fort Worth Star-Telegram The Citizen
400 West 7th Street 17511 El Camino Real
Fort Worth, TX 76102 Houston, TX 77058
Houston Chronicle
801 Texas Avenue
Houston, TX 77002
Utah (Daily Newspapers)
----
Salt Lake City Salt Lake Tribune
Deseret News 143 South Main
30 East First, South Salt Lake City, UT 84111
Salt Lake City, UT 84110
Vermont (Daily Newspapers)
-------
Brattleboro Reformer Burlington Free Press
Black Mountain Road 191 College Street
Brattleboro, VT 05301 Burlington, VT 05401
Virginia (Daily Newspapers)
--------
Alexandria Gazette Ledger-Star
717 Borth St. Asaph St. 150 West Brambleton Ave.
Alexandria, VA 22314 Norfolk, VA 23510
Richmond News Leader
333 East Grace Street
Richmond, VA 23219
Washington (Daily Newspapers)
----------
Seattle Post-Intelligencer Seattle Times
101 Elliott Avenue, W Fairview Av. N & John St.
Seattle, WA 98119 Seattle, WA 98111
West Virginia (Daily Newspapers)
-------------
Charleston Daily Mail The Intelligencer
1001 Virginia Street 1500 Main Street
Charleston, WV 25301 Wheeling, WV 26003
Wisconsin (Daily Newspapers)
---------
Madison Capital Times Wisconsin State Journal
1901 Fish Hatchery Road 1901 Fish Hatchery Road
Madison, WI 53713 Madison, WI 53713
Milwaukee Journal Milwaukee Sentinel
333 West State Street 918 North 4th Street
Milwaukee, WI 53203 Milwaukee, WI 53201
Wyoming (Daily Newspapers)
-------
Wyoming Eagle Wyoming State Tribune
110 East 17th Street 110 East 17th Street
Cheyenne, WY 82001 Cheyenne, WY 82001
Parenting
Adoption
Adoptee/Natural Parent Adoptive Parents
Locators-International Committee
P.O. Box 1283 210 Fifth Avenue
Canyon Country, CA 91351 New York, NY 10010
805-251-3536 212-683-9221
Committee for Single Yesterday's Children
Adoptive Parents 5945 Fiddletown Place
P.O. Box 15084 San Jose, CA 95120
Chevy Chase, MD 20852 408-268-5654
Single-Parent Families
America's Society of Big Brothers/Big Sisters
Separated and Divorced Men of America
575 Keep Street 230 North 13th Street
Elgin, IL 60120 Philadelphia, PA 19107
312-695-2200 215-567-2748
League for Human Rights National Committee for
in Divorce Adoption
P.O. Box 985 2025 M Street NW, Ste 512
Southampton, NY 11968 Washington, DC 20036
516-283-5010 202-463-7559
National Council on Orphan Voyage
Family Relations 2141 Road 2300
1910 West County Road B Cedaredge, CO 81413
Suite 147 303-856-3937
Saint Paul, MN 55113
612-633-6933
Shared Parenting
Association
P.O. Box 430306
6510 SW 93rd Avenue
Miami, FL 33143
Radio and Television Networks
American Broadcasting American Business Network
Companies (ABC) (BIZ NET)
1330 Ave. of the Americas 1615 H Street, NW
New York, NY 10019 Washington, DC 20062
ABC Communications
ABC Entertainment
ABC News and Sports
ABC Radio Networks
ABC Television Network
Broadcast Group
Broadcast Operations
and Engineering
Television Stations
Video Enterprises
Radio
Arts & Entertainment Associated Press Radio
Cable Network (A&E) Network
555 Fifth Avenue 1825 K Street NW, Ste 615
New York, NY 10017 Washington, DC 20006
Black Entertainment Cable Network News (CNN)
Television P.O. Box 105264
1232 31st Street, NW 1050 Techwood Drive, NW
Washington, DC 20077 Atlanta, GA 30318
Cable Satellite Public
Affairs Network (C-SPAN)
400 North Capitol St., NW
Suite 412
Washington, DC 20001
CBS, Inc. CBS Includes:
51 West 52nd Street
New York, NY 10019
CBS/Broadcast Group Includes:
51 West 52nd Street CBS Magazines Division
New York, NY 10019 CBS/Publishing Group
CBS/Records Group
CBS Technology Center
CBS Entertainment Div. CBS News Division
CBS Television City 524 West 57th Street
7800 Beverly Boulevard New York, NY 10019
Los Angeles, CA 90036
CBS Operations and CBS Radio Division
Engineering Division 51 West 52nd Street
524 West 57th Street New York, NY 10019
New York, NY 10019
CBS Television Network (CTN) Includes:
51 West 52nd Street CBS Sports Div. (CSD)
New York, NY 10019 CBS TV Stations
Division (CTS)
CBS Theatrical Films Division
4024 Radford Avenue
Studio City, CA 91604 (End CBS divisions)
Entertainment and Sports Hughes Television Network
Prog. Network (ESPN) 4 Penn Plaza
ESPN Plaza New York, NY 10001
Bristol, CT 06010
The Learning Channel Madison Square Garden
1414 22nd Street, NW Network
Washington, DC 20037 2 Pennsylvania Plaza
New York, NY 10001
MTV Networks, Inc.
1775 Broadway
New York, NY 10019
National Broadcasting NBC Includes:
Company, Inc. (NBC) NBC Corporate
30 Rockefeller Plaza Communications
New York, NY 10020 NBC Corporate Planning
NBC Entertainment
NBC Legal and Standards
NBC News
NBC Operations and
Technical Services
NBC Personnel and Labor
Relations
NBC Sports
NBC Television Network
NBC Television Stations
Nat'l Broadcasting Network Nat'l Christian Network
11906 Madison Avenue 1150 West King Street
Lakewood, OH 44107 Cocoa, FL 32922
National Public Radio (NPR)
2025 M Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
Public Broadcasting Service Other addresses:
(PBS) National Press
Headquarters Relations/CA
1320 Braddock Place 4401 Sunset Boulevard
Alexandria, VA 22314 Suite 335
Los Angeles, CA 90027
National Press
Relations/NY
609 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10017
Reuters Information Svs. Sheridan Broadcast
1700 Broadway Network
New York, NY 10019 1500 Chamber of Commerce
Building
Pittsburgh, PA 15219
Sportsvision United Press Int'l Radio
820 West Madison 1400 I Street
Oak Park, IL 60302 Washington, DC 20005
United Stations Radio UPI Cable News
Networks 220 East 42nd Street
1440 Broadway New York, NY 10017
New York, NY 10018
USA Network Other addresses:
1230 Ave. of the Americas Time & Life Building
New York, NY 10020 Chicago, IL 60611
2500 Fisher Building
Detroit, MI 48202
1900 Ave. of the Stars
Los Angeles, CA 90067
The Weather Channel Owner:
2840 Mt. Wilkinson Pkwy. Landmark Comm., Inc.
Atlanta, GA 30339 150 West Brambleton Av.
Norfolk, VA 23501
Washington News Bureau
1776 G Street, NW
Washington, DC 20006
London News Bureau
11 Grape Street
London WC2H89R
England
Sports Organizations and Halls of Fame
American and National Amer. & Nat'l Leagues of
Basketball Associations Professional Baseball
645 Fifth Avenue Clubs
New York, NY 10022 350 Park Avenue
New York, NY 10022
American Hockey League Assn. of Sports Museums
218 Memorial Avenue and Halls of Fame
W. Springfield, MA 01089 101 West Sutton Place
Wilmington, DE 19810
Baseball and Sports Hall Intl. Boxing Hall of Fame
of SHAME P.O. Box 425
P.O. Box 6218 Canastota, NY 13032
W. Palm Beach, FL 33405
Naismith Memorial National Association of
Basketball Hall of Fame Prof. Baseball Leagues
P.O. Box 179 (minor league clubs)
1150 West Columbus Avenue P.O. Box A
Springfield, MA 01101 201 Bayshore Drive, SE
St. Petersburg, FL 33731
National Baseball National Bowling Assoc.
Hall of Fame 377 Park Avenue South
P.O. Box 590 7th Floor
Cooperstown, NY 13326 New York, NY 10016
Nat'l Football Foundation National Football League
and Hall of Fame 410 Park Avenue
Bell Tower Building New York, NY 10022
1865 Palmer Avenue
Larchmont, NY 10538
National Hockey League National Sports Assoc.
960 Sun Life Building 518 Barneson Avenue
1155 Metcalfe Street San Mateo, CA 94402
Montreal, PQ
Canada H3B 2W2
Nat'l Tennis Foundation Professional Bowler's
and Hall of Fame Association of America
100 Park Avenue 1720 Merriman Road
New York, NY 10017 Akron, OH 44313
Professional Golfer's
Association of America
Box 109601
Palm Beach Gardens, FL 33410
Where to Write Your Senators and Representatives
Senators' and representatives' offices are housed in
the Capitol Building as well as in six other
buildings listed below. However, constituents can
write to their senators and representatives as
follows.
Senator's name
United States Senate
Washington, DC 20510
Representative's name
United States House of Representatives
Washington, DC 20515
Most government departments and agencies have their
own ZIP Codes; the correct one should be used. The
Senate ZIP Code differs from that of the House. All
Senate office buildings have the 20510 ZIP Code, and
all House office buildings have the 20515 ZIP Code.
Listings of specific addresses of members of
Congress are in the more current edition of "The
Congressional Staff Directory" or "Congressional
Quarterly's Washington Directory", both of which are
available in local libraries. These books also list
the home offices of members of Congress. Local
telephone directories may also be consulted.
Both the Senate and House have offices in the
Capitol Building, but additional offices are housed
at the following buildings:
Senate Offices
Dirksen Senate Office Building
Constitution Avenue between 1st and 2nd Sts., NE
Hart Senate Office Building
2nd Street and Constitution Avenue, NE
Russell Senate Office Building
Constitution Ave. bet. Delaware Ave. & 1st St., NE
House Offices
Cannon House Office Building
Independence Avenue between C and 1st Streets, SE
Longworth House Office Building
Independence Ave. between C and S. Capitol Sts., SE
Rayburn House Office Building
Independence Ave., bet. S. Capitol and 1st Sts., SE
Additional Sources of Information
Brobeck, Stephen. "The Product Safety Book". Dutton,
1983.
"Congressional Staff Directory". Congressional Staff
Directory, 1987.
Eiler, Andrew. "The Consumer Protection Manual". Facts
on File, 1984.
Everton, George B., ed. "The Handy Book for
Genealogists". Everton, 1986.
Gill, Kay, and Wilson, Robert. "Consumer Sourcebook",
4th ed. Gale Research, 1987.
"Post-Purchase Remedies". United States Federal Trade
Commission, Office of Policy Planning and Evaluation,
1980.
Shilling, Dana. "Fighting Back: A Consumer's Guide for
Getting Satisfaction". Quill, 1982.
Travel
Traveler's Checklist
Things to Do (Traveler's Checklist)
Arrange for the post office to hold your mail, or
have someone collect it daily.
Stop all deliveries to your home.
Arrange for the care of animals, plants, and lawn.
Put valuables in a safe deposit box.
Notify neighbors and police of absence and let them
know how you can be reached.
Leave a key with a neighbor.
Arrange for travelers' insurance coverage, if
needed.
Notify travel agent of any special needs you might
have, such as the use of an airport wheelchair.
Reconfirm your airline ticket and other
reservations.
Tag your luggage with brightly colored stickers or
ribbons for easy identification.
Set timers or leave a light on.
Empty refrigerator and turn it on low.
Turn off hot water.
Lock all doors and windows.
Things to Bring (Traveler's Checklist)
Airline or other tickets and travel documents.
Auto registration, if driving.
Passport, visas, and health certificates.
Medical information and doctor's name and telephone
number.
Special prescriptions or prescription medications.
Insurance papers.
Credit cards.
Travelers checks and personal checks.
Cash, including some in the currency of the country
to which you are traveling.
Names and addresses of people to contact in an
emergency.
Names, addresses, phone numbers, reservation
numbers, and dates for places where you will be
staying.
Lightweight fold-up tote bag for purchases.
Addresses of friends and family to whom to send
mail.
Toll-Free Numbers for Rental Cars and Hotels/Motels
Note: In some areas dialing "1" before the number
may be necessary.
Car Rental Agencies (Toll-Free Numbers)
Avis 800-331-1212
Budget 800-527-0700
Hertz 800-654-3131
National 800-227-7368
Rent-a-Wreck 800-423-2158
Thrifty 800-367-2277
Ugly Duckling 800-528-1584
Value 800-327-2501
International Car Rental Agencies (Toll-Free Numbers)
Auto Europe 800-223-5555
Avis 800-331-2112
Europcar 800-CarRent
Hertz 800-654-3001
Hotels/Motels (Toll-Free Numbers)
Best Western 800-528-1234
Hilton 800-445-8667
Holiday Inn 800-HOLIDAY
Hotels of the World 800-223-6800
Atlantic City, Reno, Las Vegas, and Tahoe
Hotels 800-255-5722
Condo Reservations 800-321-2525
Howard Johnson 800-654-2000
Hyatt 800-228-9000
Marriott 800-228-9290
Ramada Inn 800-2RAMADA
Red Lion 800-547-8010
Airline Codes and Toll-Free Airline Numbers
Note: In some areas, dialing "1" before the
number may be necessary.
EI AerLingus 800-223-6537
AM Aeromexico 800-237-6639
AC Air Canada 800-422-6232
AF Air France 800-237-2747
AS Alaska Airlines 800-426-0333
AZ Alitalia 800-223-5730
AA American Airlines 800-433-7300
BA British Airways 800-247-9297
BR British Caledonian 800-231-0270
CO Continental Airlines 800-525-0280
DL Delta Airlines 800-221-1212
EA Eastern Airlines 800-Eastern
IB Iberia Airlines 800-221-9741
JL Japan Airlines 800-525-3663
LH Lufthansa 800-645-3880
NW Northwest Airlines,
domestic 800-225-2525
Northwest Airlines,
international 800-447-4747
PA Pan Am 800-442-5896
PI Piedmont Airlines 800-251-5720
QF Qantas 800-227-4500
RC Republic Airlines 800-441-1414
SA Scandinavian Air 800-221-2350
SR Swissair 800-221-4750
TW TWA, domestic 800-221-2000
TW TWA, international 800-892-4141
UA United Airlines 800-241-6522
AL US Air 800-428-4322
WO World Airways 800-772-2600
National Weather Service Average Temperatures
(Fahrenheit)--North America
Location December-March June-August
(high/low) (high/low)
Acapulco 87/70 89/75
Albuquerque 72/40 91/62
Austin 63/42 93/72
Bermuda 68/58 84/73
Boston 40/22 80/58
Cancún 87/70 89/75
Chicago 34/18 82/64
Dallas 58/37 92/72
Denver 43/17 85/57
Dominican Republic 85/69 88/72
Honolulu 76/68 84/72
Jackson Hole, WY 36/11 80/52
Lake Tahoe 50/16 89/40
Las Vegas 65/34 103/71
Los Angeles 66/47 76/58
Mexico City 72/43 75/53
Miami 76/59 88/75
Montreal 24/10 72/54
Nassau 77/67 88/76
New Orleans 65/48 90/76
New York City 41/27 80/65
Palm Beach 79/43 95/73
Philadelphia 42/29 83/64
Port au Prince 86/68 70/73
St. Thomas 85/72 89/76
San Juan 82/71 87/76
Tucson 65/39 97/71
Vancouver 44/36 67/53
Washington, DC 45/29 85/64
Yellowstone 32/6 75/46
National Park
National Weather Service Average Temperatures
(Fahrenheit)--Outside North America
Location December-March June-August
(high/low) (high/low)
Amsterdam 40/31 69/53
Athens 58/44 90/72
Bali 90/74 94/76
Bangkok 89/70 90/75
Bogotá 67/48 64/50
Buenos Aires 87/62 57/40
Cairo 67/48 94/69
Caracas 77/57 78/63
Dublin 47/36 67/51
Guam 90/72 86/69
Hong Kong 68/57 87/59
Israel 57/41 90/65
Istanbul 48/38 80/64
Kathmandu 65/36 84/70
Lima 75/53 77/61
Lisbon 55/44 84/63
London 44/35 70/52
Manila 87/70 90/75
Montevideo 84/72 77/70
Munich 36/23 73/53
Nairobi 77/54 69/51
New Delhi 71/43 96/80
Panama City 88/71 86/70
Paris 44/36 76/58
Quito 77/57 78/65
Rio de Janeiro 82/71 76/70
Rome 55/42 85/66
Santiago 86/70 78/69
Seoul 30/20 81/69
Singapore 88/74 87/73
Taiwan 70/61 90/72
Tokyo 47/32 81/69
Air Mileage from New York City--Domestic
Albuquerque 1,810 Boston 188
Atlanta 747 Chicago 711
Baltimore 170 Denver 1,628
Detroit 483 Philadelphia 83
Kansas City,MO 1,097 Phoenix 2,142
Los Angeles 2,446 Portland 2,455
Memphis 953 St. Louis 873
Miami 1,095 Salt Lake 1,972
City
Nashville 758 San Francisco 2,568
New Orleans 1,173 Seattle 2,419
Omaha 1,144 Washington,DC 204
Air Mileage from New York City--Foreign
Acapulco 2,260 Lima 3,651
Amsterdam 3,639 Lisbon 3,366
Antigua 1,783 London 3,456
Aruba 1,963 Madrid 3,588
Athens 4,927 Manchester 3,336
Barbados 2,100 Mexico City 2,086
Bermuda 771 Milan 4,004
Bogotá 2,487 Nassau 1,101
Brussels 3,662 Oslo 3,671
Buenos Aires 5,302 Paris 3,628
Caracas 2,123 Reykjavik 2,600
Copenhagen 3,849 Rio de Janeiro 4,816
Curacao 1,993 Rome 4,280
Frankfurt 3,851 St. Croix 1,680
Geneva 3,859 San Juan 1,609
Glasgow 3,211 Santo Domingo 1,560
Hamburg 3,806 Tel Aviv 5,672
Kingston 1,583 Zurich 3,926
Foreign Currencies
This chart lists the official names for selected
currencies around the world. Colonial legacies have
made certain names-dollar, peso, franc, and pound,
for example-widespread. The traveler should not
assume equivalency in value, or transferability,
among units sharing a name; that is, one cannot
spend Central African francs in France or Turkish
lira in Rome.
Afghanistan afghani
Albania lek
Algeria dinar
Andorra French franc
Spanish peseta
Angola kwanza
Antigua East Caribbean dollar
Argentina austral
Australia dollar
Austria schilling
Bahamas dollar
Bahrain dinar
Bangladesh taka
Barbados dollar
Belau dollar
Belgium franc
Belize dollar
Benin franc CFA*
Bhutan ngultrum
Bolivia peso
Bophuthatswana South African rand
Botswana pula
Brazil cruzado
Brunei dollar
Bulgaria lev
Burkina Faso franc CFA
Burma kyat
Burundi franc
Cambodia riel
Cameroon franc CFA
Canada dollar
Cape Verde escudo
Central Africa franc CFA
Chad franc CFA
Chile peso
China yuan
Ciske South African rand
Colombia peso
Comoros franc CFA
Congo franc CFA
Costa Rica colon
Cuba peso
Cyprus pound
Czechoslovakia koruna
Denmark krone
Djibouti franc
Dominica East Caribbean dollar
Dominican Republic peso
Ecuador sucre
Egypt pound
El Salvador colon
Equatorial Guinea ekuele
Ethiopia birr
Fiji dollar
Finland markka
France franc
Gabon franc CFA
Gambia dalasi
Germany, East mark
Germany, West mark
Ghana cedi
Greece drachma
Grenada East Caribbean dollar
Guatemala quetzal
Guinea syli
Guinea Bissau peso
Guyana dollar
Haiti gourde
Honduras lempira
Hungary forint
Iceland krona
India rupee
Indonesia rupiah
Iran rial
Iraq dinar
Ireland pound
Israel shekel
Italy lira
Ivory Coast franc CFA
Jamaica dollar
Japan yen
Jordan dinar
Kenya shilling
Kiribati Australian dollar
Korea, North won
Korea, South won
Kuwait dinar
Laos kip
Lebanon pound
Lesotho loti
Liberia dollar
Libya dinar
Liechtenstein Swiss franc
Luxembourg franc
Madagascar franc
Malawi kwacha
Malaysia ringgit
Maldives rupee
Mali franc CFA
Malta pound
Marshalls dollar
Mauritania ouguiya
Mauritius rupee
Mexico peso
Micronesia dollar
Monaco French franc
Mongolia tugrik
Morocco dirham
Mozambique metical
Namibia South African rand
Nauru Australian dollar
Nepal rupee
Netherlands guilder
New Zealand dollar
Nicaragua cordoba
Niger franc CFA
Nigeria naira
Norway krone
Oman rial
Pakistan rupee
Panama balboa
Papua New Guinea kina
Paraguay guarani
Peru inti
Philippines peso
Poland zloty
Portugal escudo
Qatar riyal
Rumania lei
Rwanda franc
St. Kitts East Caribbean dollar
St. Lucia East Caribbean dollar
St. Vincent East Caribbean dollar
San Marino Italian lira
Sao Tome and
Principe dobra
Saudi Arabia riyal
Senegal franc CFA
Seychelles rupee
Sierra Leone leone
Singapore dollar
Solomons dollar
Somalia shilling
South Africa rand
Soviet Union ruble
Spain peseta
Sri Lanka rupee
Sudan pound
Suriname guilder
Swaziland lilangeni
Sweden krona
Switzerland franc
Syria pound
Taiwan New Taiwan dollar
Tanzania shilling
Thailand baht
Togo franc CFA
Tonga dollar
Transkei South African rand
Trinidad
and Tobago dollar
Tunisia dinar
Turkey lira
Tuvalu Australian dollar
Uganda shilling
United Arab
Emirates dirham
United Kingdom pound sterling
United States dollar
Uruguay peso
Vanuatu vatu
Vatican City lira
Venda South African rand
Venezuela bolivar
Vietnam dong
Western Samoa tala
Yemen, North rial
Yemen, South dinar
Yugoslavia dinar
Zaire zaire
Zambia kwacha
Zimbabwe dollar
* Colonies Francoise d'Afrique
Foreign Visa Requirements
This listing is prepared solely for the information
of U.S. citizens traveling as tourists and does
not apply to persons planning to immigrate to
foreign countries. A visa is generally an
endorsement or stamp placed by officials of a
foreign country on a U.S. passport that allows the
bearer to visit that country.
IMPORTANT: TRAVELERS SHOULD CHECK PASSPORT AND VISA
REQUIREMENTS WITH THE CONSULAR OFFICIALS OF THE
COUNTRIES TO BE VISITED WELL IN ADVANCE OF THEIR
DEPARTURE DATES, SINCE SUCH INFORMATION IS SUBJECT
TO CHANGE.
Passports (Travel)
While a U.S. passport is not required by U.S. laws
for travel to or in most countries in North, South,
or central America or adjacent islands, except
Cuba, a passport is required under the laws or
regulations of some of those countries and a valid
U.S. passport is the best travel documentation
available.
Persons who travel to a country where a U.S.
passport is not required should be in possession
of documentary evidence of their U.S. citizenship
and identity to facilitate reentry into the United
States. Those countries that do not require a
passport to enter or depart frequently require the
traveler to have documentary evidence of U.S.
citizenship and identity. Documentary evidence of
U.S. citizenship may be a previously issued U.S.
passport, birth certificate, certificate of
naturalization, certificate of citizenship, or
report of birth abroad of a citizen of the United
States. Documentary evidence of identity may be a
previous U.S. passport, certificate of
naturalization, certificate of citizenship, valid
driver's license, or government (federal, state,
or municipal) identification card or pass. Persons
traveling in countries having requirements for
evidence of citizenship and identity are cautioned
that they may experience serious difficulties or
delays if they do not have the necessary documents.
Inquire before departure at the Embassy in
Washington, D.C. or the local consulate of the
country to be visited for specific requirements.
Visas (Travel)
NECESSARY VISAS SHOULD BE OBTAINED BEFORE
PROCEEDING ABROAD. Most foreign consular
representatives are located in principal cities,
particularly Chicago, New Orleans, New York, San
Francisco, and Washington, D.C. In many instances,
a traveler may be required to obtain visas from
the consular office in the area of his/her
residence. IT IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE
TRAVELER TO OBTAIN VISAS, WHERE REQUIRED, FROM THE
APPROPRIATE EMBASSY OR NEAREST CONSULAR OFFICE.
The addresses of foreign consular offices in the
United States may be obtained by consulting the
CONGRESSIONAL DIRECTORY, which is available in most
libraries, or city telephone directories. Tourists
may be required to present other documentation at
the port of entry of countries to be visited.
Further assistance may be obtained from travel
agents and from visa information services such as
World Wide Visas (800-527-1861) and International
Visa Service (800-843-0050).
Immunizations (Travel)
Under the international health regulations adopted
by the World Health Organization, a country may
require international certificates of vaccination
against yellow fever and cholera. Because smallpox
has been eradicated, such vaccinations should NOT
be given. Check with health care providers or your
records to ensure measles, mumps, rubella, polio,
diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis immunizations
are up to date. Prophylactic medication for malaria
and certain other preventive measures are advisable
for some travelers. NO immunizations are required
to return to the United States. Pertinent
information is included in "Health Information for
International Travel," available from the U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
for $4.75, or it may be obtained from your local
health department or physician.
An increasing number of countries are establishing
regulations regarding AIDS testing, particularly
for long-term residents and students. Check with
the embassy or consulate of the country you plan
to visit for the latest information.
Afghanistan (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport and visa required. Tourist visa,
valid 3 months from date of issue, allows stay up
to 30 days and can be extended; $10 if obtained in
person and $14 if obtained by mail; 3 photos. For
specific requirements, check Embassy, Washington,
DC 20008 (202-234-3770).
Albania (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Apply Albanian Mission,
131 rue de la Pompe, Paris 16e France, or Via
Asmara 9, Rome, Italy, or any other country that
maintains diplomatic relations with Albania.
Currently visas are issued only to business
representatives and groups of at least 10 persons.
Algeria (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist visa, valid 3
months, 4 photos, $11.25. No personal checks.
Obtain visa prior to airport arrival. Proof of
onward/return ticket and sufficient funds for
travel required. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC
20008 (202-328-5300), and check specific
requirements.
Andorra (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Angola (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. American citizens
should be aware that there is no U.S.
representation in Angola at this time. For travel
to Angola, contact the Angolan Permanent
Representative to the UN, 747 3rd Avenue, 18th
Floor, New York, NY 10017.
Anguilla (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
Antigua and Barbuda (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa not required for tourist stay up
to 6 months. Proof of citizenship required.
Return/onward ticket and/or proof of funds
necessary. Check Embassy of Antigua and Barbuda,
Intelsat Building, 3400 International Drive NW,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-362-5122/5166/5211/5225)
for specific requirements.
Argentina (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist visa valid up
to 4 years from date of issue; multiple entries,
no charge. Each entry valid for stay of up to 3
months and may be extended for succeeding periods
of 3 months. Children under 14 not accompanied by
both parents require notarized authorization. Visas
are issued by consulates in Baltimore, Chicago,
Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York,
San Francisco, and Puerto Rico. Check Embassy,
Washington,DC (202-939-6400) or consulate for
specific requirements.
Aruba (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport or proof of U.S. citizenship
required. Visa not required for stay up to 14 days.
Tourists may be asked to show onward/return ticket,
necessary documents, or sufficient funds for stay.
Permission of local authorities required for a
maximum stay up to 90 days. Check Netherlands
Embassy or nearest consulate for specific
requirements.
Australia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport and visa required. Transit visa not
required for stay up to 72 hours. Visitor visa
valid up to 5 years; multiple entries, stay of 6
months, no charge, 1 photo. Upon arrival,
onward/return transportation required. Apply
Consulate General, San Francisco, CA 94108-4979;
New York, NY 10111; Chicago, IL 60601-4675;
Honolulu, HI 96813-4299; Los Angeles, CA 90046;
Houston, TX 77056-9998; or the Embassy, Washington,
DC 20036-2273 (202-797-3000). Check Consulate
General/Embassy for regulations for entry other
than visitor.
Norfolk Island- (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa not required for stay up to 30
days. Visitors must possess confirmed
accommodations and onward/return transportation.
Check Embassy of Australia for specific
requirements.
Austria (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months. Visa required for stay over 3 months,
no charge. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-232-2674) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Azores (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Portugal.
Bahamas (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa not required of tourist with
onward/return ticket and sufficient identification
of citizenship (birth certificate or voter
registration card) for stay up to 8 months.
Passport and residence/work permit required for
residence, business, or missionary work. Business
representatives should inquire about work permit
and traveling salesman's license. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20037 (202-338-3940) or Consulates
General, New York, NY 10017 or Miami, FL 33131, and
check specific requirements. Permit required to
import pets.
Bahrain (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. No tourist visas issued at this
time. Transit visa available at Bahrain
International Airport for temporary stay up to 72
hours; must have return/onward ticket. Business,
work, or resident visas valid for 3 months and
require letter from company or No Objection
Certificate from the Immigration Department in
Bahrain. Apply Embassy of the State of Bahrain,
3502 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
(202-342-0741/2) or the Permanent Mission of the
State of Bahrain to the UN, 2 UN Plaza East 44th
Street, New York, NY 10017, and check specific
requirements.
Bangladesh (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for tourist
stay up to 14 days. Visitors must possess
onward/return ticket. Check specific requirements
with the Embassy of the People's Republic of
Bangladesh, Washington, DC 20007 (202-342-8372) or
Consulate General, New York, NY 10016.
Barbados (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Every visitor is required to be in possession of
a valid passport or travel document. U.S. citizens
traveling directly from the U.S. to Barbados may
be admitted without a passport for a period not
exceeding 3 months provided identity and national
status are established to the satisfaction of
immigration authorities. Such evidence includes a
certified copy of a birth certificate,
naturalization certificates, or similar legal proof
of U.S. citizenship and a document that gives
positive identification (photo I.D. such as
driver's license or job identification card). Visas
not required for U.S. citizen tourists for a stay
of up to 6 months. Business visas, $25 single entry
and $30 multiple entry. (A work permit may be
required.) Visitors must possess valid return
tickets to U.S. or a third country. Check Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-939-9200) or Consulate
General, New York, NY (212-867-8435) for specific
requirements.
Belgium (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for business
or tourist stay up to 90 days. Temporary residence
permit required for stays over 90 days. For
residence authorization, consult Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-333-6900) or consulate
for specific requirements.
Belize (formerly British Honduras)(Visa Requirements)
Passport required. Visa not required for tourists
up to 6 months if in possession of
return/round-trip ticket beginning in and returning
to the U.S. Check Embassy of Belize, 1575 I. Street
NW, Suite 695, Washington, DC 20005
(202-289-1416/7) for specific requirements.
Benin (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Entry/transit visa, 7
days, $8. Extensions may be obtained for tourism,
business, and short- or long-stay visa from the
Immigration Office in Benin. Three photos and proof
of return/onward ticket required. No personal
checks. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-232-6656) and check specific requirements.
Bermuda (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
Bhutan (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visas issued by
Department of Tourism in Bhutan. Unrestricted
tourism is not permitted; visitors must be part of
a group. The Bhutan travel service in New York has
information on group tours (212-838-6382); check
mission in New York (212-826-1919) for specific
requirements.
Bolivia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for tourist
stay up to 90 days. Visa required for students,
missionaries, diplomats, and officials issued at
no charge. Business and/or work purposes visa
required, $50. Include self-addressed, stamped
envelope. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-483-4410) or consulate for specific
requirements and entry of pets.
Bonaire (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Netherlands Antilles
Botswana, Republic of (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 30 days. Visitors staying over 30 days should
apply for permission from Immigration and Passport
Control Office in Gaborone. Check Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-244-4990) or consulate
for specific requirements.
Brazil (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourists must have
onward/return ticket or bank introduction letter
attesting to financial capability. One photo.
Children 3 months to 6 years must have polio
vaccination. Children not accompanied by both
parents require notarized permission to travel in
Brazil. Bearers of work visas and business
travelers, excluded, must register with local
immigration authorities. Check Embassy, Washington,
DC 20008 (202-745-2828) or consulate for specific
requirements and entry of pets.
Brunei (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Apply Embassy, 2600
Virginia Avenue NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20037
(202-342-0159) and check specific requirements.
Bulgaria (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist visa valid for
stay over 30 hours and up to 30 days, $14. Business
visa, for stay up to 60 days, $14, requires
invitation from Bulgarian organization or its
representative in the United States. Visitors visa
requires letter of invitation for stay up to 90
days, issued to relatives, friends, etc. and may
be extended, $14. Transit visa requires visa for
next country of travel, valid up to 30 hours, $9.
No personal checks. Include fee of $3, 1 photo, and
self-addressed envelope. Apply Embassy, Washington,
DC 20008 (202-387-7969) and check specific
requirements.
Burkina Faso(formerly Upper Volta)(Visa Requirements)
Passport and visa required. Tourist/transit visa,
valid up to 3 months from date of issue, $20; 2
photos. Include $1.50 for return of passport by
registered mail. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC
20008 (202-332-5577) or the honorary consuls in Los
Angeles or New Orleans, and check specific
requirements.
Burma (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist visa $5, valid
up to 7 days, 1 entry, 3 photos; visa for next
destination or onward/return ticket required.
Overland travel into and out of Burma not
permitted. Enclose stamped, self-addressed envelope
(registered/certified) for return of passport. A
minimum of 100 U.S. dollars must be changed for
local currency on arrival. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-332-9044) or Permanent
Mission of Burma to the UN, New York, NY 10021
(212-535-1311) and check specific requirements.
Burundi, Republic of (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. Transit visa, up to 48
hours, $11. Entry visa, 1 month, $11, 3 photos.
Include return postage of $1.20. Obtain before
arrival, because airport visas cause delays. Apply
Embassy, Washington, DC 20007 (202-342-2574) or
Permanent Mission of Burundi to the UN, New York,
NY 10017 and check specific requirements.
Cambodia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Kampuchea.
Cameroon (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport, visa, and return/onward ticket required.
Tourist visa, valid 20 days, may be extended 10
days, 1 entry, $29.23, 2 photos. Tourists require
a bank statement. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC
20008 (202-265-8790); include certified or special
delivery return envelope for return of passport,
and check specific requirements. Obtain visas
before arrival because airport visas are difficult
to obtain.
Canada (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport or visa not required for tourists entering
from the U.S. for a stay of up to 90 days, but
tourists should carry personal identification;
birth certificate, naturalization certificate,
alien registration card, and valid or expired
passports are excellent for identification
purposes. U.S. citizens entering Canada from a
third country are required to have a valid passport
or official U.S. travel document. Passport and visa
are required for immigration, i.e., landed immigrant
status. Employment authorization is required for
persons seeking to enter Canada to take previously
secured temporary work. Student authorization is
required for persons seeking to enter Canada to
attend an educational institution. Temporary
workers and students can check with Canadian
Embassy, Washington, DC 20036 (202-785-1400) or
nearest consulate for specific details.
Canal Zone (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Panama.
Cape Verde (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist visa, valid up
to 30 days, can be extended, $13.50, 1 photo.
Include stamped envelope for return of passport.
Allow 3 to 4 weeks. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC
20007 (202-965-6820) and check specific
requirements.
Cayman Islands (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
Central African Republic (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa $20, 3 photos. If
applying by mail, include stamped return envelope.
A letter from company/organization guaranteeing
onward return ticket also is required. Yellow fever
and cholera immunizations required. Visa must be
obtained before arrival and also is required for
transiting the country. Apply Embassy, Washington,
DC 20008 (202-483-7800) and check specific
requirements.
Chad (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Transit visa without
stay/stay up to 1 week, $12.25, onward ticket
required. Tourist or business visa valid up to 2
months for stays up to 30 days extendable, $12.25,
1 entry. Round-trip ticket, 3 photos, and proof of
yellow fever vaccination required. Those applying
by mail should include a registered or certified
return envelope. Business visas require letter from
company describing purpose of trip. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20009 (202-462-4009) and check
specific requirements.
Chile (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months; may apply for an additional 3 months.
Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20036 (202-785-3159)
or consulate for specific requirements.
China, People's Republic of (Visa Requirements)
Passport and visa required. Visa applications may
be submitted to the Chinese Embassy, 2300
Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
(202-328-2500) or the Chinese Consulates General
in Houston, New York, or San Francisco. To qualify
for a visa, the traveler must show a "letter of
confirmation" from the China International Travel
Service (CITS) or an invitation from an individual
or institution in China. CITS is the agency with
exclusive responsibility for all foreign tourism
in China (not including "Overseas Chinese"). CITS
tours may be booked through several different
travel agencies and airlines in the United States
and abroad. Such tours are often advertised in
newspapers and magazines. Visas for tour group
members are usually obtained by the travel agent
as part of the tour package. All persons planning
travel to China should allow at least 3 weeks'
processing time. The current visa fee of $7 and 2
photographs must accompany each visa application
form. Tourists must present evidence of hotel
reservation and/or tourist card. Persons transiting
China, regardless of whether they are required to
pass through customs and immigration, must have
transit visas, or they will be fined $1,000. See
also Taiwan.
Colombia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport, visa/tourist card, and proof of
onward/return ticket required for stay up to 90
days; extensions must be requested from Colombian
immigration authorities. Tourists arriving by ship
should get tourist card before departing the U.S.
All persons with tourist cards assessed $15
departure tax. U.S. citizens under age 18 departing
Colombia with one parent or alone must present
authenticated written authorization from absent
parent(s) or legal guardian. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-387-8338) and check
specific requirements.
Comoros Islands (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa issued at airport
by immigration officer on arrival.
Congo, People's Republic of (Brazzaville) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourists must have
confirmed hotel reservations. Apply Representative
of People's Republic of Congo to the United
Nations, New York, NY 10021.
Cook Islands (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa or entry permit not
required for stays less than 31 days. Must have
advance hotel reservations and onward/return
transportation.
Costa Rica (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. (U.S. travelers are
sometimes admitted with only proof of U.S.
citizenship rather than a valid passport.) Either
a visa or tourist card is required. Visas may be
obtained before arrival from Embassy, Washington,
DC 20008 (202-234-2945) or Consulate (202-328-6628)
or nearest Costa Rican consulate. Tourist cards
valid for stays up to 30 days may be purchased in
lieu of a visa at the airport upon arrival and may
be extended up to 90 days by permission of Costa
Rican Immigration authorities. For stays over 30
days, a passport and exit visa are required. Check
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-234-2945) or
Consulate (202-328-6628) or nearest consulate for
specific requirements.
Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa valid 1 to 90
days, no charge, 4 photos. Proof of yellow fever
vaccination required. Onward/return ticket and
financial guarantee while in country are required.
Visa must be obtained prior to arrival. Include
postage for return of passport by registered mail.
For further details, contact Embassy, 2424
Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
(202-483-2400) or honorary consulates.
Cuba (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist visa $24. Apply
Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic,
Cuban Interests Section, 2639 16th Street NW,
Washington, DC 20009 (202-797-8518), or authorized
agencies located in Los Angeles, Miami, New York,
Puerto Rico, and Washington, DC; check specific
requirements.
Curacao (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Netherlands Antilles.
Cyprus (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required. Check
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-462-5772) for
specific requirements.
Czechoslovakia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist-transit visa
valid 1 entry, $14; 2 entries, $28; 2 photos.
Personal checks and machine stamps not accepted.
Tourist/transit visas valid for 5 months. Check
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-363-6315) for
business, multiple-entry, and group visas.
Dahomey (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Benin.
Denmark (including Greenland) (Travel)
Passport required. Tourist/business visa not
required for stay up to 3 months. (Period begins
when entering Scandinavian area: Finland, Iceland,
Norway, Sweden.) Special rules apply for entry into
the U.S.-operated defense area in Greenland. Check
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-234-4300) or
consulate for specific requirements and residence
work permits.
Djibouti, Republic of (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Must have advance
tickets for onward or return air travel. Check
French Consulate, Washington, DC 20007
(202-944-6200) or other French Consulates in the
United States for specific requirements.
Dominica (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa not required for tourist stay up
to 6 months. Document establishing nationality and
identity and return/onward ticket necessary. Check
British Embassy or nearest consulate for longer
stay and specific requirements.
Dominican Republic (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport/tourist card required. Tourist card valid
60 days, $5; proof of citizenship required. Visa,
no charge. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-332-6280) or consulate for longer stay and
specific requirements.
East Germany (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See German Democratic Republic.
Egypt, Arab Republic of (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist visa, valid 3
months, $10 (cash or money order), 1 photo. Maximum
Egyptian currency allowed into and out of Egypt is
LE20. Individuals must register within 7 days of
arrival with either local authorities or at hotel
where they are staying. No limit to amount of
foreign currency brought into Egypt provided
currency is declared on Form "D" on arrival.
Individuals must present Form "D" and bank receipts
upon departure. A minimum of U.S. $150 must be
exchanged on arrival. Check Consulate, Washington,
DC 20008 (202-234-3903) or consulates in Chicago,
Houston, San Francisco, or New York for specific
requirements.
El Salvador (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. U.S. citizens must be
in possession of at least U.S. $300 upon arrival
as evidence of financial solvency. Check Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-265-3480) or nearest
consulate for specific requirements.
Ecuador (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport, Migratory Control Card (no charge),
and return/onward ticket required for stays up to
3 months. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20009
(202-234-7166) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Equatorial Guinea (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Check specific
requirements with Embassy, 801 Second Avenue, Suite
1403, New York, NY 10017 (212-599-1523).
Estonia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visas for entry or transit are
issued by Soviet diplomatic and consular
representatives. Check Mission to the UN, 1 UN
Plaza, New York, NY 10017 for specific
requirements. (This information does not imply U.S.
government recognition of country's forcible
annexation by the Soviet Union.)
Ethiopia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist visa for stay
up to 30 days, 1 photo, $4.85 plus $1.55 cash or
money order to cover mail service. Visa fee for
business visa up to 30 days, $7.25 plus $1.55 for
mail service.Certificate of Immunization against
yellow fever required. Apply at Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-234-2281) or Mission, New
York, NY 10017, and check specific requirements.
Fiji (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and onward/return ticket required. For
holders of U.S. passports, visa issued on arrival
for stay up to 30 days; can be extended to maximum
of 6 months. Check Embassy, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue
NW, #240, Washington, DC 20007 (202-337-8320) or
Mission to the UN, New York, NY 10017
(212-355-7316) for specific requirements.
Finland (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months. (Period begins when entering
Scandinavian area: Sweden, Norway, Denmark,
Iceland.) Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20016
(202-363-2430) or consulate for specific
requirements.
France and Overseas Territories, Andorra, and Monaco
Passport and visa required to visit France,
Andorra, Monaco Martinique, Guadeloupe,
Saint-Barthelemy, Guiana, Reunion, Saint Pierre et
Miquelon, French Austral Antarctic Lands, Wallis
et Futuna Islands, New Caledonia, Tahiti, and
dependencies. (Visas for French Overseas
Departments [French West Indies] and Territories
[Polynesia], excluding New Caledonia,valid 1 entry,
up to 3 months, may be obtained at port of entry.)
Visas must be obtained before arrival. Transit visa
for a stay of 1 to 3 days is $3. Multiple entry
visa valid for 3 months is $9. A multiple entry
visa valid for 1 to 3 years (for stays not
to exceed 90 days) is also available for $15. Photo,
along with completed application, required.
Passport must be valid for 2 months beyond length
of visa. Visas may also be obtained by mail-send
completed application, valid passport, and money
order or certified check for category of visa
requested, photo (optional), and return postage
sufficient for certified mail to French Consulate,
Washington, DC 20007 (202-944-6200) or apply at
French consulates in Boston, Chicago, Detroit,
Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, New Orleans,
Puerto Rico, or San Francisco, and check
requirements. Applicants applying by mail should
allow sufficient time for processing. (The
requirement that U.S. citizens obtain French visas
is a temporary measure effective until further
notice.) Visas for travel to France can also be
obtained from a French consulate in a third
country.
Gabon (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa applicants must
obtain visa before arrival. Submit valid passport,
2 photos, a smallpox (if available) and yellow
fever vaccination certificate, 2 completed
application forms, and a fee of $20 for a
single-entry visa valid up to 1 month and $50 for
a multiple-entry visa valid for 3 to 4 months.
Include $20 processing fee. Details on travel
arrangements, including flight numbers and
departure dates, are required of tourists and
business applicants. For a business visa, a letter
from the applicant's company is also required.
Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20009 (202-797-1000),
and check specific requirements.
Gambia, Republic of The (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Entry/transit visa, $8,
2 photos. Apply Embassy of the Republic of The
Gambia, 1785 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington,
DC 20036 (202-265-3252) or Permanent Mission of The
Gambia to the UN, 19 East 47th Street, New York,
NY 10017 for specific requirements.
German Democratic Republic (East Germany) (GDR)
Passport and visa required. Visas are issued by the
Embassy of the GDR in Washington, DC or at a border
crossing point upon presentation of travel vouchers
or visa entitlement certificates. These may be
obtained from the GDR Reisebuero or through a local
travel agent. Travel vouchers are based on
confirmed hotel accommodations and also may be
issued at border crossing points to tourists
arriving by motor vehicle or air. Visa entitlement
certificates, which require about 6 weeks to
obtain, are for persons making private arrangements
when staying with relatives or friends. The fee for
a single-entry visa is the convertible currency
equivalent of 15 GDR marks and of 40 GDR marks for
a multiple-entry visa. Transit visas for travel
through the GDR to West Berlin or another country
are issued at the border. Permission for 1-day
visits to East Berlin from West Berlin may be
obtained without advance application at the sector
crossing line in Berlin. The United States does not
recognize East Berlin as part of the GDR;
therefore, official (nontourist) travelers should
consult the Department of State before traveling
to East Berlin or applying for GDR visas. For
further information on tourist visits, contact the
Embassy of the GDR, 1717 Massachusetts Avenue NW,
Washington, DC 20036 (202-232-3134).
Germany, Federal Republic of (West Germany)
Passport required. Tourist/business visa not
required for stay up to 3 months in the Federal
Republic of Germany including West Berlin if stay
is temporary. For longer stays, obtain temporary
residence permit from local alien office. Check
Embassy, Washington, DC 20007 (202-298-4000) or
consulate for specific requirements.
Ghana (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist visa, valid up
to 14 days, $20, 4 photos. Onward/return ticket and
financial guarantee while in the country required.
Visas take at least 3 working days to process and
travelers must have valid certificate of
immunization against yellow fewer and cholera. For
stays over 14 days, apply well in advance of
departure to Embassy, Washington, DC 20009
(202-462-0761) or Ghana Consulate General, 19 East
47th Street, New York, NY 10017. If applying by
mail, include self-addressed, stamped, certified
envelope for return of passport.
Gibraltar (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for tourists.
Check British Embassy or nearest consulate for
specific requirements, including employment
regulations.
Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
Greece (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months for business/pleasure. Check Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-667-3168) or consulate
for specific requirements.
Greenland (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Denmark.
Grenada (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa not required for tourist stay up
to 3 months extendable to maximum of 6 months.
Tourists need proof of U.S. citizenship (i.e.,
passport, birth certificate). Check Embassy,
Washington, DC 20009 (202-265-2561) for specific
requirements.
Guadeloupe (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Guatemala (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Proof of U.S. citizenship (passport, birth
certificate, etc.) and tourist card or visa
required. Tourist card issued from consulate or
airline serving Guatemala upon presentation of
proof of U.S. citizenship and picture
identification, $1. Tourist card must be used
within 30 days from the date of issuance for stay
up to 6 months at the discretion of Guatemalan
immigration authorities upon arrival. Visas (issued
for tourist and business stays) valid for duration
of U.S. passport, multiple entries, no charge, no
forms. Length of stay determined at the discretion
of Guatemalan immigration authorities upon arrival.
Holder must present U.S. passport personally to
Immigration Department for stays over 30 days.
Visas are issued only by Guatemalan consulates upon
presentation of U.S. passport either personally or
by mail. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-745-4952) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Guiana, French (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Guinea (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa $20, 2 completed
applications, 2 photos required. Proof of yellow
fever and cholera vaccinations required. As malaria
is prevalent, suppressants are recommended. Upon
arrival, travelers are sometimes required to
surrender their passport to airport authorities and
may retrieve it the next day at police
headquarters. Sometimes visitors are summoned to
police headquarters to explain purpose of their
visit. $12 departure tax, $7 if traveling to
another African country. Guinean currency may not
be taken out of the country. Apply for visa at
Embassy, Washington, DC 20009 (202-797-1000) and
check specific requirements.
Guinea-Bissau (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Travelers must declare
all currency upon entering and leaving the country.
Visitors are advised to carry U.S. dollars for
paying hotel bills and other expenses. Apply for
visa at Permanent Mission of Guinea-Bissau to the
UN, 211 East 43rd Street, Suite 604, New York, NY
10017 and check specific requirements.
Guyana (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. To qualify for a visa,
applicant must have proof of sufficient funds for
stay and 3 photos. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC
20008 (202-265-6900) and check specific
requirements.
Haiti (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa not required of tourists for stay
up to 3 months. Proof of U.S. citizenship required,
i.e., valid U.S. passport or birth certificate.
Tourist card, valid 90 days, $5; obtain on arrival.
Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-332-4090)
or consulate for specific requirements.
Holy See, Apostolic Nunciature of the
Valid passport required. Visa not required for
tourist stay up to 3 months. For longer stays,
consult Apostolic Nunciature of the Holy See,
Washington, DC 20008 - 3687 and check specific
requirements.
Honduras (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport valid for at least 6 months, visa, and
onward/return ticket required. Visa issued for stay
up to 30 days, no charge. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-966-7700) and check
specific requirements.
Honduras, British (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Belize.
Hong Kong (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Tourist visa not required for
stay up to 1 month with onward/return
transportation by sea/air. Visa may be extended 1
month at a time up to 3 months by application at
Hong Kong immigration. $15 departure tax for air
travelers leaving Hong Kong. Confirmed hotel and
flight reservations recommended during peak travel
months of April/May and October/November. Visa
required for work or study. Apply British Embassy
or consulate and check specific requirements.
Hungary (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Passport must be valid
at least 1 month beyond expiration date of visa.
Transit visa allows for stay up to 48 hours or
entry visa for stay up to 30 days, 1 entry; $10,
2 photos, 1 application required. Double transit
visa allows for stay up to 48 hours or double entry
visa for stay up to 30 days, 2 entries; $20, 4
photos, 3 application forms required. Transit and
entry visas are valid for 6 months from date of
issuance. Multiple-entry visa valid up to 1 year
for stays up to 30 days; $40, 2 photos, 1
application form. Apply Embassy, Consulate General,
Budapest's Ferihegy Airport, or frontier crossing
points (except if traveling by train or boat). For
business visa and specific requirements, check
Embassy, 3910 Shoemaker Street NW, Washington, DC
20008 (202-362-6730) or Consulate General, 8 East
75th Street, New York, NY 10021 (212-879-4127).
Iceland (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months. (Period begins when entering
Scandinavian area: Denmark, Finland, Norway,
Sweden.) Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-265-6653) or Consulate General, New York, NY
10017 for specific requirements.
India (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa valid for stay up
to 3 months, $15, 1 photo, and application form
required. Onward/return ticket and financial
guarantee while in country required. Visa must be
obtained before arrival. Include postage, $4.15,
or stamped, certified return envelope for return
of passport.Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-939-9839) or consulates in New York, Chicago,
or San Francisco for specific requirements.
Indonesia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport valid beyond 6 months of arrival and
onward/return ticket required. Visa not required
for tourist or business stay up to 2 months
(non-extendable). Check Embassy, Washington, DC
20036 (202-293-1745) for specific requirements and
for travel other than tourist.
Iran (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Apply Embassy of
Algeria, Iranian Interests Section, Washington, DC
20007, and check specific requirements.
Iraq (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. No tourist visas issued at this
time. Inquire Embassy of India, Iraqi Interests
Section, 1801 P Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
(202-483-7500).
Ireland (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. Visa not required for
tourist stay up to 90 days. Tourists may be asked
to show onward/return ticket, necessary travel
documents, or sufficient funds for stay. For
residence authorization and work permits, consult
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-462-3939) or
Consulate for specific requirements.
Israel (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport valid beyond 9 months of arrival and
onward/return ticket required. Visa not required
for tourist stay up to 3 months. Apply at Israeli
Ministry of Interior for extension. Holders of
official/diplomatic passports must obtain visas
prior to entry. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-364-5557) or Consulate for specific
requirements and sensitive area warning.
Italy (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. Visa not required for
tourist stay up to 3 months. For stays over 3
months, residence, or employment and for all
students, obtain visa before departure. Apply
Embassy, Washington, DC 20009 (202-328-5500) or
Consulates General in New York, Chicago, Boston,
Houston, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Philadelphia,
San Francisco, Detroit, or Newark; and check
specific requirements.
Ivory Coast (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Cote d'Ivoire.
Jamaica (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa not required of tourists for
visit up to 6 months in direct travel from U.S.,
Puerto Rico, or U.S. Virgin Islands. Tourists must
have return ticket, proof of citizenship, photo
identification, and sufficient funds. Tourist card
issued on arrival, returned to immigration
authorities on departure. Passport but no visa
required if not arriving in direct travel from U.S.
territory. Visa required for business or study, no
charge. Business visas usually valid up to 14 days;
inquire about work permit before arrival. Apply
Embassy, Washington, DC 20006 (202-452-0660);
Consulates General, New York, NY 10017, Miami, FL
33131; or consulates, Atlanta, GA 30032-0386,
Chicago, IL 60601, or Los Angeles, CA 90018; or
Honorary Consul, San Francisco, CA 94542; check
specific requirements.
Japan (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Transit visas available
for stay up to 15 days. Short-stay visas (for
tourism, business, news reporting, meetings, etc.)
for up to 90 days are also available. Posting visa
(for business, religious mission, news reporting);
working visa (for professors, entertainers,
technicians, etc.); and specified visa (for
students, trainees, persons joining their families,
etc.) for stays up to 3 years (but for some
purposes, up to 6 months or 1 year) are available;
2 photos, and documents required. Multiple-entry
visas must be used within 60 months of issue (some
purposes of entry are single entry and are valid
for 3 months from date of issue). No charge. Check
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-939-6700) or
consulates general of Japan for specific
requirements and information regarding visas.
Jordan (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa valid up to 4
years, multiple entries, no charge. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-966-2664) or consulates;
check specific requirements.
Kampuchea, People's Republic of (Travel)
Passport and visa required. The U.S. does not
maintain diplomatic or consular relations with
Kampuchea and has no third country representing
U.S. interests there. Travel is therefore not
recommended by U.S. citizens. Application for a
visa must be directed to the Embassy of Kampuchea.
Such embassies are located in Laos, the U.S.S.R.,
and Vietnam.
Kenya (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa valid up to 6
months and up to 12 months in special cases: 1
entry, $10; multiple entries within 1 year in
special cases, $60. Transit visa $6, valid up to
7 days. Obtain visa before arrival. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-387-6101); Kenya Tourist
Office, 60 East 56th Street, New York, NY 10022 or
Beverly Hills, CA 90212; check specific
requirements.
Kiribati (formerly Gilbert Islands)
Passport and visa required. Apply at British
Embassy or consulates and check specific
requirements.
Korea, North (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. The U.S. does not
maintain diplomatic or consular relations with
North Korea and has no third country representing
U.S. interests there. Travel is therefore not
recommended by U.S. citizens. Application for a
visa must be directed to the Embassy of North
Korea. Such embassies are located in
Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt, Malaysia, Norway,
Pakistan, and Singapore.
Korea, South (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. No charge. All visas
valid for multiple entries within 60 months.
Transit visa valid up to 15 days. Tourist visa
valid up to 90 days. Entry visa valid up to 90
days. One photo and 1 affidavit of support
required. Fine imposed for overstaying visa and for
entry visa holder not registering within 60 days
after entry. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20037
(202-939-5600) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Kuwait (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Passport must be valid
for 6 months beyond expiration date. Visa must be
obtained before arrival. Transit visa valid 72
hours, 2 photos, requires proof of onward/return
transportation; no charge. Entry visa for business
visitors, for visas to friends or relatives, or for
employment, valid within 6 months from date of
issue for stay up to 1 month, requires 2
application forms and permit/letter and/or
no-objection certificate, 2 photos; no charge.
Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-966-1897)
or Consulate of the State of Kuwait, 321 East 44th
Street, New York, NY 10017 (212-973-4318) Include
stamped, self-addressed, certified or registered
envelope if applying by mail and check specific
requirements.
Laos (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Check Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-332-6416) for specific
requirements.
Latvia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visas for entry or transit are
issued by Soviet diplomatic and consular
representatives. (This information does not imply
U.S. government recognition of country's forcible
annexation by Soviet Union.)
Lebanon (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Effective January,
1987, U.S. passports are not valid for travel in,
to, or through Lebanon without express
authorization from the Department of State.
Application for exemptions to this passport
restriction should be submitted in writing to
Passport Services, U.S. Department of State, 1425
K Street NW, Washington, DC 20524, Attention:
CA/PPT/C, Room 300. Entry visa valid 3 or 6 months,
multiple entries, $40. Group visa (over 10)
available on request. When applying by mail,
include self-addressed, stamped envelope or $2 for
mailing costs. Apply Embassy, 2560 28th Street NW,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-939-6300); check specific
requirements.
Leeward Islands (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
Lesotho (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for tourist
stay up to 3 months. For longer stays and for
stays other than tourist, check Embassy, 1430 K
Street NW, Washington, DC 20005 (202-628-4833).
Liberia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Transit visitor with
onward ticket can remain at airport up to 48 hours.
Entry visa valid 3 months, 1 entry, no fee, 2
photos; obtain before arrival. Yellow fever
vaccination and medical certificate attesting to
traveler's good health required. Exit permit
required, 1 photo; obtain on arrival. Apply
Embassy, Washington, DC 20011 (202-723-0437). Check
Embassy or nearest consulate for specific
requirements.
Libya (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Effective December 10,
1981, U.S. passports are not valid for travel in,
to, or through Libya without express authorization
from the Department of State. Application for
exemptions to this passport restriction should be
submitted in writing to Passport Services, U.S.
Department of State, 1425 K Street NW, Washington,
DC 20524, Attention: CA/PPT/C, Room 300.
Liechtenstein (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for
tourist/business stay up to 3 months. Check Swiss
Embassy or consulate for specific requirements.
Lithuania (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visas for entry or transit are
issued by Soviet diplomatic and consular
representatives. (This information does not imply
U.S. government recognition of country's forcible
annexation by Soviet Union.)
Luxembourg (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. Visa required for stays
over 3 months, $18, plus return postage for
registry, 4 photos. All travelers must be in
possession of sufficient funds and onward/return
ticket. For student/employment entry and other
specific requirements, check Embassy, Washington,
DC 20008 (202-265-4171) or consulate.
Macau (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Apply Portuguese
Consulate in Hong Kong. Check Portuguese Embassy
or consulate for specific requirements.
Madagascar, Democratic Republic of
Passport and visa required. One month, 1 entry:
$22.50; multiple entries: $44.15; cash, certified
check, or money order only, 4 photos. If applying
by mail, include a stamped return envelope for
registered return mail. Verification of round-trip
airline ticket or sufficient funds required.
Applications for longer-term visas over 30 days
generally take at least 2 months for approval, so
allow sufficient time for such requests. Check
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-265-5525);
Permanent Mission to the UN, New York, NY 10017
(212-968-9491); or honorary consulates in
Philadelphia, PA or Palo Alto, CA for specific
requirements or longer stays.
Madeira (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Portugal.
Malawi (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 1 year. Entry visa, no charge, for stay over 1
year; 2 photos required. Check specific regulations
regarding women's dress and men's hair length with
the Embassy, 2408 Massachusetts Avenue NW,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-797-1007) or Malawi
Mission to the UN, 600 3rd Avenue, New York, NY
10016 (212-949-0180).
Malaysia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport valid at least 1 month beyond stay
required. Visa not required for purposes of
tourism, transit, social visits, or business for
stays up to 3 months. Visa required for employment,
research, educational purposes, and other
professional visits, $3. Apply Embassy, Washington,
DC 20008 (202-328-2700) or Consulate General, New
York, NY 10017 or Los Angeles, CA 90071; check
specific requirements.
Maldives (Maldive Islands) (Visa Requirements)
Passport required. Tourist visa issued upon arrival
at airport; no costs or photos involved. Visitors
must possess proof of onward/return transportation
and a minimum of $10 or its equivalent in
acceptable foreign currency per person per day of
stay. Check Embassy, 25 Melbourne Avenue, Colombo
4, Sri Lanka for specific requirements.
Mali (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa valid 1 week, $17;
must be obtained before arrival; 2 photos required.
Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-332-2249).
If applying by mail, include stamped,
self-addressed envelope. Apply for extensions in
Mali. If in a country without Malian mission, cable
visa request to "Le Directeur National des Services
de Police, Bamako, Mali." Check Embassy for
specific requirements.
Malta (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-462-3611) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Marshall Islands, Republic of the
Entry permit not required of tourist/visitor up to
30 days. Entry permit for all other travelers and
for stays over 30 days may be required. Obtain
necessary forms from airline or shipping agent
serving Marshall Islands. Must have proof of U.S.
citizenship (passport or birth certificate),
sufficient funds for stay, onward/return ticket,
and valid visa for next destination if appropriate;
30-day extensions may be granted. Apply Chief of
Immigration, Government of the Marshall Islands,
Majuro, Marshall Islands 96960. Check
Representative Office, 1901 Pennsylvania Avenue
NW, Washington, DC 20006 (202-223-4952) or office
in Honolulu (808-942-4422) for specific
requirements.
Martinique (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Mauritania (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Obtain visa before
arrival. Visa valid 3 months; $10, 4 photos. Apply
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-232-5700) or
Mission of Mauritania to the UN, New York, NY
10018; check specific requirements.
Mauritius (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months if in possession of return/onward
ticket. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-244-1491) for specific requirements.
Mayotte Island (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Mexico (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa not required of U.S. citizens
for tourism up to 90 days or transit. A tourist
card is required and is issued upon proof of U.S.
citizenship through (a) presentation of a valid
U.S. passport, (b) a U.S. birth certificate, or (c)
a certified copy of a U.S. birth certificate. With
(b) and (c), photo identification is also required.
Tourist cards are free and may be obtained from
Mexican consulates, Mexican tourism offices,
Mexican immigration offices at ports of entry, and
most airlines serving Mexico. Tourist card valid
3 months, 1 entry, no charge; stays of up to 180
days are authorized upon proof of adequate funds.
Tourist cards may be revalidated up to the 180-day
maximum at any local office of the Mexican
Department of the Interior. If children are
included with parents, all must leave Mexico
together unless prior arrangements are made with
the Mexican Department of Immigration. Children
traveling with one parent (or with a relative or
friend) must have the written, notarized consent
from the other parent(s) to travel and it must be
authenticated at a Mexican consulate. If the child
is traveling alone and bears an American passport,
no authorization is needed. If the child is
traveling alone but bears only his/her birth
certificate, authorization is needed from both
parents. Such authorization must be notarized and
legalized by a Mexican consulate. For entry for
other than tourism or transit, check with the
consular section of the Embassy of Mexico,
Washington, DC 20036 (202-293-1711) or the nearest
Mexican consulate about required documentation and
specific requirements. Micronesia, Federated States
of (Kosrae, Yap, Ponape, and Truk) Entry permit not
required of tourist/visitor up to 30 days. Entry
permit for all other travelers and for stays over
30 days may be required. Obtain necessary forms
from airline or shipping agent serving
Micronesia. (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Must have proof of U.S. citizenship (passport or
birth certificate), sufficient funds for stay,
onward/return ticket, a valid visa for next
destination if appropriate; 30-day extensions may
be granted. Apply Chief of Immigration, Government
of Micronesia, Kolonia, Ponape, 96941. Check
Representative Office, 706 G Street SE, Washington,
DC 20003 (202-544-2640) or offices in Honolulu,
Guam, and Tokyo for specific requirements.
Miquelon (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Monaco (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Mongolia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa must be obtained
at a Mongolian mission overseas, such as in the
United Kingdom or France. Check entry requirements
with Mongolian Mission to the UN, New York, NY
10021 (212-861-9460).
Montserrat (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
Morocco (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months. Apply with local authorities for
longer stay. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20009
(202-462-7979) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Mozambique, People's Republic of
Passport and visa required. Visa must be obtained
before arrival. Visa valid 30 days from date of
issue; $9, and 2 photos required. Yellow fever
inoculation may be required. Currency must be
declared upon arrival. Apply for visa at Embassy,
Washington, DC 20036 (202-293-7146) and check
specific requirements.
Nauru, Republic of (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Passengers must have
tickets for onward/return transportation. Apply
consulates in Honolulu 96813 or Guam 96910 and
check requirements.
Nepal (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa valid 3 months for
stay up to 30 days, $10 per person, 1 photo. Apply
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-667-4550); Nepal
Mission, 820 Second Avenue, Suite 1200, New York,
NY 10017; or any Nepalese mission abroad. Visa
valid 7 days issued at Kathmandu Airport upon
arrival.
Netherlands (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for
pleasure/business up to 90 days. Tourist may be
asked to show onward/return ticket, necessary
travel documents, or sufficient funds for stay. For
residence authorization and work permit, consult
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-244-5300) or
nearest consulate for specific requirements.
Netherlands Antilles (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport or proof of U.S. citizenship
required. Visa not required for stay up to 14 days.
Tourist may be asked to show onward/return ticket,
necessary travel documents, or sufficient funds for
stay. Permission of local authorities required for
a maximum stay up to 90 days. Check Netherlands
Embassy or nearest consulate for specific
requirements.
New Caledonia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
New Guinea, Papua (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Papua New Guinea.
New Zealand (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Passport must be valid at least
3 months beyond the intended date of departure from
New Zealand. Visa not required for stay up to 3
months. Onward/return tickets required. Longer
stays may also require evidence of funds. Contact
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-328-4800); or
Consulate General, New York, NY 10111; Los Angeles,
CA 90024; check specific requirements.
Nicaragua (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist may be asked
to show onward/return ticket and sufficient funds
($200) for stay. Check Embassy, Washington, DC
20009 (202-387-4371) for specific requirements.
Niger (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Transit/tourist visa
for stay up to 1 week, $2.10; 1 week to 30 days,
$4.20; 30 to 90 days, $8.30; 3 photos. Visa must
be used within 3 months from date of issuance.
Stays over 3 months require prior arrangements with
immigration officials in Niamey. Tourist visa
requires letter from travel agent regarding
round-trip ticket (2 copies). If applying by mail,
stamped return envelope either registered or
certified must be included. Yellow fever
vaccination required for all travelers. If
traveling by road, cholera vaccination and letter
from the bank certifying visitor has at least $500
in savings account (2 copies) required. Prior
authorization from the Minister of Interior in
Niamey or from the Prefecture in Agadez must be
obtained before taking any photographs or filming.
Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-483-4224)
for specific requirements.
Nigeria (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Transit visa, $2.55,
valid 1 entry within 3 months, 1 photo. No personal
checks. All persons must carry passport/onward
ticket at all times. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC
20037 (202-822-1500); or Nigeria Consulate General,
New York, NY 10022; San Francisco, CA 94108; or
Atlanta, GA 30303; check specific requirements.
Niue (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 30 days. Visitors must possess confirmed
accommodations and onward/return transportation.
Check Embassy of New Zealand for specific
requirements.
Norfolk Island (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Australia.
Northern Mariana Islands (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
Norway (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months. (Period begins when entering
Scandinavian area: Finland, Sweden, Denmark,
Iceland.) Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-333-6000) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Okinawa (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Japan.
Oman (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Tourist visa not issued.
Business visitors require either a business visa
(2 photos, 1 entry, valid 3 months) or a
nonobjection certificate, plus a letter from
individual's company and letter of invitation from
sponsor in Oman. For specific requirements, check
Embassy of the Sultanate of Oman, Washington, DC
20008 (202-387-1980).
Pakistan (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa must be obtained
before arrival. No charge, 1 photo. Visa valid up
to 3 months, multiple entries. If applying by mail,
submit passport, visa application, 1 photo, and
self-addressed, stamped envelope. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-939-6200) or Consulate,
New York, NY 10021; check specific requirements.
Palau, Republic of (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
The U.S. continues to exercise trusteeship of the
Republic of Palau. Entry permit not required of
tourist/visitor up to 30 days. Entry permit for all
other travelers and for stays over 30 days may be
required. Obtain necessary forms from airline or
shipping agent serving Palau. Must have proof of
U.S. citizenship (passport or birth certificate),
sufficient funds for stay, onward/return ticket,
and valid visa for next destination if appropriate;
30-day extensions may be granted. Apply Chief of
Immigration, Government of the Republic of Palau,
Koror, Western Caroline Islands 96940.
Panama (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport and visa or tourist card, evidence
of citizenship and round-trip/onward ticket
required. Tourist visa, valid 30 days, no charge.
Tourist card, valid 30 days, fee charged; obtain
from airline serving Panama. Travelers on
international flights staying overnight in Panama
must have visa or tourist card. Check Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-483-1407) or consulate
(202-265-0330) for specific requirements.
Papua New Guinea (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required if arriving
via Jackson Airport, Port Moresby, for stay up to
30 days; no extensions. Must have onward/return
ticket. Visa required for visits over 30 days.
Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20036 (202-659-0856)
for specific requirements.
Paraguay (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required; visa not required for stay up
to 90 days. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-483-6960) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Peru (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. Visa not required for
tourist stay up to 90 days. Tourists must have
onward/return ticket. For specific information
regarding business travelers and artists, check
Embassy, Washington, DC 20036 (202-833-9860) or
consulate.
Philippines, Republic of the (Visa Requirements)
For entry at Manila International Airport, visa not
required for transit/tourist stay up to 21 days;
must have passport valid for at least 6 months;
onward/return tickets. Visa required for stays over
21 days and up to maximum stay of 59 days; 1 photo,
onward/return tickets, no charge. If applying by
mail, include stamped, self-addressed envelope. For
entry at military bases of military personnel and
dependents and for other types of visas, check
Embassy (202-483-1414) or consulates general for
specific requirements.
Poland (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Regular visa issued for
tourism, business, and visits to relatives for stay
up to 90 days, single entry, $18. Transit visa,
valid 24 hours, single entry, $12, 2 photos.
Currency exchange required is $15 per day, except
for students and persons visiting relatives: $7 per
day. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-234-3800) or Consulate General, Chicago, IL
60610, or New York, NY 10016; check specific
requirements.
Portugal (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. Visa not required for
visit up to 60 days. Visa must be used within 120
days. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-332-3007) or Consulate General, New York, NY
10020; San Francisco, CA 94115; or Consulate,
Boston, MA 02115; Newark, NJ 07102; Providence RI
02903; New Bedford, MA 02740; Chicago, IL 60635;
or Miami, FL 33132 for fees, entry of pets,
departure tax, and specific requirements.
Qatar (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. No tourist visas issued
at this time. Visa for travel other than tourism
valid 6 months; 2 photos, no charge. Check specific
requirements with Embassy of State of Qatar,
Washington, DC 20037 (202-338-0111).
Reunion (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Romania (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Transit visa valid 72
hours; single entry, $12; double entry, $14.
Tourist visa valid 6 months from date of issue, 1
entry, $12. Apply Embassy or any border point of
entry open to tourist traffic. No application or
photos required. Entry - exit visa for business,
educator, etc; one entry, $18; multiple entries,
$46. Application accepted only at Embassy. Bearers
of reentry permits must apply at Embassy as well.
Currency exchange of $10 per day is required of all
visitors. Check Embassy for exceptions. Include
self-addressed, stamped envelope for return of
passport by mail. For specific requirements, check
Embassy, 1607 23rd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
(202-232-4748/49).
Rwanda (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa must be obtained
in advance for stay up to 30 days, $15, 2 photos.
Include fee of $1.50 or stamped, self-addressed
envelope for return of passport by mail. Yellow
fever and cholera vaccinations required. Apply
Embassy, Washington, DC 20009 (202-232-2882); check
specific requirements.
Saba (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Netherlands Antilles.
Sabah (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Malaysia.
St. Barthelemy (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Saint Kitts and Nevis (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa not required for stay up to 6
months. Return ticket to U.S., proof of U.S.
citizenship (passport or birth certificate), and
document establishing identity necessary. Apply
Embassy, Washington, DC 20036 (202-833-3550) for
specific requirements.
Saint Lucia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa not required for tourist stay up
to 6 months. Proof of U.S. citizenship,
return/onward ticket, and/or proof of funds
necessary. Check Embassy of Saint Lucia, 2100 M
Street NW, Suite 309, Washington, DC 20037
(202-463-7378/9) or Saint Lucia's Permanent Mission
to UN, 41 East 42nd Street, Suite 315, New York,
NY 10017 for specific requirements.
St. Martin (St. Maarten) (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Netherlands Antilles.
St. Pierre (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (Visa Requirements)
Passport and visa not required for tourist stay up
to 6 months. Proof of citizenship, return/onward
ticket, and/or proof of funds necessary. Check
Consulate of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, 801
Second Avenue, 21st Floor, New York, NY 10017
(212-687-4490) for specific requirements.
Salvador (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See El Salvador.
Samoa, Western (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport and onward/return tickets required.
Visa not required for stay up to 30 days. For
longer stays contact Embassy of New Zealand,
Washington, DC, or nearest New Zealand consulate
general and check specific requirements.
San Marino, Republic of (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Same requirements as Italy. For specific
information, check with Consulate General, 1155
21st Street NW, 4th Floor, Lafayette Center,
Washington, DC 20036 (202-233-3517) or consulates
in New York or Detroit.
Sao Tome and Principe (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Check Embassy, 801
Second Avenue, Suite 1504, New York, NY 10017
(212-697-4211) for specific requirements.
Sarawak (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Malaysia.
Saudi Arabia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. No tourist visa issued
at this time. Travelers transiting Saudi Arabia
must be in possession of a valid visa. All persons
going to Saudi Arabia for purposes of long-term
employment require certification that they are free
of the AIDS virus. For specific information
regarding business, visitor, or work visa, check
Embassy, Washington, DC 20037 (202-342-3800) or
Consulate General, Houston, TX 77057; Los Angeles,
CA 90024; or New York, NY 10017.
Scotland (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
Senegal (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Transit visa, valid up
to 5 days, $5.10. Entry visa (tourist or business),
valid 3 days to 3 months, $5.10, 3 photos. No
personal checks. Include fee for return of passport
by registered mail. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC
20008 (202-234-0540) or UN Mission, New York, NY
10017; check specific requirements.
Seychelles (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. Visitors' visa issued upon
arrival, no charge, for stay up to 1 month,
extendable up to 1 year. Tourists must have
onward/return tickets and sufficient funds for
stay. Check specific requirements with the
Permanent Mission of Seychelles to the UN, 820
Second Avenue, Suite 203, New York, NY 10017
(212-687-9766).
Sierra Leone (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport and visa required. Transit visa may
be obtained upon arrival. Ordinary visa, valid up
to 1 month for 1 entry within 3 months, $20.50, 3
photos. Return/onward ticket and proof of financial
support from bank or employer are required. Include
$1 postage fee for return registered mail. Visitors
must declare the amount of foreign currency they
are carrying (and exchanging) on an exchange
control form (M) which is certified and stamped at
port of entry. A minimum of 100 U.S. dollars must
be exchanged by all travelers over the age of 16
upon entry. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20009
(202-939-9261) or Permanent Mission, New York, NY
10022 (212-570-0030); check specific requirements.
Singapore (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. Visa not required for
tourist or social visit for stay up to 90 days.
Visa required for other purposes, $7.20, 3 photos.
Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20009 (202-667-7555);
check specific requirements.
Solomon Islands (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visitors' permit required. Obtain
permit on arrival that is valid for stay up to 2
months in any 1 year. Must have onward/return
ticket and sufficient funds for stay.
Somali Democratic Republic (Visa Requirements)
Passport and visa required. Visa valid 3 months;
4 photos, $13. Traveler must have onward ticket.
Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20037 (202-342-1575)
for specific requirements. Where consulate of
Somalia not available, contact Consulate of Italy.
South Africa, Republic of (Visa Requirements)
Valid passport and visa required. Visa valid 1
year; multiple entries if passport remains valid;
no charge; obtain before arrival. Must have
onward/return transportation. Apply in jurisdiction
closest to residence: Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-232-4400) or Consulate General, New York, NY
10022; Beverly Hills, CA 90210; Houston, TX 77056;
or Chicago, IL 60611; check specific requirements.
Allow 1 month to process visa.
Soviet Union (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
Spain (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. Visa not required for
tourists for stay up to 6 months. For longer stays,
check Embassy, Washington, DC 20009 (202-265-0190)
or consulate for specific requirements. All
Americans using diplomatic or official passports
must possess a visa to enter Spain.
Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) (Visa Requirements)
Passport required. Tourist visa not required for
stay up to 1 month with valid passport; visa (if
necessary) for next destination, sufficient funds
for stay, and onward/return ticket are required.
For tourist stays over 30 days, a visa is required.
Visa also required for travel for purposes other
than tourism, valid 1 month, 2 photos, $2.52.
Include return postage of $2. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-483-4025) or consulates
in Chicago, Los Angeles, or New Orleans; check
specific requirements.
Statia (formerly St. Eustatius) (Visa Requirements)
See Netherlands Antilles.
Sudan (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport valid at least 6 months from date of entry
and visa required. Transit visa for stay from 1 to
7 days, valid 3 months, 1 photo, $6. Valid visa is
required for next destination. Single-entry tourist
or business visa for stays from 8 days to 3 months
also available, 1 photo, $9. Visitors must possess
proof of onward/return transportation or letter
from their bank attesting to sufficient funds for
travel in the Sudan. Business travelers also
require letter from sponsoring company. Yellow
fever and cholera vaccinations recommended.
Applicants applying by mail should send a stamped
return envelope with their application. Check
Embassy Washington, DC 20008 (202-338-8565) or
consulate for specific requirements.
Suriname (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required, $17 for multiple entry
visa valid 12 months, 2 photos; $5 for registered
return mail. Application must be completed in
duplicate. Visitors to Suriname are required to
exchange the equivalent of 500 Surinamese guilders
(U.S. $283) and children under the age of 12 are
required to exchange the equivalent of U.S. $140
at port of entry. Travelers must have sufficient
currency for this transaction. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20037 (202-338-6980) or Consulate
in Miami (305-871-2790); check requirements.
Swaziland (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visitors entering from South
Africa report to Immigration Department or police
station within 48 hours except when lodging in a
hotel on night of arrival. Visitors entering from
Mozambique exempt. Temporary residence permit
required for stay over 60 days. Apply Immigration
Department, Mbabane. Visa required for Republic of
South Africa if entering from Swaziland. Check
Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-362-6683) for
specific requirements.
Sweden (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Valid passport required. Visa not required for stay
up to 3 months. (Period begins when entering
Scandinavian area: Finland, Norway, Denmark,
Iceland.) Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20037
(202-944-5600) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Switzerland (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Tourist/business visa not
required for stay up to 3 months. Check Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-745-7900) or consulate
for specific requirements.
Syrian Arab Republic (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visitors must possess
valid visa before arrival. Transit visa is
available for stays up to 3 days; visitors must
enter and leave via Damascus International Airport,
$5. Entry visa valid 6 months, 1 entry, or valid
3 months, 2 entries; $18, 1 photo. Include
self-addressed, stamped envelope for return of
passport by mail. Check Embassy, Washington, DC
20008 (202-232-6313) for specific requirements.
Tahiti, Society Islands (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Taiwan (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Transit visas are for
a maximum stay of 2 weeks and cannot be extended.
Visitor visas limit stay to 2 months, renewable
twice for total stay of 6 months; multiple entries,
2 photos, no charge. Passport must be valid at
least 6 months beyond visa issuance date. For stays
over 6 months, apply for resident visa 1 month in
advance. Check with unofficial Coordination Council
for North American Affairs (CCNAA) for business
travel and specific requirements. The CCNAA
Headquarters is at 4201 Wisconsin Avenue NW,
Washington, DC 20016. Additional offices are in
Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Honolulu, Houston, Kansas
City, Los Angeles, New York, San Francisco, and
Seattle.
Tanzania (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Passport must be valid
6 months beyond entry. Single-entry tourist visa
valid for 6 months from date of issue for stay up
to 30 days, $10.50; 1 photo, 2 application forms
required. No personal checks. Proof of sufficient
funds and onward/return transportation required.
Visitors wishing to stay beyond 30 days should
extend their visas at Tanzanian Immigration Office.
Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20008 (202-939-6125);
check specific requirements. Zanzibar: Visas for
Mainland Tanzania are also valid for Zanzibar.
Thailand (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 15 days if in possession of onward/return ticket
and arrive and depart from Don Muang Airport in
Bangkok. Transit visa, $10, for stay up to 30 days;
tourist visa, $15, for stay up to 60 days.
Nonimmigrant or business visa, $20, for stay up to
90 days; 3 photos. Include postage for return of
passport. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-483-7200) or Royal Thai Consulate General in
New York, Los Angeles, or Chicago; check specific
requirements.
Togo (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months. Americans traveling in remote areas
in Togo occasionally require visas. Yellow fever
vaccinations are required. Check with Embassy,
Washington, DC 20008 (202-234-4212) for specific
requirements.
Tonga (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 30 days. Visitors must possess onward/return
transportation. Check with Consulate General in San
Francisco, 2900 Vallejo Street, 94123
(415-567-4331) for specific requirements.
Trieste (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Italy for City of Trieste and Yugoslavia for
other areas included in former free territory.
Trinidad and Tobago (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for
tourist/business stay up to 2 months; must have
onward/return ticket. Persons entering for
employment, residence, etc., or staying longer
than 2 months, check visa requirements with
Embassy (202-467-6490) or consulate well in
advance of departure.
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
See Palau, Republic of.
Tunisia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required of tourists
for stay up to 4 months. Check Embassy, Washington,
DC 20005 (202-862-1850) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Turkey (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months. Travelers to Turkey other than
tourists are required by Turkish law to obtain a
visa in advance. Visa also required for tourist
stays over 3 months: 1 entry, $3; multiple entries,
$10. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-387-3200); check specific requirements.
Turks and Caicos (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
Tuvalu (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visitors' permit issued
on arrival. Travelers must possess onward/return
transportation and sufficient funds for stay. Check
British Embassy or consulates or immigration
officer, Office of Chief of Police, Funa, Futi,
Tuvalu for specific requirements.
Uganda (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Transit visa, valid for
entry within 3 months, $10.50. Ordinary or
continuous tourist visa, valid for entry within 3
months, $10.50. Single-entry visa for business
representatives/educators, valid for entry within
3 months, $10.50. Nontourists must present a letter
of intent. Obtain visa before arrival; 2 photos
required. Yellow fever and cholera vaccinations are
required, and it is suggested that you carry
malaria pills. Apply Embassy, Washington, DC 20011;
Uganda Mission to the UN, New York, NY 10017; or
Uganda high commissions/embassies abroad; or write
Principal Immigration Officer, P.O. Box 7165,
Kampala, Uganda. Check Embassy (202-726-7100) or
consulate for specific requirements and clothing
requirements.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa valid for 1 entry,
no charge; 3 photos and passport or photocopy of
passport required. For more information, check with
a travel agency or the consular office of the
U.S.S.R Embassy, Washington, DC 20008
(202-332-1513, 332-1482, or 332-1483) or the
Consulate General in San Francisco (415-922-6642).
United Arab Emirates (UAE) (Visa Requirements)
Passport and visa required. Tourist/business visa,
valid 2 months, for stay up to 30 days; 1 entry,
$18. Multiple-entry visa (issued only to business
travelers), valid up to 6 months from date of issue
for maximum stay of 30 days per entry, $225; 3
photos, 3 completed application forms required.
Business travelers require letter from company;
sponsor in UAE must send letter or Telex to UAE
Embassy confirming trip. Applications by mail
should include self-addressed, stamped, certified,
or registered return envelope. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20037 (202-338-6500); check specific
requirements.
United Arab Republic (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Egypt, Arab Republic of.
United Kingdom (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 6 months. Check British Embassy, Washington, DC
20008 (202-462-1340) or consulate for specific
requirements and laws/regulations for travelers
other than tourists. Bermuda Passport and visa not
required for tourist stay up to 6 months.
Onward/return documents and proof of identity and
citizenship required (passport, birth certificate,
or voter registration card). Apply Board of
Immigration for work permit. British West Indies
(Anguilla, Montseratt, Cayman Islands, Turks and
Caicos) Passport and visa not required for tourist
stay up to 6 months. Travelers must possess proof
of citizenship (passport, birth certificate, or
voter registration card) and proof of identity,
onward/return transportation, and sufficient funds
for stay. British Virgin Islands (Anegarda, Jost
van Dyke, Tortola, Virgin Gorda) Passport and visa
not required for tourist stay up to 3 months. Must
have proof of identity and citizenship (passport
or birth certificate) and onward/return
transportation and sufficient funds for stay. Check
British Embassy or consulate for specific
requirements regarding dependencies.
Upper Volta (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Burkina Faso.
Uruguay (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 3 months. Check Embassy, Washington, DC 20006
(202-331-1313) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Vanuatu (formerly New Hebrides) (Visa Requirements)
Passport required. Visa not required for stay up
to 30 days. Inquire at the British Embassy or
nearest consulate for specific requirements.
Vatican (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Holy See.
Venezuela (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa/tourist card required. Tourist
card can be obtained from carriers, no charge,
valid 60 days; cannot be extended. Tourist visa
valid 60 days, no charge; requires personal
appearance before consulate; may be extended in the
country. Business visa, valid 30 days, issued at
consulate. All travelers except tourists required
to pay $18 exit tax. Check Embassy, Washington, DC
20008 (202-797-3800) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Vietnam, Socialist Republic of (Visa Requirements)
Passport and visa required. The U.S. does not
maintain diplomatic or consular relations with
Vietnam and has no third country representing U.S.
interests there. Travel is therefore not
recommended for U.S. citizens. Application for a
visa must be directed to a representative of
Vietnam. Such representatives are located in
Canada, France, and the United Kingdom.
Virgin Islands (British) (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
Wales (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
West Germany (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Germany, Federal Republic of.
West Indies (British) (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See United Kingdom.
West Indies (French) (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See France.
Yemen Arab Republic (Northern Yemen) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Single-entry visa,
valid 30 days. Tourist visa, $10; business visa,
$20; valid 30 days; 4 photos. Transit visa, no
charge. If applying by mail, include return postage
fee. All visitors must exchange $150 (U.S.) or the
equivalent at an airport bank on arrival before
being admitted. Apply for visa at Embassy,
Washington, DC 20037 (202-965-4760) or Yemen
Mission to the UN, 747 Third Avenue, New York, NY
10017; check specific requirements.
Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of (So. Yemen)
Passport and visa required. The U.S. does not
maintain diplomatic or consular relations with the
People's Republic of Yemen. Because there is no
direct U.S. representation in that country, travel
by U.S. citizens is not recommended. Application
for a visa must be directed to a representative of
Southern Yemen. Such representatives are located
in the United Kingdom, France, Egypt, and
Indonesia.
Yugoslavia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Visa valid up to 1
year, no charge. Check Embassy, Washington, DC
20008 (202-462-6566) or consulate for specific
requirements.
Zaire
Passport and visa required. Transit visa, valid up
to 8 days; 1 way, $8; round trip, $16. Tourist
visa, valid 1 to 3 months; 1 entry, $20; multiple
entries, $24. Tourist visa, valid 6 months; 1
entry, $28; multiple entries, $48; 3 photos
required. Must have proof of onward/return ticket.
Include self-addressed, stamped envelope for return
of passport. No personal checks. Apply Embassy,
Washington, DC 20009 (202-234-7690), or Permanent
Mission to the UN of the Republic of Zaire, New
York, NY 10017. Check Embassy/Mission for specific
requirements.
Zambia (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport and visa required. Tourist visa valid up
to 6 months, $3.51. Business visa valid up to 6
months, $3.51. Visitors must obtain visa before
arrival. Apply Permanent Mission of Zambia to the
UN, New York, NY 10022 or Embassy, Washington, DC
20008 (202-265-9717); check specific requirements.
Zanzibar (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
See Tanzania.
Zimbabwe (Visa Requirements) (Travel)
Passport, onward/return ticket, and sufficient
funds for stay required. Apply Embassy, Washington,
DC 20008 (202-332-7100) and check specific
requirements.
Passport Applications
Passports are valid for ten years when issued to
travelers 18 years of age or older; younger
travelers must renew their passports every five
years. Application guidelines follow.
1. Secure proof of citizenship, such as a birth
certificate or an expired passport. Citizens not
born in the United States must submit proof of
their parents' citizenship and their marriage
certificate, as well as proof of their own legal
entry into the United States.
2. An application requires submission of two
identical 2"x2" photographs taken within
the previous six months: these may be in color
or black and white.
3. Proof of identity, with a physical description
of the applicant and his or her signature, also
is required; a driver's license may be used.
4. The fee is $42 for adults and $27 for
children,payable in check or money order to
Passport Services.
5. The initial passport application must be made
in person at a federal or state court of record,
a designated post office, a passport agency, or
a U.S. embassy. Renewal applications need not
be made in person, provided that the previously
issued passport was granted within the last 12
years to an applicant older than 16.
6. Name changes, address changes, and other changes
in passport information should be reported to
one of the above-mentioned offices and
accompanied by appropriate documents.
U.S. Passport Agencies
In Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands,
passports are issued by the chief executive officer
of the local government. In foreign countries,
apply to a U.S. consular office. In the United
States, passports are issued not only through the
agencies listed below but also at many post
offices.
Boston (U.S. Passport Agencies)
John F. Kennedy Building
Government Center
Room E123
Boston, MA 02203
617-565-3940
Chicago (U.S. Passport Agencies)
Kluczynski Federal Office Building
230 South Dearborn
Suite 380
Chicago, IL 60604
312-353-5426
Honolulu (U.S. Passport Agencies)
New Federal Building
300 Ala Moana Boulevard
Room C 1-06
Honolulu, HI 96850
808-546-2130
Houston (U.S. Passport Agencies)
One Allen Center
500 Dallas Street
Houston, TX 77002
713-229-3607
Los Angeles (U.S. Passport Agencies)
Federal Building
11000 Wilshire Boulevard
Room 13100
West Los Angeles, CA 90024
213-209-7070
Miami (U.S. Passport Agencies)
Federal Office Building
51 SW 1st Avenue
16th Floor
Miami, FL 33130
305-536-5395
New Orleans (U.S. Passport Agencies)
Postal Service Building
701 Loyola Avenue
Room T-12005
New Orleans, LA 70113
504-589-6728
New York City (U.S. Passport Agencies)
630 5th Avenue
Room 270
New York, NY 10111
212-541-7700
Philadelphia (U.S. Passport Agencies)
Federal Office Building
600 Arch Street
Room 4426
Philadelphia, PA 19106
215-597-7480
San Francisco (U.S. Passport Agencies)
525 Market Street
Suite 200
San Francisco, CA 94105
415-974-7972
Seattle (U.S. Passport Agencies)
Federal Office Building
915 2nd Avenue
Room 992
Seattle, WA 98174
206-442-7941
Stamford (U.S. Passport Agencies)
One Landmark Square
Broad and Atlantic Streets
Stamford, CT 06901
203-325-3538
Washington (U.S. Passport Agencies)
1425 K Street, NW
Washington, DC 20524
202-523-1355
Customs Information
At reentry into the United States, you must declare
all articles in your possession that you have
acquired abroad, stating their actual purchase
price or, if they were not purchased, their market
value in the country where you acquired them. You
will fill out a declaration form before reaching
customs to show to the federal inspectors.
If you were out of the country for 48 hours or
more, you will be exempt from paying duty and
federal tax on the first $400 worth of goods.
Generally, values above that amount are subject to
duty at a straight 10 percent. For example, if you
bring in $600 worth of goods, you will pay about
$20 in duty. If you are traveling with your family,
remember that each family member is allowed the
same $400 exemption.
The items brought into the United States must be
for your own use or for personal gifts. You may not
resell them for profit.
If you leave the United States with foreign-made
goods already in your possession, be sure to
register them, using their serial numbers, with the
customs office before leaving or bring proof (sales
slips, for example ) with you that you bought them
in the United States. If you lack proof of domestic
purchase or registration, you may be charged duty
upon reentry.
There are customs restrictions on bringing in
certain plants, animals, medications, and foods,
and children may not bring in alcohol. You can get
a list of restricted items from the U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20205.
Further information may be obtained from your local
office of the Treasury Department and from the U.S.
Customs Service, P.O. Box 7407, Washington, DC
20004. The telephone number is 202-566-8195.
State Tourism Offices
Alabama Bureau of Tourism
532 South Perry Street
Montgomery, AL 36130
205-261-4169
Alaska Division of Tourism
Box E
Juneau, AK 99811
907-465-2010
Arizona Office of Tourism
1480 East Bethany Home Road
Phoenix, AZ 85014
602-255-3618
Arkansas Department of Parks and Tourism
One Capitol Mall
Little Rock, AR 72201
501-682-7777
California Tourism Office
1121 L Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
916-322-1396
Colorado Tourism Board
1625 Broadway
Suite 1700
Box 38700
Denver, CO 80202
303-592-5410
Connecticut Department of Economic Development
210 Washington Street
Hartford, CT 06106
203-566-3977
D.C. Convention and Visitors Association
1575 I Street, NW
Suite 250
Washington, DC 20005
202-789-7000
Delaware Tourism Office
99 King Highway
Box 1401
Dover, DE 19903
302-736-4271
Florida Division of Tourism
126 Van Buren Street
Tallahassee, FL 32301
904-487-1462
Georgia Department of Industry and Trade
Box 1776
Atlanta, GA 30301
404-656-3590
Hawaii Visitors Bureau
2270 Kala Kaua Avenue
Honolulu, HI 96800
808-923-1811
Idaho Travel Council
State Capitol Building
Boise, ID 83720
208-334-2470
Illinois Travel Information Center
c/o Department of Commerce and Community Affairs
310 South Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60604
312-793-2094
Indiana Department of Commerce, Tourist Development
Division
1 North Capital Street
Suite 700
Indianapolis, IN 46204
317-232-8860
Iowa Development Commission, Tourist Travel Division
600 East Court Avenue
Des Moines, IA 50309
515-281-3100
Kansas Department of Travel and Tourism
400 West 8th Street
5th Floor
Topeka, KS 66603
913-296-2009
Kentucky Department of Travel Development
Capitol Plaza Tower
Frankfort, KY 40601
502-564-4930
Louisiana Office of Tourism
Box 94291
Baton Rouge, LA 70804
504-925-3860
Maine Publicity Bureau
97 Winthrop Street
Hallowell, ME 04347
207-289-2423
Maryland Office of Tourist Development
45 Calvert Street
Annapolis, MD 21401
301-269-3517
Massachusetts Department of Commerce and
Development, Division of Tourism
100 Cambridge Street
Boston, MA 02202
617-727-3201
Michigan Department of Commerce, Travel Bureau
Box 30226
Lansing, MI 48909
517-373-0670
Minnesota Office of Tourism
375 Jackson Street
250 Skyway Level
St. Paul, MN 55101
612-348-4313
Mississippi Department of Economic Development,
Division of Tourism
1301 Walter Sillers Building
Box 849
Jackson, MS 39205
601-359-3414
Missouri Division of Tourism
Truman State Office Building
Box 1055
Jefferson City, MO 65102
314-751-4133
Montana Travel Promotion Division
1424 9th Avenue
Helena, MT 59620
406-444-2654
Nebraska Department of Economic Development,
Division of Travel and Tourism
301 Centennial Mall South
Box 94666
Lincoln, NE 68509
402-471-3796
Nevada Commission on Tourism
Capitol Complex
Carson City, NV 89710
702-733-2323
New Hampshire Office of Vacation Travel
Box 856
Concord, NH 03301
603-271-2343
New Jersey Office of Travel and Tourism
CN-826
Trenton, NJ 08625
609-292-2470
New Mexico Tourism and Travel
Joseph Montoya Building
1100 St. Francis Drive
Santa Fe, NM 87503
505-827-0291
New York Division of Tourism
One Commerce Plaza
Albany, NY 12245
518-474-4116
North Carolina Travel and Tourism Division
430 Salisbury Street
Box 25249
Raleigh, NC 27611
919-733-4171
North Dakota Tourism Division
Liberty Memorial Building
Capitol Grounds
Bismarck, ND 58505
701-224-2525
Ohio Department of Development, Division of Travel
and Tourism
Box 1001
Columbus, OH 43266
614-466-8844
Oklahoma Tourism and Recreation Department
505 Will Rogers Building
Oklahoma City, OK 73105
405-521-2406
Oregon Economic Development, Division of Tourism
595 Cottage Street, NE
Salem, OR 97310
503-378-3451
Pennsylvania Bureau of Travel Development
416 Forum Building
Harrisburg, PA 17120
717-787-5453
Rhode Island Tourism Division
7 Jackson Walkway
Providence, RI 02903
401-277-2601
South Carolina Department of Parks, Recreation, and
Tourism
Box 71
Columbia, SC 29202
803-734-0127
South Dakota Division of Tourism
Capitol Lake Plaza
711 Wells Avenue
Pierre, SD 57501
605-773-3301
Tennessee Department of Tourism
Box 23170
Nashville, TN 37202
615-741-2158
Texas Travel and Information Division
Box 5064
Austin, TX 78763
512-463-8971
Utah Travel Council
Council Hall
Capitol Hill
Salt Lake City, UT 84114
801-533-5681
Vermont Travel Division
134 State Street
Montpelier, VT 05602
802-828-3236
Virginia Division of Tourism
202 West 9th Street
Suite 500
Richmond, VA 23219
804-786-4484
Washington Tourism Development
101 General Administration Building
Olympia, WA 98504
206-753-5600
West Virginia Tourism Information Office
State Capitol Complex
Charleston, WV 25305
304-348-2286
Wisconsin Division of Tourism
123 West Washington Avenue
Box 7606
Madison, WI 53707
608-266-2161
Wyoming Travel Commission
Frank Norris Jr. Travel Center
Cheyenne, WY 82002
307-777-7777
Government Tourist Information Centers
Aruba Tourism Authority
1270 Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10020
212-246-3030
Australian Tourist Commission
489 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10017
800-445-4400
Austrian National Tourist Office
11601 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90025
213-477-3332
Bahamas Tourist Office
150 East 52nd Street
New York, NY 10022
212-758-2777
Barbados Board of Tourism
800 2nd Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-986-6516
Belgian Tourist Office
745 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10151
212-758-8130
Bermuda Department of Tourism
310 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10017
800-223-6106
Brazilian Consulate General
3810 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90010
213-382-3133
British Tourist Office
40 West 57th Street
New York, NY 10019
212-581-4700
Bulgarian Balkan Holidays
161 East 86th Street
New York, NY 10028
212-722-1110
Canadian Consulate
300 South Grand Avenue
Los Angeles, CA 90071
213-687-7432
See also Quebec.
Chilean National Tourist Board
510 West 6th Street
Los Angeles, CA 90014
213-627-4293
Chinese Tourist Board
60 East 42nd Street
New York, NY 10165
212-867-0271
Colombian Government Tourist Office
140 East 57th Street
New York, NY 10022
212-688-0151
Costa Rican Tourist Board
3540 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90010
213-382-8080
Cyprus Consulate General
13 East 40th Street
New York, NY 10016
212-686-6016
Czechoslovakia CEDOK
10 East 40th Street
New York, NY 10016
212-689-9720
Denmark Tourist Board
655 3rd Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-949-2333
Dominican Republic Tourist Center
485 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10022
212-826-0750
Egyptian Tourist Authority
323 Geray Street
San Francisco, CA 94102
415-781-7676
French Government Tourist Office
610 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10020
212-757-1125
German National Tourist Office
747 3rd Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-308-3300
Greek National Tourist Organization
645 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10022
212-421-5777
Grenada Department of Tourism
141 East 44th Street
New York, NY 10017
212-687-9554
Haitian National Office of Tourism
630 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10020
212-757-3517
Honduran Tourist Bureau
1138 Fremont Avenue
South Pasadena, CA 91030
213-682-3377
Hong Kong Tourist Association
548 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10036
212-869-5008
Hungarian IBUSZ Travel Bureau
630 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10111
212-582-7412
India Tourist Office
30 Rockefeller Plaza North
New York, NY 10112
212-586-4901
Indonesian Tourist Office
3457 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90010
213-387-2078
Ireland Tourist Board
757 3rd Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-418-0800
Israeli Government Tourist Office
350 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10018
212-560-0621
Italian Tourist Office
630 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10020
212-245-4961
Jamaican Tourist Board
866 2nd Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-688-7650
Japan National Tourist Office
360 Post Street
San Francisco, CA 94108
415-989-7140
Kenyan Tourist Office
424 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-486-1300
Korean National Tourist Office
510 West 6th Street
Los Angeles, CA 90014
213-623-1226
Luxembourg National Tourist Office
801 2nd Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-370-9850
Macau Tourist Office
P.O. Box 1860
3133 Lake Hollywood Drive
Los Angeles, CA 90078
213-851-3402
Malaysian Tourist Centre
818 West 7th Street
Los Angeles, CA 90017
213-689-9702
Mexican Tourist Office
10100 Santa Monica Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90067
213-203-8151
Monaco Government Tourist Office
845 3rd Avenue
New York, NY 10022
212-759-5227
Morocco National Tourist Office
20 East 46th Street
New York, NY 10017
212-557-2520
Netherlands Board of Tourism
355 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-370-7367
New Zealand Tourist Office
630 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10111
212-698-4680
Norway Scandinavia Tourist Offices
655 3rd Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-949-2333
Panama Tourist Bureau
2355 Salzedo Street
Coral Gables, FL 33134
305-442-1892
Philippine Department of Tourism
3460 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90010
213-487-4525
Polish ORBIS Travel Bureau
500 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10110
212-391-0844
Portuguese Tourism Office
548 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10036
212-354-4403
Puerto Rican Tourism Office
1290 Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10104
212-541-6630
Quebec Tourism
17 West 50th Street
New York, NY 10020
212-397-0220
Rumanian National Tourist Office
573 3rd Avenue
New York, NY 10016
212-697-6971
Singapore Tourist Board
342 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10173
212-687-0385
South African Tourism Board
747 3rd Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-838-8841
Soviet INTOURIST Travel Office
630 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10111
212-757-3884
Spanish National Tourism Office
665 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10022
212-759-8822
Sri Lankan Tourist Board
2148 Wyoming Avenue
Washington, DC 20008
202-483-4025
Swedish Tourist Board
655 3rd Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-949-2333
Swiss National Tourist Office
608 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10020
212-757-5944
Tahitian Tourist Board
12233 Olympic Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90064
212-207-1919
Taiwan Visitors Association
1 World Trade Center
New York, NY 10048
212-466-0691
Thailand Tourism Authority
3440 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90010
213-382-2353
Trinidad Tourist Board
400 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10017
212-838-7750
Tunisian Tourist Office
1515 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20005
202-862-1850
Turkish Tourism Office
821 United Nations Plaza
New York, NY 10017
212-687-2194
Venezuelan Tourist Bureau
7 East 51st Street
New York, NY 10022
212-355-1101
Virgin Islands Tourism Office
1270 Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10021
212-582-4520
Yugoslavian Tourist Office
630 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10111
212-757-2801
BEST VACATION BETS (Travel)
Sylvia McNair's book 'Vacation Places Rated'
assesses over 100 U.S. vacation areas, rating them
on such features as urban activities, climate,
access to recreational areas, population density,
and "special attractions" like amusement parks and
professional sports events. These are McNair's top
ten choices:
1. Seattle area, including Mount Rainier and the
North Cascades, Washington
2. Los Angeles
3. Hawaii
4. Miami, the Gold Coast, and the Keys, Florida
5. San Francisco
6. Boston
7. Chicago
8. Denver and Rocky Mountain National Park,
Colorado
9. New York City
10. Tampa Bay area and the southwest coast, Florida
Theme Parks (Travel)
Although the traditional American tourist
attractions-from Mount Rushmore to the Grand Canyon
to the Statue of Liberty to the Golden Gate-are
still high on many travelers' itineraries, since
the 1950s the greatest volume of visitors has been
seen at "theme" amusement parks modeled on the
pioneering, enormously successful Disneyland. U.S.
amusement parks entertain over 170 million visitors
a year. These are the top ten according to the U.S.
Travel Data Center.
1. Walt Disney World, Buena Vista, Florida
2. Disneyland, Anaheim, California
3. Universal City Studios Tour, Universal City,
California
4. Knott's Berry Farm, Buena Park, California
5. Six Flags/Great Adventure, Jackson, New Jersey
6. Busch Gardens, Tampa, Florida
7. Six Flags/Great America, Gurnee, Illinois
8. Sea World, Orlando, Florida
9. Cedar Point, Sandusky, Ohio
10. Kings Island, Cincinnati, Ohio
Traveling Tips for the Disabled (Travel)
Determination and good planning are the keys to
enjoyable travel for the disabled. If you are
disabled, check with your health insurance agent
about vacation coverage. In addition, engage a
travel agent who specializes in travel for the
disabled. Here are some further tips.
Air Travel (Disabled Traveling)
Telephone the airline ahead of time about
accommodations and possible extra charges.
Virtually all major airports have some barrier-free
facilities,and special arrangements can be made for
disabled passengers.
Buses (Disabled Traveling)
Because of space limitations, bus lines generally
are less accommodating than other carriers.
However, many do have special seating and reduced
rates.
Railroads (Disabled Traveling)
Trains normally have seating arrangements and
toilet facilities for the handicapped. Call ahead
to arrange for seating and assistance.
Sea Travel (Disabled Traveling)
Travel by ship is possible, but it can be
difficult, since ocean-going vessels are not
designed for the handicapped. Generally they are
not barrier-free.
Parks/Camping (Disabled Traveling)
Many domestic and international campsites provide
accommodations for the disabled, and some European
sites are even designated as "Handi-Camps." A
directory of U.S. camps for the handicapped is
available from the Easter Seal Society, and a
national park guide is available for the
handicapped from the National Park Service, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Washington, DC 20240.
Hotels/Motels (Disabled Traveling)
Many hotel and motel chains have special
facilities, as do some nonchain hotels and motels.
Check with your travel agent.
Further Information (Disabled Traveling)
Society for the Advancement of Travel for the
Handicapped (SATH) (1-718-858-5483).
Mobility International, for information about
travel in the United Kingdom.
National Park Service, for information on U.S.
highway rest areas for disabled travelers.
TRAVELING WITH PETS
Although most travelers leave home without them,
vacationing with pets is possible; if you plan
carefully, taking your pet along can save on guilt,
worry, and even money. It's easier to leave the
goldfish in the care of friends, but the family dog
can go with you almost anywhere. Information and
suggestions to make this easier appear below.
Travel checklist
Proper identification (name and address tag)
Certificate of good health signed by your
veterinarian
Proof of up-to-date immunizations
Pet carrier
Pet toys
Blanket
First aid kit, including bandages, antiseptic, and
medications (including tranquilizers) prescribed
by your veterinarian
Food (and can opener, if needed)
Thermos of water
Plastic bowls
Leash and muzzle
Flea powder or flea collar
Grooming tools
Pretravel suggestions
Introduce your pet to car travel with trial runs.
Allow your pet to become familiar with the pet
carrier before your trip. Do not feed your pet for
several hours before the trip. Exercise your pet
right before leaving.
Travel restrictions
Automobile: No restrictions.
Bus: Except for seeing-eye dogs, pets are
prohibited on buses in interstate travel.
Train: Pets may be taken only in private
compartments or in the baggage car.
Airplane: Pets can come on board in pet carriers
or can remain in the baggage compartment.
Restrictions vary, so inquire of individual
airlines in advance.
National park: Pets are allowed on leashes except
in bathing areas.
State and private park: Restrictions vary; check
with the individual facility.
Hotel, motel, and campground: Most do accept pets;
notify the owner ahead of time.
International travel (including Hawaii)
Most countries require a recent certificate of
good health and proof of immunizations. In
addition, the following places may require a
quarantine (at the owner's expense) for the number
of days indicated.
Hawaii 180
Hong Kong 180
Jamaica 180
Jordan 42
Korea 21
Malta 180
Mauritius 180
Norway 120
Panama 180
Singapore 30
Sweden 120
Trinidad and
Tobago 180
United Kingdom 180
Returning home (Travel)
Upon your return, a quarantine officer at customs
will check documents and inspect your animal. The
official may require confinement of any animal that
you have purchased abroad; typically confinement
is in your own home rather than in official
quarantine. Pets purchased abroad also will require
proof of immunization, certificates of good health,
and payment of an import duty.
Travelers' First-Aid Kit
Antiseptic lotion or ointment
Aspirin or acetaminophen
Cold and cough remedies
Gauze bandages and adhesive tape, elastic bandages
Heating pad
Ice pack
Identification bracelet
Insect repellent and insect bite medication
Medical information regarding condition, allergies,
medications, blood type, and special needs
Milk of magnesia and diarrhea medication
Moleskin for blisters and calluses
Physician's name, address, and telephone number
Prescription medications and refills
Sunscreen and sunburn relief lotion
Telephone numbers of emergency contacts
Thermometer
Throat lozenges
Vitamins
International Auto Registration Marks
Afghanistan AFG
Albania AL
Alderney
(Channel Islands) GBA
Algeria DZ
Andorra AND
Argentina RA
Australia AUS
Austria A
Bahamas BS
Bahrain BRN
Bangladesh BD
Barbados BDS
Belgium B
Belize BH
Benin DY
Botswana RB
Brazil BR
Brunei BRU
Bulgaria BG
Burma BRU
Burundi RU
Cambodia K
Canada CDN
Central African
Republic RCA
Chile RCH
Colombia CO
Congo RCR
Costa Rica CR
Cuba C
Cyprus CY
Czechoslovakia CS
Denmark DK
East Germany DDR
Ecuador EC
Egypt ET
El Salvador ES
Faroe Islands FR
Fiji FJI
Finland SF
France F
Gambia WAG
Gibraltar GBZ
Great Britain GB
Greece GR
Grenada WG
Guatemala GCA
Guernsey GBG
Guyana GUY
Hong Kong HK
Hungary H
Iceland IS
India IND
Indonesia RI
Iran IR
Iraq IRQ
Ireland IRL
Isle of Man GBM
Israel IL
Italy I
Ivory Coast CI
Jamaica JA
Japan J
Jersey GBJ
Jordan HKJ
Kampuchea K
Kenya EAK
Laos LAO
Lebanon RL
Lesotho LS
Liberia LB
Libya LAR
Luxembourg L
Madagascar RM
Malawi MW
Mali RMM
Malta M
Mauritania RIM
Mauritius MS
Mexico EX
Morocco MA
Netherlands NL
New Zealand NZ
Niger RN
Nigeria WAN
Norway N
Pakistan PAK
Panama PA
Papua New Guinea PNG
Paraguay PY
Peru PE
Philippines RP
Poland PL
Portugal P
Ruanda RWA
Rumania RO
St. Lucia WL
St. Vincent WV
San Marco RSM
Senegal SN
Seychelles SY
Sierre Leone WAL
Singapore SGP
South Africa ZA
South Korea ROK
South Yemen ADN
Soviet Union SU
Spain E
Sri Lanka CL
Suriname SME
Swaziland SD
Sweden S
Switzerland CH
Tanzania EAT
Thailand T
Trinidad and Tobago TT
Tunisia TN
Turkey TR
Uganda EAU
United States USA
Uruguay ROU
Vatican City V
Venezuela YV
Vietnam VN
West Germany D
Yugoslavia YU
Zaire ZRE
Zimbabwe ZW
Additional Sources of Information (Travel)
AYH Handbook and Hostelers Manual: Europe. American
Youth Hostels, 1987.
AYH Handbook and Hostelers Manual: United States.
American Youth Hostels, 1987.
The Stephen Birnbaum Travel Guides.
Houghton-Mifflin, 1976.
The Business Traveler's Handbook, Prentice-Hall,
1983.
Fodor's Guides. Fodor's Travel Publications, 1980-.
Frommer's Guides. Prentice-Hall, 1977-.
Grimes, Paul, The New York Times Practical
Traveler. Times Books, 1985.
Hadley, Linda. Fielding's Guide to Traveling with
Children in Europe. William Morrow, 1972.
Kirk, Robert William. You Can Travel Free. Pelican,
1985.
Mobil Travel Guides. 6 vols. Prentice-Hall, 1987.
The Official Airline Guides. Dun and Bradstreet,
1988.
Rand McNally European Atlas. Rand McNally, 1988.
Rand McNally Road Atlas of Britain. William
Collins, 1985.
Rand McNally Road Atlas: United States, Canada and
Mexico. Rand McNally, 1988.
Simony, Maggy. The Traveler's Reading Guide. Facts
on File, 1987.
For the Homemaker
Washing Fabrics
Washer Loads
Cottons and Linens (Washing Fabrics) (Homemaker)
Fabrics must be of fast color and sturdy
construction. Wash in very hot water with
all-purpose detergent for a full washer cycle.
Results are better if white fabrics are washed by
themselves. Two large sheets or tablecloths and a
variety of smaller articles wash more effectively
than a load made up of all large articles.
A load may include:
cotton dresses shirts sheets T-shirts
cotton nightwear cotton slips socks towels
pillowcases table linen
Load size: For good washability, load washer about
3 pounds lighter than manufacturer's recommendation
(6 pounds in a 9-pound washer).
Lightweight or Sheer Cottons (Washing Fabrics)
Wash in warm water, or cool water for dark colors,
with an all-purpose detergent and a shortened
washing cycle.
A load may include:
blouses petticoats negligees and robes
dresses slips
Load size: About 3 pounds lighter than
manufacturer's recommendation.
Similarly Soiled Articles of Synthetic Fibers
Use warm or cool water, an all-purpose detergent,
and a shortened cycle. Include white nylons in an
all-white load only; they easily pick up color from
other fabrics. If articles are badly soiled, a
hot-water wash may be needed.
Load size: A 3- or 4-pound load of easy-care
fabrics washes and dries with fewer wrinkles than
a capacity load.
Heavy Work Clothes and Other Badly Soiled Laundry
Divide into loads according to color. Use hot water
unless running colors or shrinkage is a problem.
Use plenty of all-purpose detergent. Pretreat,
soak, and use full washer cycle.
A load may include:
children's sturdy play clothes
heavy socks
coveralls, overalls, work pants
shirts, skirts, slacks, shorts
shop or laboratory coats
Load size: Light. Allow plenty of room for washer
action.
Articles That May Run (Washing Fabrics) (Homemaker)
Some dark-colored cottons, denims, socks, and jeans
may be washed together if you do not mind some
mixing of colors. Otherwise, sort out the fabrics
that are likely to bleed color and wash them
separately. Use cool wash water at full washer
cycle or shorter if clothes are only lightly
soiled.
Miscellaneous Items (Washing Fabrics) (Homemaker)
These include bulky pieces, blankets, bedspreads,
and throw rugs, which need to be washed separately
because they fill the washer. Woolens, electric
blankets, sweaters, and other items also may
require special handling.
Soaking (Washing Fabrics) (Homemaker)
Generally it pays to soak heavily soiled work and
play clothes, dusty curtains and draperies, heavily
soiled slipcovers, and certain stained articles to
help loosen stains.
The most satisfactory way of soaking clothes is to
agitate them in the washer for a few minutes in
warm water with detergent. The addition of
detergent helps hold the dirt suspended in the
water. Use about half the amount of detergent
needed for washing. Extract water and follow with
a complete washing cycle.
If you have only a few items to soak, use a small
container rather than the washer. Submerge clothes
in a warm detergent solution and let them soak for
15 minutes. Soaking to remove stains may take
longer. Stir the clothes around a bit, extract
water, and add the garments to a normally soiled
load of similar fabrics for the complete washing
cycle. If soaked clothes are extremely dirty, wash
them by themselves.
Water Temperature (Washing Fabrics) (Homemaker)
Medium-hot water (approximately 120 deg.F) is a
good temperature for washing some bright or dark
colors that do not actually run in the wash but
that may fade in time from washing in hot water.
This temperature also works well for washing
lingerie that you do not want to put in very hot
water.
The "warm" setting of an automatic washer usually
controls the temperature at about 100 degrees F.
Most washers rinse with water at this temperature.
In some cycles, and at the "cold" setting, cold
water may be used.
Cold water (80 deg.F or less) is recommended for
lightly soiled items and fabrics and fibers that
lose color, wrinkle, or shrink in hot water.
For more information on the right temperature for
various washing jobs, consult the Wash-Water
Temperatures guide on page 494.
Rinsing (Washing Fabrics) (Homemaker)
If you are not getting good rinsing in your washer,
you may be overloading or adding too much
detergent, or the extraction of the wash water may
not be as effective as it should be. See that the
spinning mechanism of the washer is in perfect
working order.
Fabric Softeners (Washing Fabrics) (Homemaker)
Fabric softeners, which generally are added to
rinse water, make textiles soft and fluffy. They
also reduce the static electricity that builds up
on some fabrics when they rub against each other
and minimize wrinkles and deep creases.
Softener is added to the final rinse water in
proportion to the weight of clothes rather than the
amount of rinse water. Use softener each time you
want fabrics softened; the effect is lost in the
next washing. An overdose of softener may decrease
the absorbency of fabrics. Some fabric softeners
come in disposable sheets that are added to the
dryer.
Wash-Water Temperatures (Washing Fabrics) (Homemaker)
Very hot; water fills only from "hot" line of water
heater, with temperature control set for "hot."
Provides most soil removal and sanitizing; ideal
for white cottons and linens and heavily soiled
articles of washfast colors. Wrinkles synthetic
fabrics; may cause some colors to run.
Hot, mixed with some cold water. Fills
automatically, on washers with "medium" water
control. Lightly soiled loads usually wash clean.
Provides no sanitizing; somewhat superior to warm
water in soil removal.
Temperature of "warm" setting in automatics.
Suitable for silk and washable woolens, comfortable
for hand washing. Provides no sanitizing; protects
colors. Wrinkles synthetic fabrics less than hot
water.
Temperature of unheated water supply. For lightly
soiled or thoroughly pretreated laundry. For use
with plenty of liquid detergent, a cold-water
detergent, or a granular detergent dissolved in hot
water before adding. Gives least cleaning, no
sanitizing, minimum wrinkling of synthetic fabrics;
may not remove wear wrinkles.
Stain Removal (Washing Fabrics) (Homemaker)
Many common stains fall into one of three
categories-greasy, nongreasy, and combination.
These stains can be removed by following the
appropriate method for each given below. When
necessary, separate directions are given for
washable and nonwashable articles. Directions for
nonwashables are for articles made of fabrics that
are not damaged by the application of small amounts
of water.
Greasy Stains
Washable Articles (Greasy Stains) (Homemaker)
Regular washing, either by hand or by machine,
removes some greasy stains. Some stains can be
removed by rubbing soap or detergent into the stain
and then rinsing with warm water. On some
wash-and-wear or permanent-press fabrics, it may
be necessary to rub soap or detergent thoroughly
into the stain and allow it to stand for several
hours, or overnight, before rinsing. Often,
however, a grease solvent is necessary; this is
effective even after an article has been washed.
Sponge the stain thoroughly with the grease solvent
and dry. Repeat if necessary. It often takes extra
time to remove greasy stains from a fabric with a
special finish.
A yellow stain may remain after a solvent treatment
if the stain has been set by age or heat. To remove
a yellow stain, use a chlorine or peroxygen bleach.
If it is safe for the fabric, the strong sodium
perborate treatment is usually the most effective.
Nonwashable Articles (Greasy Stains) (Homemaker)
Sponge stains well with grease solvent and dry.
Repeat if necessary. It may take extra time to
remove greasy stains from fabrics with a special
finish.
A yellow stain may remain after a solvent treatment
if the stain has been set by age or heat. To remove
a yellow stain, use a chlorine or peroxygen bleach.
If safe for the fabric, the strong sodium perborate
treatment is usually the most effective.
Nongreasy Stains (Homemaker)
Many fresh stains can be removed by simple
treatments. Stains set by heat or age may be
difficult or impossible to remove.
Washable Articles (Nongreasy Stains) (Homemaker)
Sometimes, regular laundry methods will remove
nongreasy stains; in other cases, laundering will
actually set the stains. Sponge the stain with cool
water or soak it in cool water for 30 minutes or
longer; some stains require an overnight soak. If
the stain persists after sponging or soaking, work
a soap or detergent into it, then rinse. If the
stain remains after detergent treatment, use a
chlorine or peroxygen bleach.
Nonwashable Articles (Nongreasy Stains) (Homemaker)
Sponge the stain with cool water. If it remains,
rub soap or detergent on the stain and work it into
the fabric. Rinse. A final sponging with alcohol
helps to remove the soap or detergent and to dry
the fabric more quickly. Test alcohol on the fabric
first to be sure it does not affect the dye. Dilute
the alcohol with two parts of water before using
it on acetate. If the stain remains after rinsing,
use a chlorine or peroxygen bleach.
Combination Stains
Combination stains are caused by materials that
contain both greasy and nongreasy substances.
Washable Articles (Combination Stains) (Homemaker)
Sponge the stain with cool water or soak in cool
water for 30 minutes or longer. If the stain
persists, work soap or detergent into it, then
rinse thoroughly. Allow the article to dry. If a
greasy stain remains, sponge with a grease solvent.
Allow the article to dry. Repeat if necessary. If
a colored stain remains after the fabric dries, use
a chlorine or peroxygen bleach.
Nonwashable Articles (Combination Stains) (Homemaker)
Sponge the stain with cool water. If it remains,
rub soap or detergent on the stain and work it into
the fabric. Rinse the spot well with water. Allow
the article to dry. If a greasy stain remains,
sponge with a grease solvent. Allow to dry. Repeat
if necessary. If a colored stain remains after
fabric dries, use a chlorine or peroxygen bleach.
Specific Stains
Acids (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
If an acid is spilled on a fabric, rinse the area
with water immediately. Then apply ammonia to the
stain. Rinse again with water. Strong acids, such
as sulfuric (used in batteries) and hydrochloric
(used for cleaning brick), may damage or destroy
some fibers before the acid can be rinsed out. The
amount of damage depends on the kind of fiber and
acid and on the concentration and temperature of
the acid solution. Often, however, thorough rinsing
before the acid dries on the fabric will prevent
serious damage. Diluted solutions of weak acids,
such as acetic (vinegar), will not damage fibers.
Both weak and strong acids may change the color of
some dyes. The use of ammonia after rinsing with
water neutralizes any acid left in the fabric and
sometimes restores colors that have changed.
Adhesive Tape (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Scrape gummy matter from stains carefully with a
dull table knife; avoid damaging fabric. Sponge
with a grease solvent.
Alcoholic Beverages (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains. An
alternate method, if alcohol does not affect the
color of the fabric, is to sponge the stain with
rubbing alcohol. Dilute alcohol with two parts of
water before using on acetate. If a stain remains,
use a chlorine or peroxygen bleach.
The alcohol in alcoholic beverages will cause
bleeding of some dyes, which results in loss of
color or formation of a dye ring around the edge
of the stain. When either change occurs, the
original appearance of the fabric cannot be
restored.
Alkalis (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
If an alkali is spilled on a fabric, rinse the area
with water immediately. Then apply vinegar to the
stain. Rinse again with water. Strong alkalis, such
as lye, may damage or destroy some fibers before
they can be rinsed out. The amount of damage
depends on the kind of fiber and alkali and on the
concentration and temperature of the alkali
solution. In many cases, however, prompt rinsing
will prevent serious damage. Silk and wool are the
fibers most easily damaged by alkalis. Diluted
solutions of such weak alkalis as ammonia will not
damage fibers. Both strong and weak alkalis may
change the color of some dyes. The use of vinegar
after rinsing with water neutralizes any alkali
left in the fabric and sometimes restores colors
that have changed.
Antiperspirants and Deodorants (Specific Stains)
Wash or sponge the stain thoroughly with soap or
detergent and warm water. Rinse. If the stain is
not removed, use a chlorine or peroxygen bleach.
Antiperspirants that contain such substances as
aluminum chloride are acid; they may cause fabric
damage and change the color of some dyes. Fabric
color may be restored by sponging with ammonia.
Dilute ammonia with an equal volume of water for
use on wool or silk. Rinse.
Blood (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains, with one
variation. If the stain is not removed by soap or
detergent, put a few drops of ammonia on it and
repeat the treatment with detergent. Rinse. Follow
with a bleach treatment if necessary. Blood stains
that have been set by heat will be difficult to
remove.
Bluing (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains.
Butter and Margarine (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for greasy stains.
Candy and Syrup (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
For chocolate candy and syrup, follow directions
for combination stains. For other candy and syrup,
follow directions for nongreasy stains.
Carbon Paper (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Work soap or detergent into the stain; rinse well.
If the stain is not removed, put a few drops of
ammonia on it and repeat the treatment; rinse well.
Repeat again if necessary.
Catsup and Chili (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains.
Chewing Gum (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Scrape gum off without damaging fabric. The gum can
be scraped off more easily if it is first hardened
by rubbing it with ice. If a stain remains, sponge
thoroughly with a grease solvent.
Chlorine (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Use one of the following treatments to remove
yellow chlorine bleach stains from fabrics with
resin finishes, or to prevent such stains from
appearing. Always treat the fabric before ironing
it. On some fabrics, the yellow stains form before
ironing; on others, after ironing. In either case,
ironing before the chlorine is removed weakens the
fibers.
Yellow stains caused by the use of chlorine bleach
on wool and silk cannot be removed. White or faded
spots caused by use of chlorine bleach on colored
fabrics cannot be restored to the original color.
Treatment for any fabric. Rinse fabric thoroughly
with water. Then soak for 30 minutes or longer in
a solution containing one teaspoon of sodium
thiosulfate to each quart of warm water. Rinse
thoroughly. To strengthen the treatment, make the
sodium thiosulfate solution as hot as is safe for
the fabric.
Treatment for white or colorfast fabrics. Rinse the
fabric thoroughly with water. Then use a color
remover, following the directions given on the
package for removing stains.
Chocolate (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for combination stains.
Cocoa (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains.
Coffee and Tea (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
With cream. Follow directions for combination
stains.
Without cream. Follow directions for nongreasy
stains. Alternatively, for both types of stains,
and if safe for the fabric, pour boiling water
through the spot from a height of 1 to 3 feet.
Correction Fluid (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Sponge the stain with acetone or amyl acetate. Use
amyl acetate on acetate, Arnel, Dynel, and Verel;
use acetone on other fabrics.
Cosmetics (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
(eye shadow, lipstick, liquid makeup, mascara,
pancake makeup, powder, blush)
Washable articles. Apply undiluted liquid detergent
to the stain, or dampen the stain and rub in soap
or detergent until thick suds are formed. Work in
until the outline of the stain is gone; then rinse
well. Repeat if necessary. It may help to dry the
fabric between treatments.
Nonwashable articles. Sponge with a grease solvent
until no more color is removed. If the stain is not
removed, use the method given for washable
articles.
Crayon (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for cosmetics.
Cream (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for combination stains.
Dyes (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains; if bleach
is needed, use chlorine bleach or color remover.
A long soak in sudsy water often is effective on
fresh dye stains.
Egg (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains.
Fish Slime, Mucus, Vomit (Specific Stains)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains or treat the
stain with a lukewarm solution of salt and water-
1/4 cup salt to each quart of water. Sponge the
stain with solution or soak the stain in it. Rinse
well.
Flowers (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
See Grass, Flowers, and Foliage.
Food Coloring (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains.
Fruit, Fruit Juices (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains or, if it
is safe for the fabric, pour boiling water through
the spot from a height of 1 to 3 feet. When any
fruit juice is spilled on a fabric, it is a good
idea to sponge the spot immediately with cool
water. Some fruit juices, citrus among them, are
invisible on the fabric after they dry but turn
yellow on aging or heating. This yellow stain may
be difficult to remove.
Furniture Polish (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for greasy stains or, if the
polish contains wood stain, follow directions given
for paint.
Glue and Mucilage (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Airplane glue, household cement. Follow directions
for correction fluid.
Casein glue. Follow directions for nongreasy
stains.
Plastic glue. Wash the stain with soap or detergent
and water before the glue hardens; some types of
glues cannot be removed after they have hardened.
To remove some dried plastic glue stains, immerse
the stain in a hot 10-percent acetic acid solution
or hot vinegar. Keep acid or vinegar at or near the
boiling point until the stain is removed. This may
take 15 minutes or longer. Rinse with water.
Other types of glues and mucilage. Follow
directions for nongreasy stains, but soak the stain
in hot water instead of cool.
Grass, Flowers, and Foliage (Specific Stains)
Washable articles. Work soap or detergent into the
stain, then rinse. If it is safe for the dye,
sponge the stain with alcohol. Dilute the alcohol
with two parts of water for use on acetate. If the
stain remains, use a chlorine or peroxygen bleach.
Nonwashable articles. Use the methods for washable
articles, but try alcohol first if it is safe for
the dye.
Gravy, Meat Juice (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for combination stains.
Grease (car grease, lard) (Specific Stains)
Follow directions for greasy stains.
Gum (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
See Chewing Gum.
Ice Cream (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for combination stains.
Ink, Ballpoint (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Sponge the stain repeatedly with acetone or amyl
acetate, or spray it with hair spray. This will
remove fresh stains. Old stains may also require
bleaching. Washing removes some types of ballpoint
ink stains but sets other types. To see if the
stain will wash out, mark a scrap of similar
material with the ink and wash it.
Ink, Black (India ink) (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Treat the stain as soon as possible. These stains
are very hard to remove if dry.
Washable articles. Force water through the stain
until all loose pigment is removed; otherwise, the
stain will spread when treated. Wash with soap or
detergent, several times if necessary. Then soak
the stain in warm suds containing 1 to 4
tablespoons of ammonia to a quart of water. Dried
stains may need to be soaked overnight. An
alternative method is to force water through the
stain until all loose pigment is removed, wet the
spot with ammonia, and then work soap or detergent
into it. Rinse. Repeat if necessary.
Nonwashable articles. Force water through stain
until all loose pigment is removed; otherwise, the
stain will spread when you treat it. Sponge stain
with a solution of water and ammonia (1 tablespoon
of ammonia per 1 cup of water). Rinse with water.
If stain remains, moisten it with ammonia, then
work soap or detergent into it. Rinse. Repeat if
necessary. If ammonia changes the color of the
fabric, sponge first with water, then moisten with
vinegar. Rinse well.
Ink, Drawing (colors other than black) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains. If bleach
is needed, use a color remover if it is safe for
the dye. If a color remover is not safe, try other
bleaches.
Ink, Writing (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Washable articles. Follow directions for nongreasy
stains. Because writing inks vary greatly in
composition, it may be necessary to try more than
one kind of bleach. Try a chlorine bleach on all
fabrics for which it is safe. For other fabrics,
try peroxygen bleach. A few types of inks require
treatment with color removers. A strong bleach
treatment may be needed. However, a strong bleach
may leave a faded spot on some colored fabrics. If
a yellow stain remains after bleaching, treat it
as a rust stain.
Nonwashable articles. If possible, use a blotter
(for small stains) or absorbent powder to remove
excess ink before it soaks into the fabric. Then
follow directions for washable articles.
Iodine (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Washable articles. Three methods for removing
iodine stains are given below. If the method you
try first does not remove the stain, try another.
Water-Soak in cool water until the stain is
removed; some stains require soaking overnight. If
the stain remains, rub it with soap or detergent
and wash it in warm suds. If the stain is not
removed, soak the fabric in a solution containing
1 tablespoon of sodium thiosulfate to each pint of
warm water, or sprinkle the crystals on the
dampened stain. Rinse well as soon as the stain is
removed.
Steam-Moisten the stain with water; then hold it
in the steam from a boiling tea kettle.
Alcohol-If alcohol is safe for the dye, cover the
stain with a pad of cotton soaked in it. If
necessary, keep the pad wet for several hours.
Dilute with two parts of water for use on acetate.
Nonwashable articles. Try the steam or alcohol
methods given above.
Lacquer (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for correction fluid.
Margarine (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
See Butter and Margarine.
Mayonnaise and Salad Dressing (Specific Stains)
Follow directions for combination stains.
Medicines (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Gummy, tarry, and with an oily base. Follow
directions for grease stains.
In sugar syrup or in water. Wash the stain out with
water.
Dissolved in alcohol (tinctures). Sponge the stain
with alcohol. Dilute with two parts of water for
use on acetate.
With iron. Follow directions for rust.
With dyes. Follow directions for dyes.
Mercurochrome and Merthiolate
Washable articles. Soak overnight in a warm soap
or detergent solution that contains 4 tablespoons
of ammonia to each quart of water.
Nonwashable articles. If safe for the dye, sponge
with alcohol as long as any of the stain is
removed. Dilute the alcohol with two parts of water
for use on acetate. If the stain remains, place a
pad of cotton saturated with alcohol on it. Keep
the pad wet until the stain is removed; this may
take an hour or more. If alcohol is not safe for
the dye, wet the stain with liquid detergent. Add
a drop of ammonia with a medicine dropper. Rinse
with water, and repeat if necessary.
Metals (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
To remove stains caused by tarnished brass, copper,
tin, and other metals, use vinegar, lemon juice,
acetic acid, or oxalic acid. The two acids, because
they are stronger, will remove stains that cannot
be removed by vinegar or lemon juice. As soon as
the stain is removed, rinse well with water. Do not
use chlorine or peroxygen bleaches. These bleaches
may cause damage because the metal in the stain
hastens their action.
Mildew (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Washable articles. Treat mildew spots while they
are fresh, before the mold growth has a chance to
weaken the fabric. Wash the mildewed article
thoroughly, and dry it in the sun. If the stain
remains, treat it with a chlorine or peroxygen
bleach.
Nonwashable articles. Send the article to a dry
cleaner promptly.
Milk (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains.
Mud (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Let the stain dry, then brush well. If the stain
remains, follow directions for nongreasy stains.
Stains from iron-rich clays not removed by this
method should be treated as rust stains.
Mustard (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Washable articles. Rub soap or detergent into the
dampened stain; rinse. If the stain is not removed,
soak the article in a hot detergent solution for
several hours, or overnight if necessary. If the
stain remains, use a bleach.
Nonwashable articles. If alcohol is safe for the
dye, sponge the stain with it. Dilute the alcohol
with two parts of water for use on acetate. If
alcohol cannot be used, or if it does not remove
the stain completely, follow the treatment for
washable articles but omit the soaking.
Nail Polish (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for correction fluid. Nail polish
removers also can be used to remove stains. Before
using nail polish remover on acetate, Arnel, Dynel,
or Verel, test it on a scrap of material to make
sure it will not damage the fabric.
Oil (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for greasy stains.
Paint, Varnish (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Treat stains promptly, as they are always harder-
and sometimes impossible-to remove after they have
dried on fabric. Because there are so many
different kinds of paints and varnishes, no one
method will remove all stains. Read the label on
the container; if a certain solvent is recommended
as a thinner, it may be more effective in removing
stains than the solvents recommended.
Washable articles. To remove fresh stains, rub soap
or detergent into the stain and wash. If the stain
has dried or is only partially removed by washing,
sponge it with turpentine until no more paint or
varnish is removed (for aluminum paint stains,
dry-cleaning may be more effective than
turpentine). While the stain is still wet with the
solvent, work soap or detergent into it, put the
article in hot water, and soak it overnight.
Thorough washing will remove most types of paint
stains. If the stain remains, repeat the treatment.
Nonwashable articles. Sponge fresh stains with
turpentine until no more paint is removed (for
aluminum paint stains, dry-cleaning may be more
effective than turpentine). If the stain remains,
put a drop of liquid detergent on it and work it
into the fabric with the edge of the bowl of a
spoon. Alternately, sponge the stain with
turpentine and treat with detergent as many times
as necessary. If alcohol is safe for the dye,
sponge the stain with it to remove turpentine and
detergent. Dilute the alcohol with two parts of
water for use on acetate. If alcohol is not safe
for the dye, sponge the stain first with warm soap
or detergent solution, then with water.
Pencil (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
A soft eraser will remove pencil marks from some
fabrics. If the marks cannot be erased, follow
directions for carbon paper.
Perfume (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for alcoholic beverages.
Perspiration (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Wash or sponge the stain thoroughly with soap or
detergent and warm water. Work carefully, because
some fabrics are weakened by perspiration; silk is
the fiber most easily damaged. If perspiration has
changed the color of the fabric, try to restore it
by treating it with ammonia or vinegar. Apply
ammonia to fresh stains and vinegar to old stains;
rinse with water.
If an oily stain remains, follow directions for
greasy stains. Remove any yellow discoloration with
a chlorine or peroxygen bleach. If it is safe for
fabric, the strong sodium perborate treatment
recommended for greasy-stain removal is often the
most effective for these stains.
Plastic (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
To remove stains caused by plastic hangers or
buttons that have softened and adhered to the
fabric, dry-cleaning is the safest and most
effective method.
Rust (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Oxalic-acid method. Moisten the stain with oxalic
acid solution (1 tablespoon of oxalic acid crystals
in 1 cup warm water). If the stain is not removed
by a single treatment, heat the solution and
repeat. If the stain is stubborn, place oxalic acid
crystals directly on it. Moisten the stain with
water as hot as is safe for the fabric and allow
it to stand a few minutes, or dip it in hot water.
Repeat if necessary. Do not use this method on
nylon. Rinse the article thoroughly. If it is
allowed to dry in the fabric, oxalic acid will
cause damage.
PRECAUTION: OXALIC ACID IS POISONOUS IF SWALLOWED.
Cream-of-tartar method. If the treatment is safe
for the fabric, boil the stained article in a
solution containing 4 teaspoons of cream of tartar
to each pint of water. Boil until the stain is
removed. Rinse thoroughly.
Lemon-juice method. Spread the stained portion over
a pan of boiling water and squeeze lemon juice on
it; or sprinkle salt on the stain, squeeze lemon
juice on it, and spread the fabric in the sun to
dry. Rinse thoroughly. Repeat if necessary.
Color removers can be used to remove rust stains
from white fabrics.
Sauces, Soups (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for combination stains.
Scorch Stains (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
If the article is washable, follow the directions
for nongreasy stains. To remove light scorch stains
from an article that is nonwashable, apply hydrogen
peroxide. The strong treatment may be needed to
remove the stains. Repeat if necessary. Severe
scorch stains cannot be removed, however, because
the fabric already has been damaged.
Shellac (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Using alcohol, sponge or soak the stain. Dilute the
alcohol with two parts water for use on acetate.
If alcohol bleeds the dye, try turpentine.
Shoe Polish (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Because there are many different kinds of shoe
polish, no one method will remove all stains. It
may be necessary to try more than one of the
methods given below.
1. Follow directions for cosmetics.
2. Sponge the stain with alcohol if it is safe for
the dye in the fabric. Dilute the alcohol with
two parts water for use on acetate.
3. Sponge the stain with grease solvent or
turpentine. If turpentine is used, remove it by
sponging with a warm soap or detergent solution
or with alcohol.
If the stain is not removed by any of these
methods, use a chlorine or peroxygen bleach. If
safe for the fabric, the strong sodium perborate
treatment recommended for greasy-stain removal is
often the most effective.
Silver Nitrate (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Dampen the stain with water. Then put a few drops
of tincture of iodine on the stain. Let it stand
for a few minutes. Then treat it as an iodine
stain. Unless a stain on silk or wool is treated
when fresh, a yellow or brown discoloration will
remain.
Soft Drinks (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains. When any
soft drink is spilled on a fabric, sponge the spot
immediately with cool water. Some soft drinks are
invisible after they dry but turn yellow on aging
or heating. The yellow stain may be difficult to
remove.
Soot, Smoke (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for cosmetics.
Syrup (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
See Candy and Syrup.
Tar (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for greasy stains. If the stain
is not removed by this method, sponge it with
turpentine.
Tea (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
See Coffee and Tea.
Tobacco (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for grass.
Typewriter Ribbon (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for carbon paper.
Unknown Origin (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
If the stain appears greasy, treat it as a greasy
stain; otherwise, treat it as a nongreasy stain.
Urine (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
To remove stains caused by normal urine, follow
directions for nongreasy stains. If the color of
the fabric has been changed, sponge the stain with
ammonia. If this treatment does not restore the
color, sponging with acetic acid or vinegar may
help. If the stain is not removed by one or both
of these methods, see directions for medicines and
yellowing.
Vegetables (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
Follow directions for nongreasy stains.
Walnuts, Black (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
These stains are very difficult to remove.
Washable articles. If the treatment is safe for
fabric, boil washable articles in soap or detergent
solution. This will remove fresh stains. If the
stain is not removed, use a strong chlorine or
sodium perborate bleach treatment. If the stain
remains, treat it as a rust stain.
Nonwashable articles. These stains cannot be
removed at home. Send the article to a dry cleaner.
Wax (floor, furniture, car) (Specific Stains)
Follow directions for greasy stains.
Yellowing; Brown Stains (Specific Stains) (Homemaker)
To remove storage stains-or unknown yellow or
yellow-brown stains-from fabrics, use as many of
the following treatments as necessary, if safe for
the fabric, in the order given.
1. Wash.
2. Use a mild treatment of a chlorine or peroxygen
bleach.
3. Use the oxalic-acid method for treating rust
stains.
4. Use a strong treatment of a chlorine or
peroxygen bleach.
Cooking Equivalents and Substitutions
Common Kitchen Measures
pinch (a few grains) = less than 1/8 teaspoon
3 teaspoons - 1 tablespoon
2 tablespoons = F fluid ounce
4 tablespoons = 1/4 cup
5 tablespoons = 1 cup
1 cup = 1/2 pint or 8 fluid ounces
2 cups = 1 pint
2 pints = 1 quart
4 quarts = 1 gallon
2 dry pints = 1 dry quart
8 dry quarts = 1 peck
4 pecks = 1 bushel
Cooking Measurements Abbreviations
Measure Abbr. Measure Abbr.
------- ----- ------- -----
teaspoon tsp. gram g
tablespoon tbsp. milligram mg
ounce oz. kilogram kg
fluid ounce fl. oz. liter l
pint pt. milliliter ml
pound lb. degrees °F
Fahrenheit
quart qt. degrees °C
Celsius
Metric Cooking Measure Equivalents
Customary Metric
--------- ------
1 teaspoon 4.9 milliliters
1 tablespoon 14.8 milliliters
1 ounce (dry) 28.35 grams
1 fluid ounce 29.57 milliliters
1 cup 236.6 milliliters
1 pint 437.2 milliliters
1 quart 946.4 milliliters
0.9 quart (dry) 1 liter
1.06 quarts (liquid) 1 liter
1 pound 454 grams
2.2 pounds 1 kilogram
32° Fahrenheit 0° Celsius
(freezing point)
212° Fahrenheit 100° Celsius
(boiling point)
Food Weights and Measures
Bread
-----
1-pound loaf 12 to 16 slices
1 slice 1/2 cup soft or 1/4
cup dry bread crumbs
Dairy
-----
1 pound cheese 4 to 5 cups, shredded
1 pound cottage cheese 2 cups
3 ounces cream cheese 6 tablespoons
8 ounces cream cheese 1 cup
1 pound butter 2 cups (4 sticks)
1 quart milk 4 cups
1 pound instant nonfat 5 quarts liquid skim milk
dry milk
13-ounce can evaporated 1 2/3 cups
milk
1/2 pint cream 1 cup
1 cup heavy cream 2 cups, whipped
Eggs
----
3 to 4 1 cup
8 to 10 whites 1 cup
12 to 14 yolks 1 cup
1 yolk 2 tablespoons
Flour
-----
1 pound all-purpose 4 cups, sifted
flour
1 pound cake flour 4 3/4 to 5 cups, sifted
1 pound whole-wheat 3 1/2 to 3 3/4 cups,
flour unsifted
1 pound cornmeal 3 cups
Fruit
-----
juice of 1 medium 2 to 3 tablespoons
lemon
juice of 1 medium 1/3 to 1/2 cup
orange
grated rind of medium 1 tablespoon
orange
1 apple 1 cup, sliced
1 pound apples 3 cups, pared and sliced
3 to 4 bananas 1 3/4 cups, mashed
(1 pound)
1 pound cherries 2 cups, pitted
1 pound cranberries 2 cups, pitted
1 pound grapes 2 1/2 cups, seeded
1 pound raisins 2 1/2 cups
1 pound cut candied 3 cups
fruit
1 pound finely cut 1 1/2 cups
dates
Meat and poultry
----------------
1 pound ground cooked 5 cups
meat
1 pound diced cooked 5 cups
meat
3 1/2-pound chicken 3 cups diced, cooked
Nuts
----
1 pound almonds in 1 1/4 cups, shelled
shell
1 pound pecans in 2 cups, chopped
shell
1 pound walnuts in 1 1/2 to 1 3/4 cups,
shell chopped
1/4 pound chopped nuts about 1 cup
Sweeteners and
Flavorings
---------------
1 pound confectioners' 3 1/2 cups
sugar
1 pound brown sugar 2 1/4 to 2 1/2 cups,
firmly packed
1 pound granulated 2 cups
sugar
1 pound honey, 1 1/3 cups
molasses, or syrup
1 pound cocoa 4 cups
1 ounce unsweetened 1 square
chocolate
6-ounce package 1 cup
chocolate chips
Vegetables
----------
1 whole bay leaf 1/4 teaspoon, crushed
1 pound split peas 1 1/2 cups
1 large green pepper 1 cup, diced
1/4 pound sliced 1/4 to 1/2 cup, cooked
mushrooms (1 1/4 cups)
1 medium onion 1/2 cup, chopped
1 pound potatoes 2 1/2 cups, sliced
(3 medium)
1 pound green beans 2 1/2 cups, cooked
(3 cups)
1 pound cabbage 2 1/2 cups, cooked
1 pound carrots 2 1/2 cups, diced, or
2 cups, cooked
1 medium bunch celery 4 1/2 cups, chopped
1 pound tomatoes 1 1/2 cups, cooked
(3 medium)
Food Substitutions (Cooking Equivalents) (Homemaker)
Ingredient Substitution
---------- ------------
Baking powder 1/4 teaspoon baking soda
(1 teaspoon) + 1/2 teaspoon cream of
tartar
Baking powder 1/2 teaspoon baking soda
(1 1/4 teaspoons) + 2 tablespoons vinegar
Black pepper White pepper or paprika
Bouillon (1 cup) 1 bouillon cube dissolved
in 1 cup hot water
Bread crumbs (1 cup) 3/4 cup cracker crumbs
Butter (1 cup) 1 cup margarine or
1 cup vegetable
shortening or 7/8 cup
lard
Buttermilk or sour milk 1 cup yogurt or 1 cup
(1 cup) whole milk
+ 1 tablespoon lemon
juice
or 1 tablespoon vinegar
or 1 3/4 teaspoons
cream of tartar
Carrots Parsnips or white turnips
Chocolate:
semisweet(1 2/3 ounces) 1 ounce unsweetened
chocolate + 4 teaspoon
sugar
unsweetened (1 ounce- 3 tablespoons cocoa powder
1 square) + 1 tablespoon shortening
Cream, heavy (1 cup) 7/8 cup buttermilk or
yogurt + 3 tablespoons
butter
Croutons Cubes of crustless white
bread sautéed on butter
Curry powder Turmeric plus cardamom,
ginger powder,and cumin
Dry mustard Prepared mustard
Egg, for thickening 2 egg yolks
baking
Flour:
all-purpose, for 1 1/2 teaspoons cornstarch
thickening or 1 1/2 teaspoons
arrowroot or 1
tablespoon quick-
cooking tapioca
all-purpose, for Up to 1/2 cup bran, whole
bread baking wheat flour,or cornmeal
+ enough all-purpose to
fill cup
cake(1 cup sifted) 1 cup minus 2 tablespoons
all-purpose flour
Fresh herbs(1 tablespoon) 1/3 to 1/2 teaspoon dried
herbs
Honey (1 cup) 1 1/4 cups sugar
+ 1/4 cup liquid
Lemon juice Vinegar or lime juice or
white wine
Mayonnaise, homemade 1/2 cup commercial
(1/2 cup) mayonnaise + 1/2
teaspoon lemon juice
and 1/2 teaspoon
prepared mustard
Olive oil Vegetable oil
Onion, chopped (1 cup) 1 tablespoon instant
minced onion,
reconstituted
Parsley Chervil
Scallions Green or white onions,
or onion powder to
taste
Shallots 2 parts onion + 1 part
garlic
Sugar, granulated
(1 teaspoon) 1 tablespoon maple sugar
(1 cup) 1 3/4 cups confectioners'
sugar or 1 cup molasses
+ 1/2 teaspoon baking
soda
Tomato sauce (2 cups) 3/4 cup tomato paste + 1
cup water
Wine Vinegar Cider vinegar with a
little white wine
Yeast, active dry 1 3/5-ounce cake yeast
(1 tablespoon-1 package)
Kosher Substitutions (Cooking Equivalents) (Homemaker)
According to Jewish dietary laws, certain food
items, such as products, shellfish, and some cuts of
beef, are not allowed to be eaten. Also, meat and
dairy products are not to be eaten at the same time.
Below is a list of ingredients that may be
problematic in preparing a kosher dish. On the
right are acceptable replacements for these items.
Ingredient Substitutions
---------- --------------
Butter In pastry; margarine or vegetable
shortening
To sauté vegetables: margarine
To fry meat or poultry: equal parts
rendered chicken fat and oil;
oil; equal parts oil and
margarine
Ham or Used as flavoring: an equal
bacon quantity of anchovies, mushrooms,
or pungent vegetables
Milk or cream In chicken stew, soup, or sauce:
for each 1/2 cup, 1/2 cup chicken
stock mixed with 1 egg yolk and
1 teaspoon cornstarch
Shellfish An equal amount of firm fish
Cooking Times and Serving Sizes
Oven Temperatures (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
175° to 225° F Warm
250° to 275° F Very slow
300° to 325° F Slow
350° to 375° F Moderate
400° to 425° F Hot
450° to 475° F Very hot
Cooking Times for Meat, Poultry, Fish
To Roast Beef (325° F) (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
Weight Minutes Internal
Cut in pounds per pound temp.(F)
--- --------- --------- --------
Standing rib 4 to 8
rare 20 to 25 140°
medium 25 to 30 160°
well-done 30 to 35 170°
Rolled rib 5 to 7
rare 30 to 35 140°
medium 35 to 40 160°
well-done 40 to 45 170°
Rib eye 4 to 6
rare 20 140°
medium 22 160°
well-done 24 170°
Sirloin tip 3½ to 4 35 to 40 160°
Tenderloin (roast at 425°)
whole 4 to 6 10 140°
half 2 to 3 20 140°
To Broil Steak (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
(2 inches from preheated oven broiler)
1-inch-thick sirloin, porterhouse, T-bone, or rib
rare 5 minutes each side
medium 7 minutes each side
well-done 10 minutes each side
1½-inch-thick sirloin, porterhouse, T-bone, or rib
rare 6 minutes each side
medium 8 minutes each side
well-done 12 minutes each side
For filet mignon, decrease the cooking time by 1
minute on each side. When grilling steak over hot
charcoals, have the grill 3 inches from the fire
and cook the meat 1 minute less on each side.
To Roast Veal (325° F) (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
Weight Minutes Internal
Cut in pounds per pound temp. (F)
--- --------- --------- ---------
Leg 5 to 8 25 to 30 170°
Loin 4 to 6 30 to 35 170°
Rib (rack) 3 to 5 35 to 40 170°
Rolled rump 3 to 5 40 to 45 170°
Rolled shoulder 4 to 6 40 to 45 170°
To Roast Lamb (325° F) (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
Weight Minutes Internal
Cut in pounds per pound temp. (F)
--- --------- --------- ---------
Leg 5 to 8 30 to 35 175°-180°
Shoulder 4 to 6 30 to 35 175°-180°
Cushion shoulder 3 to 5 30 to 35 175°-180°
Rib (rack) 4 to 5 30 to 35 175°-180°
Rolled shoulder 3 to 5 30 to 35 175°-180°
Crown roast 4 to 6 30 to 35 175°-180°
To Broil Lamb (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
Broil 1-inch chops or patties about 6 minutes on
each side, 1½-inch chops 9 minutes on each side,
and 2-inch chops 11 minutes on each side.
To Roast Pork (350° F) (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
Weight Minutes Internal
Cut in pounds per pound temp. (F)
--- --------- --------- ---------
Loin, center 3 to 5 40 185°
Loin, half 5 to 7 45 185°
Loin, rolled 3 to 5 50 185°
Sirloin 3 to 4 50 185°
Crown 4 to 6 45 185°
Picnic shoulder 5 to 8 40 185°
Rolled shoulder 3 to 5 45 185°
Fresh ham (leg)
whole 10 to 14 30 185°
half 5 to 7 40 185°
Spareribs 3 40 185°
To Broil Pork (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
Chops (3/4 to 1 inch thick), shoulder steaks
(1/2 to 3/4 inch thick), and patties (1 inch
thick) should be broiled about 11 minutes on each
side.
To Roast Ham and Other Cured Pork (325° F)(Cook Times)
Weight Minutes Internal
Cut in pounds per pound temp. (F)
--- --------- --------- ---------
Whole ham 10 to 14
uncooked 20 160°
fully cooked 10 130°
Half ham 5 to 7
uncooked 25 160°
fully cooked 15 130°
Picnic shoulder 5 to 8 30 170°
Rolled shoulder 2 to 4 40 170°
For all boneless meat, allow 1/3 to 1/2 pound per
serving; if meat contains bone, estimate 1/2 to
3/4 pound per serving.
To Roast Chicken (375° F) (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
Chickens weighing between 2 and 4 pounds can be
roasted for 30 minutes per pound. Add 15 minutes
to the total roasting time if the chicken is
stuffed. When the chicken is done, a meat
thermometer inserted in the thickest part of the
thigh will read 190° F; a thermometer inserted in
the stuffing will read 165° F. Estimate 1/2 pound
per serving.
To Roast Turkey (325° F) (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
Ready-to-cook Total number of
weight in pounds hours
---------------- ---------------
4 to 8 3 to 4
8 to 12 4 to 4½
12 to 16 4½ to 5
16 to 20 6 to 7½
20 to 24 7½ to 9
Turkey is done when a meat thermometer inserted in
the thickest part of the thigh reads 185° F, or
when a thermometer inserted in the stuffing reads
165° F. Plan on ½ pound per serving.
To Roast Duck or Goose (325° F) (Cooking Times)
Roast duck or goose about 30 minutes per pound.
Estimate 1 pound per serving.
To Cook Fish (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
Fish can be cooked at either a very high
temperature for a short time or a low temperature
for a longer period. Following are general
guidelines:
Baked: 10 minutes at 500° F
Broiled: 15 minutes
Deep-fried: 2 minutes at 370° F
Pan-fried: 10 minutes
Poached or steamed: 10 minutes per pound
Allow 3/4 to 1 pound of whole fish per serving,
1/2 pound per serving of dressed fish, fillets,
and steaks.
To Cook Shellfish (Cooking Times) (Homemaker)
There are many ways to cook shellfish. Here are
just a few.
Starting with boiling water, drop in seafood and
let it simmer as follows: shrimp, 5 minutes;
crab, 20 minutes; lobster, 20 to 40 minutes.
Clams can be steamed until their shells just
open.
Shrimp, scallops, clams, and oysters can be
deep-fried at 370° F for about 3 minutes.
Allow the following quantities per serving:
1 quart unshelled soft-shell clams
1 to 2 crabs
1 small lobster or 1 pound unshelled lobster
6 to 8 oysters
2/3 cup or 1/3 pound shelled scallops
1/4 pound unshelled shrimp
Cooking Times for Fresh Vegetables (Homemaker)
Amount per Cooking Time
Vegetable Serving (in minutes)*
--------- ---------- -------------
Artichoke 1 whole 30 to 40
Asparagus 5 to 7 stalks 10 to 15
Beans (green
and wax) 1/3 pound 5 to 10
Beans (lima) 3/4 pound 20 to 25
Beets 1/3 pound 35 to 45, whole
Broccoli 1/2 pound 10 to 15
Brussels Sprouts 1/3 pound 5 to 10
Cabbage 1/3 pound 5
Carrots 1/3 pound 10 to 15
Cauliflower 1/3 pound 20-25, whole;
10 to 15,
flowerets
Corn 1 to 2 ears 5
Eggplant 1/4 medium, sliced, 5 to 10
broiled or sautéed
Mushrooms 1/4 pound, caps 5
or sliced, sautéed
Onions 1/3 pound 20 to 30,whole
Peas 1/2 pound 5 to 10
Peppers (green) 1 medium, sliced, 3 to 5
sautéed
Potatoes 1 medium 20-25, sliced;
1-1/2 hours,
baked, 350° F
3 small new 20 to 25, whole
Potatoes (sweet)
or yams 1 medium, sliced 30 to 35
Spinach 1/2 pound 5
Squash (summer) 1/2 pound, sliced, 5 to 10
or zucchini boiled or sautéed
Tomatoes 1/2 pound, sliced 5-10 (without
water)
Turnips 1/3 pound, cubed 25 to 30
* Boiled or steamed unless otherwise noted.
Cooking Time for Fresh Fruit (Homemaker)
To cook any of the fruits below, prepare the fruit
according to the directions and add to the proper
amount of boiling water. Add sugar and cook for
the appropriate time.
How to Store Coffee (Homemaker)
Bean form:
room temperature 4 to 5 weeks
freeze 5 to 6 months
(grind amount needed only)
refrigerator avoid
Ground:
room temperature 7 to 10 days
freezer 5 to 6 weeks
refrigerator up to 3 weeks
Herbs and Spices (Homemaker)
Herbs can provide creative, flavorful alternatives
to salt for seasoning foods. Through the skillful
use of herbs and spices, you can create imaginative
flavors and turn simple foods into gourmet
delights.
Herbs and spices differ only in that herbs grow in
temperate areas while spices grow in tropical
regions. Many people like to grow their own herbs
in order to have a fresh supply throughout the
growing season. Professional cooks also prefer
fresh herbs. But fresh herbs are less concentrated,
and two to three times as much of them should be
used if a recipe calls for dried herbs.
Here are some tips for cooking with herbs and
spices.
In general, the weaker the flavor of the main
staple item, the lower the level of added seasoning
required to achieve a satisfactory balance of
flavor in the end product.
Dried herbs are stronger than fresh, and powdered
herbs are stronger than crumbled. A useful formula
is 1/4 teaspoon powdered herb = 3/4 to 1 teaspoon
crumbled = 2 teaspoons fresh.
Leaves should be finely chopped because the more
cut surface exposed, the more flavor will be
absorbed.
A mortar and pestle can be kept in the kitchen to
powder-dry herbs when necessary.
Scissors are often the best utensil for cutting
fresh herbs.
Be conservative with amounts until you are familiar
with the strength of an herb. The aromatic oils can
be too strong if a great deal is used.
The flavoring of herbs is lost by extended cooking.
Add herbs to soups or stews about 45 minutes before
completing the cooking. For cold foods such as
dips, cheeses, vegetables, and dressings, herbs
should be added several hours, or even overnight,
before using.
For casseroles and hot sauces, add finely chopped
fresh or dried herbs directly to the mixture.
To become familiar with the specific flavor of an
herb, try mixing it with butter and/or cream
cheese, letting it set for at least an hour, and
then spreading it on a plain cracker.
Dried herbs should be stored in plastic bags,
boxes, or tins rather than cardboard containers;
they should be out of direct sunlight and away from
the stove.
Herbal Salt Substitutes (Homemaker)
These can be placed in shakers and used instead of
salt.
Basic salt substitute Use 2 teaspoons garlic
powder and 1 teaspoon
each of basil, oregano,
and powdered lemon rind
(or dehydrated lemon
juice). Put ingredients
into a blender and mix
well. Store in a glass
container and add rice
to prevent caking.
Tangy salt substitute Mix well 3 teaspoons
basil, 2 teaspoons each
of savory (summer is
best), celery seed,
ground cumin seed, sage,
and marjoram, and 1
teaspoon lemon thyme.
Powder with a mortar and
pestle.
Spicy seasoning Mix in a blender 1
teaspoon each of cloves,
pepper, and coriander
seed (crushed), 2
teaspoons paprika, and
1 tablespoon rosemary.
Store in an airtight
container.
Selecting Herbs and Spices to Go with Foods
What Goes with What
Beef: bay leaf, chives, cloves, cumin,
garlic, hot pepper, marjoram,
rosemary, savory
Bread: allspice, caraway, cardamom, curry
powder, marjoram, oregano, poppy
seed, rosemary, thyme
Cakes: allspice, cardamom, ginger
Cheese: anise, basil, chervil, chives,
curry, dill, fennel, garlic,
chives, marjoram, oregano, parsley,
sage, thyme
Fish: sweet basil, chervil, dill, fennel,
French tarragon, garlic, parsley,
thyme
Fruit: anise, cinnamon, coriander, cloves,
ginger, lemon verbena, mint, rose
geranium, sweet cicely
Lamb: garlic, marjoram, oregano,
rosemary, thyme
Pork: coriander, cumin, garlic, ginger,
hot pepper, pepper sage, savory,
thyme
Poultry: garlic, oregano, rosemary, sage,
savory
Salads: anise, basil, chives, dill, French
tarragon, garlic chives, marjoram,
mint, oregano, parsley, savory,
sorrel, tarragon (many are best
used fresh or added to salad
dressing; otherwise, use herb
vinegars for extra flavor)
Sauces: allspice, basil, cardamom, chili
powder, chives, cumin, curry,
fennel, ginger, marjoram, oregano,
parsley, rosemary
Soups: bay, chervil, French tarragon,
marjoram, parsley, savory, rosemary
Stews: allspice, basil, cardamom, chili
powder, curry, dill, ginger,
parsley, sage
Vegetables: basil, chervil, chives, dill,
French tarragon, marjoram, mint,
parsley, pepper, thyme
Chemical Additives
The information on the following pages comes from
the Center for Science in the Public Interest and is
available from the organization as a color chart
entitled "Chemical Cuisine." The address is 1501
16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036.
Following each entry is a letter that corresponds to
one of the three categories below.
(A) Avoid. The additive is unsafe in the amounts
normally consumed or is poorly tested.
(C) Caution. The additive may be unsafe, is poorly
tested, or is used in foods that people tend to
eat too much of.
(S) Safe. The additive appears to be safe.
Definition of additive terms
Antioxidants
retard the oxidation of unsaturated fats and oils,
colorings, and flavorings. Oxidation leads to
rancidity, flavor changes, and loss of color. Most
of these effects are caused by the reaction of
oxygen in the air with fats.
Chelating agents
trap trace amounts of metal atoms that would
otherwise cause food to discolor or go rancid.
Emulsifiers
keep oil and water mixed together.
Flavor enhancers
contribute little or no flavor of their own, but
accentuate the natural flavor of foods. They are
most often used when very little of a natural
ingredient is present.
Thickening agents
are natural or chemically modified carbohydrates
that absorb some of the water that is present in
food, thereby making the food thicker. Thickening
agents "stabilize" factory-made foods by keeping
the complex mixtures of oils, water, acids, and
solids well mixed.
ALGINATE: PROPYLENE Alginate, an apparently safe
GLYCOL ALGINATE derivative of seaweed (kelp),
Thickening agent, maintains the desired texture
foam stabilizer in dairy products, canned
[Ice cream, cheese, frosting, and other factory-
candy, yogurt] made foods. Propylene glycol
alginate, a chemically modified
algin, thickens acidic foods
(soda pop, salad dressing) and
stabilizes the foam in beer.
(S)
ALPHA TOCOPHEROL Vitamin E is abundant in whole
(Vitamin E) wheat, rice germ, and vegetable
Antioxidant,nutrient oils. It is destroyed by the
[Vegetable oil] refining and bleaching of
flour. Vitamin E prevents oils
from turning rancid. (S)
ARTIFICIAL COLORINGS Most artificial colorings are
synthetic chemicals that do not
occur in nature. Though some
are safer than others,
colorings are not listed by
name on labels. Colorings are
used almost solely in foods of
low nutritional value (candy,
soda pop, gelatin desserts,
etc.). In addition to the
problems mentioned below, there
is evidence that colorings may
cause hyper-activity in some
sensitive children. The use of
coloring usually indicates that
fruit or other natural
ingredients have not been used.
BLUE NO. 1 This dye has been inadequately
[Beverages, candy, tested; there are suggestions
baked goods] of a small cancer risk. (A)
BLUE NO. 2 The largest, most recent study
[Pet food, beverages, suggested, but did not prove,
candy] that this dye causes brain
tumors in male mice. The Food
and Drug
CITRUS RED NO. 2 Studies indicate that this
[Skin of some Florida additive causes cancer. The dye
oranges only] does not seep through the
orange skin into the pulp. (A)
GREEN NO. 3 A 1981 industry-sponsored study
[Candy, beverages] gave hints of bladder cancer,
but the FDA reanalyzed the data
using other statistical tests
and concluded that the dye is
safe. This possibly carcino-
genic dye is rarely used. (A)
RED NO. 3 The evidence that this dye
[Cherries in fruit causes thyroid tumors in rats
cocktail, candy, is "convincing," according to a
baked goods] 1983 committee report requested
by the FDA. (A)
RED NO. 40 This is the most widely used
[Soft drinks, candy, food dye. While it is one of
gelatin desserts, the most tested food dyes, the
pastry, pet food, key tests with mice were flawed
sausage] and inconclusive. An FDA review
committee acknowledged problems
but said that evidence of harm
was not "consistent" or
"substantial." (C)
YELLOW NO. 5 This second most widely used
[Gelatin dessert, coloring causes allergic
candy, pet food, reactions, primarily in aspirin
baked goods] sensitive persons. This dye is
the only one that must be
labeled by name on food labels.
(C)
YELLOW NO. 6 Recent industry-sponsored
[Beverages, sausage, animal tests indicate that this
baked goods, candy, dye causes tumors of the
gelatin] adrenal gland and kidney. It
may also cause occasional
allergic reactions. This dye is
contaminated with cancer-
causing impurities. (A)
ARTIFICIAL FLAVORINGS Hundreds of chemicals are used
[Soft drinks, candy, to mimic natural flavors; many
breakfast cereals, may be used in a single
gelatin desserts, flavoring, as in cherry soda
other food items] pop. Most flavoring chemicals
also occur in nature and are
probably safe, but they may
cause hyperactivity in some
children. (A)
ASCORBIC ACID Ascorbic acid helps maintain
(VITAMIN C); the red color of cured meat and
ERYTHOBIC ACID prevents the formation of
Antioxidant, nitrosamines (see also SODIUM
nutrient, color NITRITE). It helps prevent loss
stabilizer of color and flavor by reacting
[Oily foods, cereals, with unwanted oxygen. It is used
soft drinks, cured used as a nutrient additive in
meats] drinks and breakfast cereals.
Sodium ascorbate is a more
soluble form of ascorbic acid.
Erythorbic acid (sodium
erythorbate) serves the same
functions as ascorbic acid but
has no value as a vitamin. (S)
ASPARTAME Aspartame, made up of two amino
Artificial sweetener acids, was thought to be the
[Drink mixes, perfect artificial sweetener,
gelatin desserts, but questions have arisen about
other foods] the quality of the cancer tests
done on it. In addition, some
individuals have reported
severe adverse behavioral
effects after drinking diet
soda. People with PKU
(phenylketonuria) should avoid
it. (C)
BETA CAROTENE Beta carotene is used as an
Coloring; nutrient artificial coloring and a
[Margarine, nutrient supplement. The body
shortening, non-dairy converts it to vitamin A.,
whiteners, butter] which is part of the light-
detection mechanism of the eye.
(S)
BROMINATED VEGETABLE BVO keeps flavor oils in
OIL (BVO) suspension and gives a cloudy
Emulsifier, clouding appearance to citrus-flavored
agent soft drinks. The residues of
[Soft drinks] BVO found in body fat are cause
for concern. Safer substitutes
are available. (A)
BUTYLATED HYDROXY- BHA retards rancidity in fats,
ANISOLE (BHA) oils, and oil-containing foods.
Antioxidant While most studies indicate it
[Cereals, chewing is safe, a 1982 Japanese study
gum, potato chips, demonstrated that it causes
oils, other edibles] cancer in rats. This synthetic
chemical often can be replaced
by safer chemicals. (A)
BUTYLATED HYDROXY- BHT retards rancidity in oils.
TOLUENE (BHT) It both increased and decreased
Antioxidant the risk of cancer in various
[Cereals, chewing animal studies. Residues of BHT
gum, potato chips, occur in human fat. BHT is
oils,other edibles] oils, unnecessary or is easily
replaced by safe substitutes.
(A)
CAFFEINE Caffeine may cause miscarriages
Stimulant or birth defects and should be
[Coffee, tea, cocoa avoided by pregnant women. It
(natural), soft also keeps many people from
drinks (additive)] sleeping. New evidence
indicates that caffeine may
cause fibrocystic breast
disease in some women. (A)
CALCIUM (OR SODIUM) Calcium propionate prevents
PROPIONATE mold growth on bread and rolls.
Preservative The calcium is a beneficial
[Bread, rolls, mineral; the propionate is
pies, cakes] safe. Sodium propionate is used
in pies and cakes, because
calcium alters action of
chemical leavening agents. (S)
CALCIUM (OR SODIUM) This additive strengthens bread
STEAROYL LACTYLATE dough so it can be used in
Dough conditioner, bread-making machinery for more
whipping agent uniform grain and greater
[Bread dough, cake volume. It acts as a whipping
fillings, artificial agent in dried, liquid, or
whipped cream, frozen egg whites and
processed egg whites] artificial whipped cream.
Sodium stearoyl fumarate serves
the same purpose. (S)
CARRAGEENAN Carrageenan is obtained from
Thickening and seaweed. Large amounts of
stabilizing agent carrageenan have harmed test
[Ice cream, jelly, animals' colons; the small
chocolate milk, amounts in food are probably
infant formula] safe. Better tests are needed.
(C)
CASEIN; SODIUM Casein, the principal protein
CASEINATE in milk, is a nutritious
Thickening and protein that contains adequate
whitening agent amounts of all the essential
[Ice cream, ice amino acids. (S)
milk, sherbet,
coffee creamers]
CITRIC ACID; Citric acid is versatile,
SODIUM CITRATE widely used, cheap, and safe.
Acid flavoring, It is an important metabolite
chelating agent in virtually all living
[Ice cream, sherbet, organisms and is especially
fruit drinks, candy, abundant in citrus fruits and
carbonated beverages, berries. It is used as a strong
instant potatoes] acid, a tart flavoring, and an
antioxidant. Sodium citrate,
also safe, is a buffer that
controls the acidity of gelatin
desserts, jam, ice cream,
candy, and other foods. (S)
CORN SYRUP Corn syrup is a sweet, thick
Sweetener, thickener liquid made by treating corn-
[Candy, toppings, starch with acids or enzymes.
syrups, snack foods, It may be dried and used as
imitation dairy foods] corn syrup solids in coffee
whiteners and other dry
products. Corn syrup contains
no nutritional value other than
calories, promotes tooth decay,
and is used mainly in low-
nutrition foods. (C)
DEXTROSE (GLUCOSE, Dextrose is an important
CORN SUGAR) chemical in every living
Sweetener, organism. A sugar, it is a
coloring agent source of sweetness in fruits
[Bread, caramel, and honey. Added to foods as a
soda pop, cookies, sweetener, it represents empty
other foods] calories and contributes to
tooth decay. Dextrose turns
brown when heated and
contributes to the color of
bread crust and toast. (C)
DIGLYCERIDES See MONOGLYCERIDES AND
DIGLYCERIDES.
ETHYLENEDIAMINE Modern food-manufacturing
TETRAACETIC ACID (EDTA) technology, which involves
Chelating agent metal rollers, blenders, and
[Salad dressing, containers, results in trace
margarine, sandwich amounts of metal contamination
spreads, mayonnaise, in food. EDTA traps metal
processed fruits and impurities, which would
vegetables, canned otherwise promote rancidity and
shellfish, soft drinks] the breakdown of artificial
colors. (S)
FERROUS GLUCONATE Used by the olive industry to
Coloring, nutrient generate a uniform jet-black
[Black olives, color and in pills as a source
vitamin pills] of iron, this substance is
safe. (S)
FUMARIC ACID A solid at room temperature,
Tartness agent inexpensive, and highly acidic,
[Powdered drinks, fumaric acid is the ideal
pudding, pie fillings, source of tartness and acidity
gelatin desserts] in dry food products. However,
it dissolves slowly in cold
water, a drawback cured by
adding dioctyl sodium sulfo-
succinate (DSS), a poorly
tested, detergent-like
additive. (S)
GELATIN Gelatin is a protein obtained
Thickening and from animal bones, hooves, and
gelling agent other parts. It has little
[Powdered dessert nutritional value, because it
mix, yogurt, ice contains little or none of
cream, cheese several essential amino acids.
spreads, beverages] (S)
GLYCERIN (GLYCEROL) Glycerin forms the backbone of
Maintainer of fat and oil molecules and is
water content quite safe. The body uses it as
[Marshmallows, candy, a source of energy or as a
fudge, baked goods] starting material in making
more complex molecules. (S)
GUMS (ARABIC, Gums derive from natural
FURCELLERAN, GHATTI, sources (bushes, trees, or
GUAR,KARAYA, LOCUST, seaweed) and are poorly tested.
BEAN, TRAGACANTH) They are used to thicken foods,
[Beverages, ice cream, prevent sugar crystals from
frozen puddings, forming in candy, stabilize
salad dressings, beer foam (arabic), form gel in
dough, cottage pudding (furcelleran),
cheese, candy, encapsulate flavor oils in
mixes] powdered drink mixes, and keep
oil and water mixed in salad
dressings. Tragacanth sometimes
causes severe allergic
reactions. (C)
HEPTYL PARABEN Heptyl paraben - short for the
Preservative heptyl ester of parahydroxy-
[Beer, noncarbonated parahydroxybenzoic acid - is a
soft drinks] preservative. Studies suggest
that this chemical is safe,
but, like other additives in
alchoholic beverages, it has
never been tested in the
presence of alcohol. (C)
HYDROGENATED Vegetable oil, usually a
VEGETABLE OIL liquid, can be made into a
Source of oil or fat semisolid by treating it with
[Margarine, hydrogen. Unfortunately,
processed foods] hydrogenation converts some of
the polyunsaturated oil to
saturated fat. High-fat diets
promote obesity, heart disease,
and possible cancer.(C)
HYDROLYZED HVP consists of vegetable
VEGETABLE PROTEIN (HVP) (usually soybean) protein that
Flavor enhancer has been chemically broken down
[Instant soups, into the amino acids of which
frankfurters, sauce it is composed. HVP is used to
mixes, beef stew] bring out the natural flavor of
food. (S)
INVERT SUGAR Invert sugar, an even mixture
Sweetener of dextrose and fructose, two
[Candy, soft drinks, sugars, is sweeter and more
many other foods] soluble than sucrose (table
sugar). Invert sugar forms when
sucrose is split in two by an
enzyme or acid. It contributes
to tooth decay. (C)
LACTIC ACID This safe acid occurs in almost
Acidity regulator all living organisms. It
[Spanish olives, inhibits spoilage in Spanish-
cheese, type olives, balances the
frozen desserts, acidity in cheese-making, and
carbonated beverages] adds tartness to frozen
desserts, carbonated fruit-
flavored drinks, and other
goods. (S)
LACTOSE Lactose is a carbohydrate found
Sweetener only in milk. One-sixth as
[Whipped topping mix, sweet as table sugar, it is
breakfast pastry] added to food as a slightly
sweet source of carbohydrate.
Milk turns sour when bacteria
convert lactose to lactic acid.
Many non-Caucasians have
trouble digesting lactose. (S)
LECITHIN A common constituent of animal
Emulsifier, and plant tissues, lecithin is
antioxidant a source of the nutrient
[Baked goods, choline. It keeps soil and
margarine, chocolate, water from separating, retards
ice cream] rancidity, reduces spattering
in a frying pan, and leads to
fluffier cakes. Major sources
are egg yokes and soybeans. (S)
MANNITOL Not quite as sweet as sugar and
Sweetener, poorly absorbed in the body,
antiabsorbent mannitol contributes only half
[Chewing gum, as many calories as sugar. Used
low-calorie foods] as the "dust" on chewing gum,
it prevents gum from absorbing
moisture and becoming sticky.
(S)
MONOGLYCERIDES and These substances make bread
DIGLYCERIDES softer, improve the stability
Emulsifiers of margarine, and make caramel
[Baked goods, less sticky. They prevent
margarine, candy, staleness and keep the oil in
peanut butter] peanut butter from separating.
Monoglycerides and diglycerides
are safe, though most foods
they are used in are high in
refined flour, sugar, or fat.
(S)
MONOSODIUM GLUTAMATE This amino acid brings out the
(MSG) flavor of protein-containing
Flavor enhancer foods. Large amounts of MSG fed
[Soup, seafood, to infant mice destroyed nerve
poultry, cheese, cells in the brain. Public
sauces, stews, pressure forced baby food
other foods] companies to stop using MSG.
MSG causes "Chinese restaurant
syndrome," a burning sensation
in the back of the neck and
forearms, tightness of the
chest, and headache, in some
people. (C)
PHOSPHORIC ACID; Phosphoric acid acidifies and
PHOSPHATES flavors cola beverages.
Acidulant, chelating Phosphate salts are used in
agent, buffer, hundreds of processed foods for
emulsifier, nutrient, many purposes. Calcium and iron
discoloration phosphates act as mineral
inhibitor supplements. Sodium aluminum
[Baked goods, cheese, phosphate is a leavening agent.
powdered foods, cured Calcium and ammonium phosphates
meats, soft drinks, serve as food for yeast in
breakfast cereals, bread. Sodium and pyro
dehydrated potatoes] phosphate prevents
discoloration in potatoes and
sugar syrups. Phosphates are
not toxic, but their widespread
use has led to dietary
imbalances that may be
contributed to osteoporosis.
(C)
POLYSORBATE 60 Polysorbate 60 is short for
Emulsifier polyoxyethylene-(20)-sorbitan
[Baked goods, frozen monostearate. Along with its
desserts, imitation close relatives, polysorbate 65
dairy products] and 80, it works the same way
that monoglycerides and
diglycerides do, but smaller
amounts are needed. They keep
baked goods from going stale,
keep dill oil dissolved in
bottled dill pickles, help
coffee whiteners dissolve in
coffee, and prevent oil from
separating out of artificial
whipped cream. (S)
PROPYL GALLATE This substance retards the
Antioxidant spoilage of fats and oils and
[Vegetable oils, meat is often used with BHA and BHT
products, potato because of the synergistic
sticks, chicken soup effect these additives have.
base, chewing gum] The best long-term feeding
study on this additive, in
1981, was peppered with
suggestions but not proof of
cancer. (A)
QUININE This drug can cure malaria and
Flavoring is used as a bitter flavoring
[Tonic water, quinine in a few soft drinks. There is
water, bitter lemon] a slight chance that quinine
may cause birth defects, so
pregnant women should avoid
quinine-containing beverages
and drugs. Quinine has been
very poorly tested. (C)
SACCHARIN Saccharin is 350 times sweeter
Synthetic sweetener than sugar. Studies have not
[Diet products] shown that saccharin helps
people lose weight. In 1977 the
FDA proposed that saccharin be
banned because of repeated
evidence that it causes cancer.
It is gradually being replaced
by aspartame. (A)
SALT (SODIUM CHLORIDE) Salt is used liberally in many
Flavoring processed foods. Other addi-
[Most processed foods] tives contribute additional
sodium. A diet high in sodium
may cause high blood pressure,
which increases the risk of
heart attack and stroke. (C)
SODIUM BENZOATE Manufacturers have used sodium
Preservative benzoate for over 70 years to
[Fruit juices, prevent the growth of
carbonated drinks, microorganisms in acidic foods.
pickles, preserves] (S)
SODIUM CARBOXY- CMC is made by reacting
METHYLCELLULOSE (CMC) cellulose with a derivative of
Thickening and acetic acid. Studies indicate
stabilizing agent that it is safe. (S)
[Ice cream, beer, pie
fillings, icings, diet
foods, candy]
SODIUM NITRITE; Nitrite can lead to the
SODIUM NITRATE formation of small amounts of
Preservative, potent cancer-causing chemicals
coloring, flavoring (nitrosamines), particularly in
[Bacon, ham, fried bacon. Nitrite is
frankfurters, luncheon tolerated in foods because it
meats, smoked fish, can prevent the growth of
corned beef] bacteria that cause botulism
poisoning. Nitrite also
stabilizes the red color in
cured meats and gives a
characteristic flavor.
Companies should find safer
methods of preventing botulism.
Sodium nitrate is used in dry-
cured meats because it slowly
breaks down into nitrite. (A)
SORBIC ACID; These additives occur naturally
POTASSIUM SORBATE in many plants and are safe
Prevents growth under normal circumstances. (S)
of mold
[Cheese, syrup,
jelly, cakes, wines,
dry fruits]
SORBITAN MONOSTEARATE Like monoglycerides,
Emulsifier diglycerides, and polysorbates,
[Cakes, candy, frozen this additive keeps oil and
puddings, icings] water mixed. In chocolate
candy, it prevents the
discoloration that normally
occurs when the candy is warmed
up and then cooled down. (S)
SORBITOL Sorbitol occurs naturally in
Sweetener, thickening fruits and berries and is a
agent, maintainer of close relative of the sugars;
moisture however, it is half as sweet as
[Dietetic drinks and sugar. It is used in
foods, candy, shredded noncariogenic chewing gum
coconut, chewing gum] because oral bacteria do not
metabolize it well. Large
amounts of sorbitol (2 ounces
for adults) have a laxative
effect, but otherwise it is
safe. Diabetics use sorbitol
because it is absorbed slowly
and does not cause blood sugar
to increase rapidly. (S)
STARCH; Starch, the major component of
MODIFIED STARCH flour, potatoes, and corn, is
Thickening agent used as a thickening agent.
[Soups, gravies, However, it does not dissolve
baby foods] in cold water. Chemists have
solved this problem by reacting
starch with various chemicals.
These modified starches are
added to some foods to improve
their consistencies and to keep
the solids suspended. Starch
and modified starches make
foods look thicker and richer
than they really are. (S)
SUGAR (SUCROSE) Sucrose, ordinary table sugar,
Sweetener occurs naturally in fruit,
[Table sugar, sugar cane, and sugar beets.
sweetened foods] Americans consume about 65
pounds of refined sugar per
year. Sugar, corn syrup, and
other refined sweeteners make
up about one-eighth of the
average diet, but they contain
no vitamins, minerals, or
protein. (C)
SULFUR DIOXIDE; Sulfiting agents prevent
SODIUM BISULFITE discoloration (in dried fruits,
Preservative, bleach some "fresh" shrimp, and some
[Dried fruits, wines, dried, fried, and frozen
processed potatoes] potatoes) and bacterial growth
(in wines). They also destroy
vitamin B1 and can cause severe
reactions in asthmatics. This
additive has caused at least
seven deaths. (A)
VANILLIN; Vanilla flavoring is derived
ETHYL VANILLIN from a bean, but vanillin, the
Substitute for vanilla major flavor component of
[Ice cream, baked vanilla, is cheaper to produce
goods, beverages, in a factory. A derivative,
chocolate, candy, ethyl vanillin, comes closer to
gelatin desserts] matching the taste of real
vanilla. Both chemicals are
safe. (S)
Outlawed Additives (Homemaker)
Name Year Outlawed Use
Cobalt sulfate 1966 Beer foam stabilizer
Cyclamate 1970 Artificial sweetener
Dulcin 1950 Artificial sweetener
Green No. 1 1966 Coloring agent
Orange B 1978 Coloring agent
Red No. 2 1976 Coloring agent
Safrole 1960 Root beer flavoring
Violet No. 1 1973 Coloring agent
Alcoholic Drink Recipes
Except where otherwise indicated, shake means to
shake with cracked ice and then strain into a
glass; stir means to stir over ice in the glass;
and straight up means served without ice.
Alexander (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1 oz. brandy, 1 oz. creme de cacao, and 1 oz.
cream.
Bacardi Cocktail (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1 1/2 oz. Bacardi rum, the juice of 1/2
lime, and 1/2 teaspoon grenadine.
B & B (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Stir 1/2 oz. benedictine and 1/2 oz. brandy (or
cognac); B & B may also be served straight up.
Black Russian (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Stir 1 1/2 oz. vodka and 3/4 oz. Kahlua
Black Velvet (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Pour equal parts Guinness stout and champagne
over ice in a tall glass.
Bloody Mary (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake or stir 1 1/2 oz. vodka, 3 oz. tomato juice,
the juice of 1/2 lemon, a dash each of
Worcestershire and Tabasco sauce, and a pinch
each of salt, pepper, and celery salt.
Bronx Cocktail (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1 oz. gin, 1/2 oz. dry vermouth, 1/2 oz.
sweet vermouth, and 1/2 oz. orange juice.
Bullshot (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Substitute consomme for tomato juice and follow the
directions for Bloody Mary.
Champagne Cocktail (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Mix 1 lump sugar, 2 dashes angostura bitters, and
1 oz. brandy; top with chilled champagne.
Cuba Libre (Rum and Coke) (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Over ice in a tall glass, pour 1 oz. light rum and
the juice of 1/2 lime; top with cola.
Daiquiri (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1 1/2 oz. light rum, the juice of 1 lime, and
1 teaspoon powdered sugar (often served with the
addition of crushed fruit or fruit juice as
strawberry daiquiri, peach daiquiri, etc.; blended
with crushed ice, it becomes a frozen daiquiri).
Gibson (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
A martini with the addition of a pearl onion
instead of the traditional olive.
Gimlet (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1 oz. gin and 1 oz. Rose's lime juice or the
juice of 1 lime.
Gin and Tonic (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Pour 2 oz. gin over ice in a tall glass; top with
tonic water.
Gin Fizz (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 2 oz. gin, the juice of 1/2 lemon, and 1
teaspoon powdered sugar; top with soda water in a
tall glass.
Grasshopper (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1/2 oz. creme de menthe, 1/2 oz. white
creme de cacao, and 1/2 oz. cream.
Harvey Wallbanger (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Add 1 oz. Galliano to a Screwdriver.
Jack Rose (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1 1/2 oz. apple brandy, the juice of 1/2
lime, and 1 teaspoon grenadine.
Kir (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
To a glass of chilled white wine, add 1 teaspoon
creme de cassis.
Mai Tai (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 2 oz. rum, 1 oz. curacao, the juice of 1/2
lime, 1/2 oz. grenadine, 1/2 oz. almond-flavored
syrup, and 1/2 teaspoon powdered sugar; serve over
crushed ice.
Manhattan (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Stir with cracked ice 1 1/2 oz. whiskey, 3/4 oz.
sweet vermouth, and a dash of angostura bitters;
serve over ice or straight up with a maraschino
cherry.
Margarita (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1 1/2 oz. tequila, 1/2 oz. Cointreau or
triple sec, and the juice of 1/2 lime; serve in a
chilled, salt-rimmed glass.
Martini (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Stir gin and dry vermouth; strain into a chilled
glass. The original ratio of gin to vermouth was
2:1, but contemporary tastes tend toward "drier"
ratios of 3:1, 5:1, and even 7:1. Serve straight
up with an olive or, less traditionally, over ice
or with a lemon twist. Made with a pearl onion, it
is called a Gibson; with vodka, a vodka martini or
Vodkatini.
Mint Julep (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Mix in a tall glass 1 lump sugar, 1 tablespoon
water, and 4 sprigs of mint; fill the glass with
crushed ice; add 2 oz. bourbon, and serve with
straws, without stirring.
Old-Fashioned (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Mix in a short glass 1/2 lump sugar, 2 dashes
angostura bitters, and 1 dash water; stir in ice
cubes and 2 oz. whiskey.
Orange Blossom (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1 oz. gin and 1 oz. orange juice.
Pimm's Cup (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Over ice in a tall glass, pour 1 oz. Pimm's No. 1
Cup top with lemonade, 7-Up or ginger ale.
Pina Colada (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Over crushed ice in a tall glass, pour 1/2 oz.
light rum, 1/2 oz. dark rum, 1 oz. each of orange,
lime, and pineapple juice, and 1 dash of grenadine;
top with coconut milk.
Pink Gin (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Add 1 dash angostura bitters to 2 oz. gin. Pink Gin
may be served straight up or with water or soda and
ice.
Planter's Punch (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Over crushed ice in a tall glass, pour 2 oz. soda
water, the juice of 2 limes, and 2 teaspoons
powdered sugar; stir to frost glass; add 2 dashes
angostura bitters and 2 oz. rum.
Rickey (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Over cracked ice, pour 2 oz. gin and the juice of
1/2 lime; top with soda water. This traditional gin
rickey is often modified by substituting other
spirits: hence, Scotch rickey, Irish rickey, etc.
Rob Roy (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Using Scotch whiskey, follow the directions for a
Manhattan.
Rusty Nail (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Stir 2 oz. Scotch whiskey with 1 oz. Drambuie.
Salty Dog (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Stir 2 oz. gin, 2 oz. grapefruit juice, and 1/4
teaspoon salt.
Sangre (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
A Bloody Mary made with tequila instead of vodka.
Screwdriver (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Over ice in a tall glass, pour 2 oz. vodka; top
with orange juice.
7 & 7 (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Over ice, pour 1 1/2 oz. Seagram's whiskey; top
with 7-Up.
Sidecar (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1 oz. brandy, 1/2 oz. Cointreau or Triple
Sec, and the juice of 1/2 lemon.
Singapore Sling (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 2 oz. gin, 1/2 oz. cherry brandy, the juice
of 1/2 lemon, and 1 teaspoon powdered sugar; pour
over ice cubes in a tall glass and top with soda
water.
Stinger (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake or stir 1 oz. brandy and 1 oz. white creme
de menthe.
Tequila Sunrise (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake or stir in a tall glass 1 1/2 oz. tequila and
3 oz. orange juice; add 1 oz. grenadine; do not
stir.
Toddy (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Dissolve 1 lump sugar in a little water in a short
glass; add 2 oz. spirits (brandy, gin, rum, or
whiskey) and top with water (with boiling water,
the drink is a hot toddy).
Tom Collins (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 2 oz. gin, the juice of 1/2 lemon, and 1
teaspoon powdered sugar; pour over ice cubes in a
tall glass and top with soda water (made with vodka
in place of gin, this is a Vodka Collins).
Whiskey Sour (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 2 oz. whiskey, the juice of 1 lemon, and 1/2
teaspoon powdered sugar.
White Lady (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Shake 1 1/2 oz. gin, 1 teaspoon powdered sugar, 1
teaspoon cream, and 1 egg white.
Zombie (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Blend with cracked ice 3 oz. rum, 1/2 oz. apricot
brandy, 1 oz. pineapple juice, the juice of 1 lime
and 1 orange, and 1 teaspoon powdered sugar. Strain
into a tall frosted glass; float 1/2 oz. rum (151
proof) on top before serving with straws.
Mixing Drinks (Alcoholic Drink Recipes)
Always be sure of your ingredients and measure them
accurately. A jigger is 1 1/2 ounces, a pony 3/4
ounce, a bar spoon 1/2 teaspoon, and a dash 7 to
10 drops.
Ice should always be the first ingredient that goes
into the glass. Use new ice for every drink and do
not let drinks stand too long before serving. The
best bartenders chill cocktail glasses in the
refrigerator before serving.
Drinks containing fruit juices, eggs, or other
dissimilar ingredients should always be shaken fast
and vigorously. The ingredients will mix more
readily and completely in a shaker or an electric
blender. Never shake drinks mixed with carbonated
water or ginger ale. Stir them smoothly and not too
vigorously for about half a minute. This will keep
the drink sparkling and prevent a flat taste. It
also will chill the drink properly and thoroughly.
When a drink calls for fruit juice, use fresh juice
if possible. The juice is put into the mixing glass
with the proper amount of sugar or other sweetener
before the liquor.
Fine granulated sugar can be used for sweetening
in most cases. Many people prefer simple syrup,
which can easily be made by dissolving 1/2 pound
of fine granulated sugar in 3/4 cup of boiling
water. One teaspoon of simple syrup is equivalent
to one of sugar.
For drinks requiring a twist of lemon, orange, or
lime, use a piece of peel about 1 1/2 inches long
and 1/4 inch wide. Twist this over the drink to
extract a bit of oil, and then drop in the peel.
Liquor needed for Drinks Served (Drink Recipes)
Liquor is commonly sold in fifths. One fifth is
equivalent to 25 ounces. Liquor is also available in
liter measures. One liter holds 33.9 ounces.
Number of Number of Drinks
People (for cocktails) Amount Needed
--------- ---------------- -------------
4 10 to 16 1 fifth
6 15 to 22 2 fifths
8 18 to 24 2 fifths
12 20 to 40 3 fifths
20 40 to 65 4 fifths
(for buffet or
dinner)
--------------
4 8 cocktails 1 fifth
8 glasses of wine 2 one-liter bottles
4 liqueurs 1 fifth
10 highballs 1 fifth
6 12 cocktails 1 fifth
12 glasses of wine 3 one-liter bottles
8 liqueurs 1 fifth
16 highballs 2 fifths
8 16 cocktails 1 fifth
16 glasses of wine 3 one-liter bottles
16 liqueurs 1 fifth
18 highballs 2 fifths
20 40 cocktails 3 fifths
40 glasses of wine 7 one-liter bottles
25 liqueurs 2 fifths
50 highballs 4 fifths
(for after-dinner
party)
-----------------
4 12 to 16 1 fifth
6 18 to 26 2 fifths
8 20 to 34 2 fifths
12 25 to 45 3 fifths
20 45 to 75 5 fifths
Wines and Their Service
Red table wines should be served cool or at room
temperature. Room temperature means about 65 to
68 deg.F, so some cooling may be necessary. Red
wines go well with all foods with the possible
exception of fish and seafood. White table wines,
rose wines, and all sparkling wines, both red and
white, should be served well chilled. Dry wines
should not be served with sweet dishes.
So that corks stay moist and tight, store wines on
their side. If the cork is removed an hour or two
before serving, red wines will expand a bit and
give off a delightful scent. Smell the cork to see
if it is sour-smelling; if so, the wine has started
to turn to vinegar and should not be served; it
can, however, be kept for cooking.
Many good wines will contain a small amount of
sediment. This is harmless and will settle on the
bottom of the bottle if it is stood upright for
about two hours before serving. When serving
champagne, hold the bottle at a slight angle for
a few seconds after the cork is removed. This will
reduce the amount of frothing and will maintain a
maximum amount of sparkle.
Wineglasses should be placed to the right of the
water goblet; they are arranged according to their
use, the first wineglass being closest to the water
goblet. If more than one wine is served, the
glasses used first are removed when the course is
through.
The person serving should fill his or her own glass
one-quarter full and then taste the wine to check
the quality and flavor. Then the other glasses
should be filled half to three-quarters full, but
never to the very top. Wine is poured as soon as
a course is served. The person pouring should not
lift the glasses from the table.
When more than one wine is served, remember that
light wine comes before heavy or full wine, dry
white wine precedes sweet red wine, and dry red
wine is served before white sweet wine. The
"correct" wine is always the one you like best;
however, certain wines complement certain foods.
The following wine and food list is a guide to what
people generally like. One's own taste should be
the final judge.
Canapes, crackers, olives, cheese dips, other hors
d'oeuvres:
sherry, vermouth, or champagne.
Soups:
sherry or Madeira.
Seafood:
Chablis, Rhine wine, Moselle, dry sauterne, white
Burgundy.
Fowl:
Rhine wine, dry sauterne, champagne, Bordeaux,
white or red Burgundy (with game).
Meats:
claret, red Burgundy, rose (with cold cuts).
Cheese or nuts:
port, sherry, red Burgundy, muscatel, zinfandel,
Barbera.
Desserts:
sweet sauterne, champagne, port, muscatel, Tokay.
After dinner:
brandy, Cointreau, benedictine, creme de menthe.
Clothing Size Conversion Tables
Women
Blouses and Sweaters
--------------------
U.S. 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
British 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
Continental 40 42 44 46 48 50 52
Coats and Dresses
-----------------
U.S. 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
British 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
Continental 36 38 40 42 44 46 48
Shoes
-----
U.S. 5-5.5 6-6.5 7-7.5 8-8.5 9
British 3.5-4 4.5-5 5.5-6 6.5-7 7.5
Continental 36 37 38 39 40
Stockings
---------
U.S. & British 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
Continental 0 1 2 3 4 5
Men
Hats
----
U.S. 6 5/8 6 3/4 6 7/8 7
British 6 1/2 6 5/8 6 3/4 6 7/8
Continental 53 54 55 56
U.S. 7 1/8 7 1/4 7 5/8 7 1/2
British 7 7 1/8 7 1/4 7 3/8
Continental 57 58 59 60
Shirts
------
U.S. & British 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 17
Continental 36 37 38 39 41 42 43
Shoes
-----
U.S. 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11
Brit. 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
Cont. 39 40 41 42 43 43 44 44 45
Socks
-----
U.S. & British 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5
Continental 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Suits and Coats
----------------
U.S. & British 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
Continental 44 46 48 50 52 54 56
Additional Sources of Information (Homemaker)
Organizations and Services
Energy Conservation Center
Public Service Electric and Gas Company
P.O. Box 1258
Newark, NJ 07101
800-854-4444
Specialists can provide information on specific
energy needs such as weatherization, appliance
efficiency and rebates, and home energy audit
publications. The center receives calls weekdays
between 9 A.M. and 5 P.M., EST.
Genova Plumbers Hotline
7034 East Court Street
Davison, MI
800-521-7488
800-572-5398 (in Michigan)
The staff can suggest solutions to plumbing
problems involving gutters and plastic fittings as
well as more technical problems. The hotline
operates weekdays between 8 A.M. and 5 P.M., EST.
Major Appliance Consumer Action Panel (MACAP)
20 North Wacker Drive
Chicago, IL 60606
800-621-0477
312-984-5858 (in Illinois, Alaska, and Hawaii)
MACAP answers questions about problems with major
appliances. It is open weekdays from 8:30 A.M. to
5 P.M., CST.
Shopsmith, Inc.
6640 Poe Avenue
Dayton, OH 45414
800-543-7586
Shopsmith will answer questions related to
woodworking. If they cannot answer your question,
they will research the information and call back.
Call weekdays between 9 A.M. and 6 P.M. and
Saturdays between 9 A.M. and 1 P.M., EST.
Soap and Detergent Association
475 Park Avenue South
New York, NY 10016
212-725-1262
This association will answer questions on all
aspects of soaps and detergents. They also have
free publications. Call Monday through Friday from
9 A.M. to 4:45 P.M., EST.
Books
Alth, Max. The Do-It-Yourself Encyclopedia of
Materials. Crown, 1982.
Brody, Jane. Jane Brody's Good Food Book. Bantam,
1987.
Canning, Freezing and Drying. Lane, 1981.
Claiborne, Craig. The (Original) New York Times
Cookbook. Harper & Row, 1961.
Cunningham, Marion, ed. Fannie Farmer Cookbook.
Knopf, 1979.
Heinerman, John. The Complete Book of Spices.
Keats, 1983.
Lichine, Alexis. Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia
of Wines & Spirits, 5th ed. Knopf, 1987.
McGowan, John, and DuBern, Roger. Good Housekeeping
Book of Home Maintenance. Hearst, 1985.
Mr. Boston Official Bartender's Guide. Warner,
1987.
Netzer, Corinne T. The Brand-Name Calorie Counter.
Dell, 1986.
Pinkham, Mary Ellen. Mary Ellen's Best of Helpful
Kitchen Hints. Warner, 1980.
Reader's Digest Complete Do-it-Yourself Manual.
Reader's Digest, 1987.
Reader's Digest How to Do Just About Anything: A
Money-Saving A to Z Guide to Over 1200 Practical
Problems. Reader's Digest, 1986.
Rombauer, Irma S., and Becker, Marion R. Joy of
Cooking. Bobbs-Merrill, 1978.
Root, Waverley. Food: An Authoritative Visual
History and Dictionary of the Foods of the World.
Simon & Schuster, 1980.
Root, Waverley, ed. Herbs and Spices: A Guide to
Culinary Seasoning. McGraw-Hill, 1985.
Simon, Andre L. A Concise Encyclopedia of
Gastronomy. Overlook, 1983.
Time/Life Complete Home Repair Manual.
Prentice-Hall, 1987.
The Outdoors
Poisonous Cultivated and Wild Plants (Outdoors)
The following chart lists 50 poisonous plants. It tells
which portions, or areas of the plant are toxic,
describes symptoms of the illnesses they cause, and
indicates which plants are or may be fatal.
Toxic Symptoms of Illness; Degree of
Plants Portions Toxicity
------ -------- ------------------------------
Autumn crocus
Bulbs
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea; may
be fatal.
Azalea
All parts
Nausea, vomiting, depression,
breathing difficulty,
prostration, coma; fatal.
Belladonna
Young plants, seeds
Nausea, twitching muscles,
paralysis; fatal.
Bittersweet
Leaves, seeds, roots
Vomiting, diarrhea, chills,
convulsions, coma.
Bleeding heart (Dutchman's breeches)
Foliage, roots
Nervous symptoms, convulsions.
Buttercups
All parts
Digestive system injury.
Caladium
All parts
Intense burning and irritation of
the tongue and mouth; can be
fatal if the base of the tongue
swells, blocking air passage of
the throat.
Castorbean
Seeds, foliage
Burning in mouth, convulsions;
fatal.
Cherry
Twigs, foliage
Burning in mouth, convulsions;
fatal.
Daffodil
Bulbs
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea; may
be fatal.
Daphne
Berries (red or yellow)
Severe burns to mouth and
digestive tract followed by coma;
fatal.
Delphinium
Young plants, seeds
Nausea, twitching muscles,
paralysis; fatal.
Dumbcane
All parts
Intense burning and irritation of
the tongue and mouth; fatal if
the base of the tongue swells,
blocking air passage of the
throat.
English holly
Berries
Severe gastroenteritis.
English ivy
Leaves, berries
Stomach pains, labored breathing,
possible coma.
Foxglove
Leaves, seeds, flowers
Irregular heartbeat and pulse,
usually accompanied by digestive
upset and mental confusion; may be
fatal.
Goldenchain
All parts, especially seeds
Excitement, staggering
convulsions, coma; may be fatal.
Horse chestnut
All parts
Nausea, twitching muscles,
sometimes paralysis.
Hyacinth
Bulbs
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea; may be
fatal.
Hydrangea
Buds, leaves, branches
Severe digestive upset, gasping,
convulsions; may be fatal.
Iris
Freshly underground portions
Severe but not usually serious
digestive upset.
Jack-in-the-pulpit
All parts, especially roots
Intense irritation and burning of
the tongue and mouth.
Jimson weed (thorn apple; datura)
All parts
Abnormal thirst, distortion of
vision, delirium, incoherence,
coma; may be fatal.
Larkspur
Young plants, seeds
Nausea, twitching muscles,
paralysis; fatal.
Laurel
All parts
Nausea, vomiting, depression,
breathing difficulty,
prostration, coma; fatal.
Lily of the valley
Leaves, flowers
Irregular heartbeat and pulse
usually accompanied by digestive
upset and mental confusion; may
be fatal.
Mayapple
Unripe apples, leaves and roots
Diarrhea, severe digestive upset
Mistletoe
All parts, especially berries
Fatal.
Monkshood
All parts, especially roots
Digestive upset and nervous
excitement; juice in plant parts
is fatal.
Morning glory
Seeds
Large amounts cause severe mental
disturbances; fatal.
Mushrooms, wild
All parts of many varieties
Fatal.
Narcissus
Bulbs
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea; may
be fatal.
Nightshade
All parts, especially unripe berries
Intense digestive disturbances
and nervous symptoms; often
fatal.
Oak
Foliage, acorns
Gradual kidney failure.
Oleander
All parts
Severe digestive upset, heart
trouble, contact dermatitis;
fatal.
Philodendron
All parts
Intense burning and irritation of
the tongue and mouth; fatal if
the base of the tongue swells,
blocking air passage of the
throat.
Poinsettia
All parts
Severe digestive upset; fatal.
Poison hemlock
All parts
Stomach pains, vomiting,
paralysis of the central nervous
system; may be fatal.
Poison ivy and oak
All parts
Intense itching, watery blisters,
red rash.
Poppy
Foliage, roots
Nervous symptoms, convulsions.
Potato
Foliage, green parts of vegetable
Intense digestive disturbances,
nervous symptoms.
Privet
Berries, leaves
Mild to severe digestive
disturbances; may be fatal.
Rhododendron
All parts
Nausea, vomiting, depression,
breathing difficulty,
prostration, coma; fatal.
Rhubarb
Leaf blade
Kidney disorder, convulsions,
coma; fatal.
Rosary pea
Seeds, foliage
Burning in mouth, convulsions;
fatal.
Snowdrop
Bulbs
Vomiting, nervous excitement.
Tomato
Vines
Digestive upset, nervous
disorders.
Wisteria
Seeds, pods
Mild to severe digestive
disturbances.
Germination Tables
Annual Flowers
Approximate number of days
until germination
Acrolinium 8-10
Ageratum 7-11
Alyssum, sweet 10-13
Browallia 18-20
Cacalia 8-12
Calendula 10-12
California poppy 5-10
Candytuft 6-9
Canterburybell 12-15
Celosia (coxcomb) 20-25
Centaurea (ragged robin) 5-20
Chrysanthemum 6-8
Cosmos 5-15
Cynoglossum 11-15
Flax 13-16
Four-o'clock 12-15
Gaillardia 12-15
Gomphrena 20-25
Helichrysum 5-10
Larkspur 15-20
Lupine 25-30
Marigold 5-8
Nicotiana 20-25
Petunia 18-20
Phlox Drummondi 20-25
Pinks 5-8
Portulaca 18-20
Scabiosa 18-20
Snapdragon 20-25
Sweetpea 15-20
Verbena 8-10
Zinnia 5-8
Vegetable Garden Plants
Approximate number of days
until germination
Asparagus 21-28
Beans, bush 6-10
Beans, bush lima 6-10
Beans, pole 6-10
Beans, pole lima 7-12
Beets 7-10
Broccoli 6-10
Brussels sprouts 6-10
Cabbage 6-10
Cabbage, Chinese 6-10
Carrots 10-15
Cauliflower 6-10
Celery 12-20
Chard, Swiss 7-10
Collards 6-10
Corn, sweet 7-12
Cress, garden 4-5
Cucumber 6-8
Eggplant 10-15
Endive 8-12
Kohlrabi 6-8
Lettuce 6-10
Muskmelon 6-10
Mustard 4-5
Okra 15-20
Onion 8-12
Parsley 18-24
Parsnip 12-18
Peas 6-10
Pepper 10-14
Pumpkin 6-10
Radish 4-6
Rhubarb 12-14
Rutabaga 4-7
Spinach 6-12
Squash, bush 6-10
Squash, vine 6-10
Tomato 6-10
Turnip 4-7
Watermelon 8-12
Ground Covers
Botanical Name Common Name
Antennaria neodioica (1,6) Pussytoes
Arctostaphylas uva-ursi (1,2,3,6) Bearberry
Cotoneaster apiculata (1) Cranberry
cotoneaster
Cotoneaster dammeri and
cultivars (1) Bearberry
cotoneaster
Euonymus colorata (3, 4, 6) Purpleleaf
wintercreeper
Juniperus horizontalis and
cultivars (6) Creeping juniper
Juniperus procumbens nana (4,6) Japanese juniper
Lonicera japonica halliana (3,4,6) Hall's
honeysuckle
Pachistima canbyi (1, 2, 6) Pachistima
Potentilla tridentata (1, 2, 6) Wineleaf
cinquefoil
Potentilla verna nana (1, 5) Cinquefoil
Sedum species (5, 6) Stonecrop
Waldsteinia ternata (1, 3, 6) Barren
strawberry
Shade
Ajuga reptans and cultivars (3,4) Carpet bugle
Convallaria majalis (4, 5) Lily of the
valley
Euonymus fortunei varieties
(3, 4, 6) Wintercreeper
Hedera helix and cultivars (4, 6) English ivy
Hosta species (5) Plantain lily
Liriope spicata (6) Lily turf
Pachysandra terminalis (2, 6) Japanese spurge
Vinca minor and cultivars (3, 6) Periwinkle or
myrtle
1. Requires well-drained soil
2. Requires acid soil
3. Good in sun or shade
4. Confine; may grow out of bounds
5. Herbaceous
6. Foliage retention in winter
VINES FOR SPECIAL USES
----------------------
Botanical name Common name
Akebia quinata(1,2,3,4) Five-leaf akebia
Clematis species and hybrids
(1,2,3,4) Virgin's-bower
Euonymus fortunei(2,3) Wintercreeper
Hedera helix and cultivars(2) English ivy
Hydrangea petiolaris(1,2) Climbing hydrangea
Parthenocissus tricuspidata(2) Boston ivy
Wisteria floribunda(1,2,3,4) Japanese wisteria
1. Flowering
2. Wall cover
3. Screening
4. Trellis
Botanical Names of Plants
-------------------------
Common name Botanical name
Acacia, giraffe Acacia Giraffae
Adder's-tongue Erythonium sibiricum
Ophioglossum vulgatum
islandicum
Alder, European Alnus glutinosa
hazel A. rugosa
red A. rubra
Alfalfa Medicago sativa
Almond Prunus amygdalus
Aloe Aloe sp.
Amaryllis Amaryllis sp.
Angelica Angelica polyclada
garden A. archangelica
Apple Malus pumila
M. sylvestris
Apricot Prunus armeniaca
Arborvitae, eastern Thuja occidentalis
giant T. plicata
Arum, East Asian Pinellia ternata
Ash, European Franxinus excelsior
green F. pennsylvanica
white F. americana
Asparagus, garden Asparagus officinalis
Aspen, European Populus tremula
quaking P. tremuloides
Aster Aster sp.
Attalea Attalea funifera
Avocado, American Persea americana
Balloon vine Cardiospermum
halicacabum
Balsam, garden Impatiens balsamina
Barley Hordeum vulgare
Bean, broad Vicia faba
kidney Phaseolus vulgaris
sieva P. lunatus
Beech, American Fagus grandifolia
European F. sylvatica
Beet, common Beta vulgaris
Birch, European white Betula pendula
paper B. papyrifera
sweet B. lenta
white B. populifolia
yellow B. lutea
Blackberry Rubus sp.
Bladderpod Lesquerella densipila
Blood-lily, Katharine Haemanthus katharinae
Blueberry, highbush Vaccinium corymbosum
Brake, sword Pteris ensiformis
Bryony, white Bryonia alba
Buckwheat Fagopyrum sagittatum
Buttercup, creeping Ranunculus repens
Cabbage Brassica oleracea
B. oleracea capitata
Kerguelen Pringlea antiscorbutica
Cacao Theobroma cacao
Calotrope, fantan Calotropis procera
Capeberry, South African Myrica cordifolia
Carpotroche Carpotroche brasiliensis
Carrot Daucus carota
Cashew Anacardium occidentale
Castor bean Ricinus communis
Catalpa, Chinese Catalpa ovata
northern C. speciosa
Cedar Cedrus sp.
California incense Libocedrus decurrens
Celery, garden Apium graveolens dulce
wild A. graveolens
Chaulmoogra tree Gynocardia odorata
common Hydnocarpus anthelmintica
wight H. wightiana
Cherry, black Prunus serotina
mazzard P. avium
pin P. pennsylvanica
Chestnut, Chinese Castanea mollissima
Common horse- Aesculus hippocastanum
Chickpea, gram Cicer arietinum
Chinaberry Melia azedarach
Chrysanthemum, corn Chrysanthemum segetum
Pyrenees C. maximum
Cinchona, ledgerbark Cinchona ledgeriana
Clarkia, rose Clarkia elegans
Clover, alsike Trifolium hybridum
burdock T. lappaceum
crimson T. incarnatum
Egyptian T. alexandrinum
Persian T. resupinatum
red T. pratense
strawberry T. fragiferum
subterranean T. subterraneum
suckling T. dubium
yellow sweet Melilotus officinalis
white Trifolium repens
white sweet Melilotus alba
Clubmoss, common Lycopodium clavatum
Cocklebur, oriental Xanthium orientale
Coconut Cocos nucifera
Coffee, Arabian Coffea arabica
Coneflower, pinewoods Rudbeckia bicolor
Coreopsis, goldenwave Coreopsis drummondii
lance C. lanceolata
plains C. tinctoria
Corn Zea mays
Cornflower Centaurea cyanus
Coronilla, crownvetch Coronilla varia
Cosmos Cosmos sp.
Cotton, Levant Gossypium herbaceum
Sea Island G. barbadense
upland G. hirsutum
coventry bells Campanula trachelium
Cowpea Vigna glabra
common V. sinensis
yard-long V. sesquipedalis
Crotalaria Crotalaria vitellina
Croton, purging Croton tiglium
Cucumber Cucumis sativus
Currant, European black Ribes nigrum
red R. sativum
Cypress, Arizona Cupressus arizonica
bald Taxodium distichum
Dahlia Dahlia sp.
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale
Daphne Daphne sp.
Date Phoenix dactylifera
Davillia, Fiji Davallia fejeensis
Desert willow Chilopsis linearis
Dock, curly rumex crispus
Dogbane Apocynum sp.
Dogwood, cornelian cherry Cornus mas
flowering C. florida
Dollar plant Lunaria annua
Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii
common P. taxiflora
Eggplant Solanum melongena
garden S. melongena esculentum
Elm, American Ulmus americana
Endive Cichorium endiva
Erysimum, plains Erysimum asperum
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus sp.
Euphorbia, snow-on-the- Euphorbia marginata
mountain
False-cypress, Lawson's Chamaecyparis lawsoniana
nootka C. nootkatensis
Fern, common staghorn Platycerium bifurcatum
common sword Nephrolepis exaltata
filmy Hymenophyllum atrovirens
grape Botrychium virginianum
holly Cyrtomium falcatum
lady Athyrium filix-femina
maidenhair Adiantum pedatum
pine Anemia adiantifolia
royal Osmunda regalis
tropical Gleichenia flabellata
water Azolla pinnata
wood Thelypteris normalis
Fescue, alta Festuca elatior
arundinacea
meadow F. elatior
red F. rubra
Fig Ficus carica
Filbert Corylus sp.
Fir, cascades Abies amabilis
grand A. grandis
noble A. procera
red A. magnifica
white A. concolor
Flax, common Linum usitatissimum
Forget-me-not Myosotis sp.
Foxglove, common Digitalis purpurea
Grecian D. lanata
Frenchweed Thlaspi arvense
Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba
Gladiolus, common Gladiolus hortulanus
horticultural
Gooseberry, Chinese Actinidia chinesis
Gourd, snake Trichosanthes sp.
Grape, European Vitis vinifera
fox V. labrusca
roundleaf Ribes rotundifolium
Grass, Bermuda Cynodon dactylon
buffalo Buchloe dactyloides
Canada blue- Pao compressa
canary Phalarus canariensis
cocksfoot orchard Dactylis glomerata
colonial bent- Agrostis tenuis
common carpet- Axonopus affinis
crested wheat- Asgropyron cristatum
dallis Paspalum dilatatum
desert wheat- Agropyron desertorum
Italian rye- Lolium multiflorum
Johnson Sorghum halepense
Kentucky blue- Poa pratensis
perennial rye- Lolium perenne
quack Agropyron repens
reed canary Phalaris arundinacea
Sudan Sorghum vulgare sudanense
Hackberry, common Celtis occidentalis
Hart's-tongue Phyllitis scolopendrium
Hemlock, eastern Tsuga canadensis
western T. heterophylla
Hemp Cannabis sativa
Hibiscus, kenaf Hibiscus cannabinus
Hickory, shagbark Carya ovata
Holly, American Ilex opaca
English I. aquifolium
Hollyhock Althaea rosea
Horsetail, common Equisetum arvense
Hyssop, hedge Gratiola sp.
Indigo Indigofera sp.
Iris, blue flag Iris versicolor
German I. germanica
grass I. graminea
Ironweed, kinka oil Vernonia anthelmintica
Jacaranda Jacaranda sp.
Jimsonweed Datura stramonium
Juniper, Savin Juniperus sabina
Kale Brassica oleracea
acephala
Kamala tree Mallotus philippinesis
Knotweed, prostrate Polygonum aviculare
Lamb's quarter Chenopodium album
Larch, western Larix occidentalis
Larkspur, rocket Delphinium ajacis
Lemon Citrus limon
Lentil Lens culinaris
Lespedeza, common Lespedeza striata
Korean L. stipulacea
wand L. intermedia
Lettuce Lactuca sativa
Licania Licania rigida
Lilac, common Syringa vulgaris
Lily, regal Lilium regale
Linden, American Tilia americana
Litsea Litsea sp.
Locust, black Robinia pseudoacacia
Lotus, East Indian Nelumbo nucifea
Lupine Lupinus arcticus
tree L. angustifolius
Macadamia, Queenslandnut Macadamia ternifolia
Magnolia, great-leaved Magnolia macrophylla
southern M. grandiflora
Malope Malope trifida
Mango, common Mangifera indica
Maple, red Acer rubrum
silver A. saccharinum
sugar A. saccharum
Marattia Marattia salicina
Marbleseed, western Onosmodium occidentale
Marigold Tagetes sp.
winter cape Dimorphotheca aurantiaca
Meadowrue, Sierra Thalictrum polycarpum
Milkweed, common Asclepias syriaca
Millet, pearl Pennisetum glaucum
Morning glory, common Ipomoea purpurea
orizaba I. orizabensis
Muskmelon Cucumis melo
Mustard, black Brassica nigra
white B. hirta
Nasturtium Tropaeolum sp.
Niger seed Guizotia abyssinica
Oak, black Quercus velutina
English Q. robur
scarlet Q. coccinea
southern red Q. falcata
white Q. alba
Oat, common Avena sativa
Okra Hibiscus esculentus
Olive Olea europaea sativa
common O. europaea
Oncoba, gorli Oncoba echinata
Onion, garden Allium cepa
Orange, sweet Citrus sinesis
trifoliate Poncirus trifoliata
Palm, African oil Elaeis guineensis
Pansy, wild Viola tricolor
Parinarium Parinarium sp.
Parsley Petroselinum crispum
common curly P. latifolium
Parsnip Pastinaca sativa
Pea, field Pisum sativum arvense
garden P. sativum
sweet Lathyrus odoratus
Peach Prunus persica
Peanut Arachis hypogaea
Pear Pyrus communis
Peavine, flat Lathryus sylvestris
Pecan Carya illinoensis
Peony, fernleaf Paeonia tenuifolia
Pepper, bush red Capsicum frutescens
Pepperwort Marsilea minuta
Perilla, common Pefrilla frutescens
Persimmon, common Diospyros virginiana
Petunia Petunia sp.
Phlox, Drummond Phlox drummondii
Pine, Austrian Pinus nigra
eastern white P. strobus
jack P. banksiana
loblolly P. taeda
longleaf P. palustris
ponderosa P. ponderosa
shore P. contorta
shortleaf P. echinata
slash P. caribea
sugar P. lambertiana
western white P. monticola
Pineapple Ananas comosus
Pink, clove Dianthus caryophyllus
Pistachio Pistacia sp.
Plum, garden Prunus domestica
Japanese P. salicina
Podocarpus Podocarpus sp.
Pomegranate, common Punica granatum
Poplar, eastern Populus deltoides
Mongolian P. suaveolens
yellow, or tulip tree Liriodendron tulipfera
Poppy, corn Papaver rhoeas
opium P. somniferum
oriental P. orientale
Portulaca, common Portulaca grandiflora
Potato Solanum tuberosum
Primrose, evening Oenothera biennis
Lemarck O. lamarckiana
Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo
Purslane, common Portulaca oleracea
Pycnanthus, akomu Pycnanthus kombo
Quillwort Isoetes braunii
Radish, garden Raphanus sativus
Rape, bird Brassica campestris
winter B. napus
Red cedar, eastern Juniperus virginiana
Redtop Agrostis alba
Redwood Sequoia sempervirens
Rhododendron, catawba Rhododendron catawbiense
Rhubarb, garden Rheum rhaponticum
medicinal R. officinale
sorrel R. palmatum
Rice Oryza sativa
Rose, cabbage Rosa centifolia
Rubber, para Havea brasiliensis
Rutabaga Brassica napobrassica
Rye Secale cereale
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius
Sage, garden Salvia officinalis
scarlet S. splendens
Salsify, vegetable-oyster Tragopogon porrifolius
Scammony, glorybind Convolvulus scammonia
Scarlet runner Phaseolus coccineus
Sequoia, giant Sequoiadendron giganteum
Sequoia gigantea
Sesame, oriental Sesamum indicum
Snapdragon, common Antirrhinum majus
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor
S. vulgare
Soybean Glycine max
Spicebush, Japanese Lindera obtusiloba
Spiderwort Tradescantia paludosa
Virginia T. virginiana
Spikemoss Selaginella selaginoides
Spinach Spinacia oleracea
Spruce, Norway Picea abies
red P. rubens
Sitka P. sitchensis
white P. glauca
Spurge, South American Sebastiania fruticosa
Spurry, corn Spergula avensis
Sterculia, hazel Sterculia foetida
Stillingia Stillingia sp.
Stock, common Matthiola incana
Strawberry, chiloe Fragaria chiloensis
pine F. ananassa
Strophanthus Strophanthus glaber
arrow poison S. sarmentosus
Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum
Sumac Rhus sp.
Sunflower, common Helianthus annuus
Sweetcane Saccharum spontaneum
Sweetgum, American Liquidambar styraciflua
Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas
Sweet william Dianthus barbatus
Tallow wood Ximenia americana
X. caffra
Tara vine Taraktogenos kurzii
Tetradenia, Asian Tetradenia glauca
Timothy Phleum pratense
Tobacco Nicotiana glutinosa
common N. tabacum
Tomato, common Lycopersicon esculentum
Trefoil, bird's foot Lotus corniculatus
Tulip Tulipa sp.
Tung oil tree Aleurites fordii
Tupelo, water Nyssa aquatica
Turnip Brassica rapa
Vetch, common Vicia sativa
hairy V. villosa
Hungarian V. pannonica
narrow leaf V. angustifolia
one-flower V. articulata
purple V. benghalensis
tiny V. hirsuta
wooly pod V. dasycarpa
Violet, field Viola arvensis
Walnut, eastern black Juglans nigra
Waterlily Nymphaea alba
Watermelon Citrullus vulgaris
Waterweed, Canadian Elodea canadensis
Wheat Triticum aestivum
Willow, basket Salix viminalis
big catkin S. gracilistyla
black S. nigra
pussy S. discolor
white S. alba
Yellow trumpet, Florida Stenolobium stans
Yew, English Taxus baccata
Pacific T. brevifolia
Yucca Yucca sp.
Zinnia, oblong leaf Zinnia angustifolia
National Park Directory
Acadia National Park
Bar Harbor, Maine
Area: 41,634 acres
Season: May through November
Major attractions: Mountains (highest point on
Atlantic Coast) showing marine erosion and
glaciation; lakes; forests; marine life.
Activities: Camping, fishing, hiking, horseback
riding, nature walks, picnicking, swimming, sea
cruises.
Arches National Park
Moab, Utah
Area: 73,379 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Huge rock formations caused by
erosion; mountains; Colorado River gorge.
Activities: Camping, fishing, canoeing, white-water
boating.
Badlands National Park
Wall, South Dakota
Area: 243,303 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Multicolored peaks and spires
caused by erosion; fossil sites; Pine Ridge Indian
Reservation near site of Wounded Knee battleground.
Activities: Camping, fishing, hiking, picnicking.
Big Bend National Park
Maverick or Persimmon Gap, Texas
Area: 708,221 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Mountains; canyons; desert; U.S.
and Mexican flowers; trees; wildlife.
Activities: Camping, boating, fishing, hiking,
horseback riding, picnicking, pack trips.
Biscayne National Park
Key Biscayne, Florida
Area: 173,040 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Underwater coral reefs; marine
life.
Activities: Boating, diving.
Bryce Canyon National Park
Bryce Canyon, Utah
Area: 35,836 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Multicolored rock erosions.
Activities: Camping, fishing, hiking, boating,
picnicking, museum tours.
Canyonlands National Park
Moab, Utah
Area: 337,258 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Rock formations; ancient cliff
dwellings; Green River and Colorado River canyons.
Activities: Boating, white-water trips, hiking,
camping, fishing, horseback riding, picnicking.
Capitol Reef National Park
Torrey, Utah
Area: 241,905 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Colorful rock formations; desert
plants and wildlife; pioneer exhibits.
Activities: Camping, hiking, fishing, four-wheel-
drive trails.
Carlsbad Caverns National Park
Carlsbad, New Mexico
Area: 46,753 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Possibly world's largest cavern
with spectacular underground formations;
above-ground desert plants and rock formations.
Activities: Cavern tours, nature walks, picnicking,
camping, nearby fishing.
Channel Islands National Park
Santa Barbara, California
Area: 249,355 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Marine life and sea birds.
Activities: Hiking, nature walks, boating, fishing,
picnicking.
Crater Lake National Park
Medford, Oregon
Area: 160,290 acres
Season: July to October
Major attractions: Deepest lake in the United
States (2,000 feet) in crater of extinct volcano;
multicolored rocks; forests; mountain flowers and
wildlife.
Activities: Camping, hiking, fishing, boating,
horseback riding.
Denali National Park
Anderson, Alaska
Area: 4,726,909 acres
Season: June to September
Major attractions: Peaks of Alaska Range, including
Mount McKinley (20,320 feet); rare wildlife and
subarctic plant life; huge Denali fault; break in
earth's crust.
Activities: Camping, hiking, fishing, big-game
hunting.
Everglades National Park
Homestead, Florida
Area: 1,410,533 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Immense subtropical wilderness;
mangrove swamps; wild animals and rare birds.
Activities: Boating, camping, fishing, guided
tours, hiking, nature walks, picnicking.
Gates of the Arctic National Park
Wiseman, Alaska
Area: 8,300,000 acres
Season: June to September
Major attractions: Snow-covered peaks of Endicott
Mountains north of Arctic Circle; tundra and taiga
in valleys; wildlife.
Activities: Big-game hunting, fishing, camping.
Glacier Bay National Park
Yakutat, Alaska
Area: 3,226,000 acres
Season: May to October
Major attractions: Great Mendenhall Glacier;
iceberg formations from glaciers; dense coastal
rain forests; wildlife; nearby, Mount Logan,
highest point in Canada (19,850 feet).
Activities: Camping, hiking, hunting, fishing.
Glacier National Park
West Glacier, Montana
Area: 1,056,000 acres
Season: June through September
Major attractions: Rugged mountain peaks of
Continental Divide; glaciers; numerous alpine lakes
and streams; rare wildflowers; wildlife; ancient
Blackfoot hunting grounds.
Activities: Hiking on old hunting and exploration
trails, nature walks, horseback riding, camping,
fishing.
Grand Canyon National Park
Grand Canyon, Arizona
Area: 1,218,376 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Mile-deep, 1.5-billion-years-old
canyon of Colorado River, showing geologic features
with fossil plants and animals; multicolored rocks;
wide range of wild plants and animals; Havasupai
Indian reservation.
Activities: Camping, hiking, horseback riding,
boating, white-water trips, nature walks,
picnicking.
Grand Teton National Park
Moose, Wyoming
Area: 301,291 acres
Season: June to September
Major attractions: Mountains; trails of famous
early explorers; perennial snow fields; wild
plants, animals, and birds.
Activities: Camping, hiking, fishing, boating,
horseback riding.
Great Smoky Mountains National Park
Gatlinburg, Tennessee/Asheville, North Carolina
Area: 512,673 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Highest mountains in the eastern
United States (6,500 feet); geologic formations;
wildlife.
Activities: Camping, fishing, hiking, nature walks,
museums, horseback riding, picnicking.
Guadalupe Mountains National Park
Pine Springs, Texas
Area: 77,518 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Desert wilderness; ancient
Apache hunting grounds; wildlife; highest point in
Texas (8,749 feet).
Activities: Camping, hiking.
Haleakala National Park
Kahului, Maui, Hawaii
Area: 28,655 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Dormant Haleakala volcano
(10,023 feet) with overlook; semitropical
vegetation.
Activities: Hiking, nature walks, picnicking.
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
Island of Hawaii
Area: 229,178 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Volcano activity; semitropical
plants; birds.
Activities: Hiking, nature walks.
Hot Springs National Park
Hot Springs, Arkansas
Area: 1,032 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Ancient hot springs for bathing
with reputed therapeutic benefits.
Activities: Bathing, museum tours, hiking, nature
trails, picnicking, camping, fishing, and boating
nearby.
Isle Royale National Park
Houghton, Michigan
Area: 539,339 acres
Season: May to September
Major attractions: Geologic phenomena; hardwood and
evergreen forests; prehistoric iron mines;
wildlife.
Activities: Camping, hiking (160 miles of foot
trails), fishing, boating (no cars permitted on
island).
Katmai National Park
King Salmon, Alaska
Area: 3,700,000 acres
Season: May to September
Major attractions: Aleutian Mountains; Brooks
River; Valley of 10,000 Smokes; wildlife.
Activities: Fishing, wildlife photography.
Kenai Fjords National Park
Kenai, Alaska
Area: 670,000 acres
Season: May to September
Major attractions: Wrangell Mountains; wildlife;
whale watching; ancient Indian copper mines.
Activities: Fishing, hunting, camping, wildlife
photography, hiking, bird watching (150 species).
Kings Canyon National Park
Fresno, California
Area: 460,331 acres
Season: May to October
Major attractions: High Sierra peaks; giant sequoia
trees; mile-deep canyon; alpine lakes; glaciers and
snowfields; wildlife.
Activities: Camping, hiking, horseback riding,
fishing, photography, winter skiing.
Kobuk Valley National Park
Kotzebue, Alaska
Area: 1,750,000 acres
Season: June to September
Major attractions: Baird Mountain peaks; forests;
tundra; great sand dunes; prehistorical
archeological sites; wildlife.
Activities: Camping, trophy fishing, photography,
hunting.
Lake Clark National Park
Anchorage, Alaska
Area: 2,874,000 acres
Season: May to September
Major attractions: Aleutian Range peaks; Cook
Inlet; Eskimo and Athabascan Indian archeological
sites; fossils; forests; wildlife.
Activities: Camping, fishing, boating, canoeing,
hiking, bird-watching, hunting.
Lassen Volcanic National Park
Susanville, California
Area: 105,922 acres
Season: May to October
Major attractions: Cascade Mountains; dense
evergreen forests; volcanic lakes (intermittent
eruptions since 1914); hot springs; ancient Indian
rock carvings.
Activities: Fishing, camping, hiking (150 miles of
trails), boating, winter ski tours.
Mammoth Cave National Park
Mammoth Cave, Kentucky
Area: 51,354 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Large cavern (150 miles of
passageways), underground river, blind fish,
unusual geologic formations.
Activities: Boating, camping, fishing, hiking,
nature walks, picnicking.
Mesa Verde National Park
Mesa Verde, Colorado
Area: 51,333 acres
Season: May to October
Major attractions: Prehistoric cliff dwellings;
semiarid landscape; lookout showing six mountain
ranges in four states; 2-million-acre San Juan
National Forest nearby.
Activities: Fishing, hunting, hiking, horseback
riding; dude ranches nearby.
Mount Rainier National Park
Longmire, Washington
Area: 241,571 acres
Season: May to November
Major attractions: Mountain terrain featuring
glaciers, alpine lakes, streams, wildlife, marshes,
and swamps.
Activities: Hiking, horseback riding, fishing,
camping, guided climbs to summit (14,410 feet) for
experienced mountaineers.
North Cascades National Park
Marblemount, Washington
Area: 504,781 acres
Season: June through September
Major attractions: Alpine wilderness area featuring
mountains, lakes, forests, glaciers, wildlife, and
gold rush and logging campsites.
Activities: Camping, fishing, hiking, boating,
winter ski tours.
Olympic National Park
Port Angeles, Washington
Area: 896,600 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Rain forests of giant
evergreens; mountains; glaciers; alpine lakes;
meadows; wildlife; rocky beaches on peninsula
between Pacific Ocean and Puget Sound.
Activities: Camping, fishing, hiking, hunting,
horseback riding, boating.
Petrified Forest National Park
Holbrook, Arizona
Area: 93,530 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: World's largest display of
petrified coniferous trees in six groups of logs
now in the form of jasper and agate; prehistoric
Indian rock carvings; painted desert of eroded
layers of red and yellow sediment; Mogollon Plateau
cliffs (Tonto Rim) nearby.
Activities: Hiking, nature walks, picnicking;
fishing, camping, horseback riding, hunting nearby.
Platt National Park
Sulphur, Oklahoma
Area: 912 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Mineral springs; wild animals;
birds and plants.
Activities: Camping, fishing, hiking, nature walks,
picnicking.
Redwood National Park
Orick, California
Area: 110,180 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Redwood forests, including trees
topping 300 feet; Pacific Ocean coastline; coast
ranges; wildlife.
Activities: Camping, hiking, fishing; hunting,
white-water trips nearby.
Rocky Mountain National Park
Estes Park, Colorado
Area: 255,794 acres
Season: June to October
Major attractions: Mountains; lakes; streams;
forests; wildflower meadows; wild animals.
Activities: Camping, hiking, fishing, boating,
hunting, horseback riding, mountaineering classes,
winter skiing; dude ranches nearby.
Sequoia National Park
Three Rivers, California
Area: 386,683 acres
Season: June to October
Major attractions: High Sierra peaks, including
Mount Whitney (14,494 feet); lakes, streams, and
glaciers; redwood forests; wildlife.
Activities: Camping, hiking, fishing, horseback
riding, photographic trips.
Shenandoah National Park
Luray, Virginia
Area: 212,303 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Blue Ridge Mountains; hardwood
forests; wildflowers.
Activities: Camping, fishing, hiking, horseback
riding, nature walks, picnicking.
Theodore Roosevelt Memorial National Park
Medora, North Dakota
Area: 70,436 acres
Season: May to October
Major attractions: Missouri River Badlands;
petrified forest; deep canyons; virgin prairies;
site of former President Theodore Roosevelt's
ranch; wildlife.
Activities: Hiking, camping, picnicking, winter
snowmobiling.
Virgin Islands National Park
St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands
Area: 15,150 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Tropical plant and animal life;
marine life; coral reefs; sandy beaches; colonial
plantations; prehistoric rock carvings.
Activities: Camping, fishing, hiking, nature walks,
picnicking, swimming, diving.
Voyageurs National Park
Kabetogama, Minnesota
Area: 219,400 acres
Season: May to September
Major attractions: Evergreen forests; ancient rock
outcroppings; bogs; glacial lakes; sandy beaches;
wildlife.
Activities: Boating (access to interior is mainly
by boat), camping, fishing, hiking, canoeing.
Wind Cave National Park
Hot Springs, South Dakota
Area: 28,060 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Limestone caverns; bison herds;
wildlife.
Activities: Camping, hiking, nature walks,
picnicking.
Wrangell-St. Elias National Park
Cordova, Alaska
Area: 8,945,000 acres
Season: May to October
Major attractions: Largest U.S. national park;
greatest concentration of peaks over 14,500 feet
in North America; rugged coastline; boreal forests;
alpine tundra; wildlife.
Activities: Big-game hunting, fishing, camping,
boating.
Yellowstone National Park
Idaho-Montana-Wyoming border area
Area: 2,221,773 acres
Season: June to September
Major attractions: Oldest national park;
spectacular wilderness; Old Faithful geyser; hot
springs; lakes, streams, and waterfalls; "glass
mountain" of obsidian; wildlife; alpine meadows.
Activities: Camping, hiking, fishing, photography,
horseback riding, boating, canoeing, picnicking,
winter ski touring; dude ranches nearby.
Yosemite National Park
Yosemite Village, California
Area: 758,020 acres
Season: June to October
Major attractions: Mountain peaks over 10,000 feet;
spectacular granite domes and monoliths;
waterfalls; glaciers; hardwood and evergreen
forests; wildlife.
Activities: Camping, hiking (Pacific Crest and John
Muir trails), fishing, overnight saddle trips,
downhill and cross-country skiing in winter.
Zion National Park
Springdale, Utah
Area: 143,254 acres
Season: Year-round
Major attractions: Huge canyons and gorges carved
by mountain rivers; colorful rock cliffs; wildlife.
Activities: Camping, hiking, horseback riding,
boating.
Cloud Nomenclature
altocumulus (Ac)
Similar to cirrocumulus, with patches of small
clouds occasionally separated by thin breaks.
Although altocumulus clouds also may be identified
by a "mackerel sky" pattern, they are lower, at
around 10,000 feet, and the clumps of white or gray
water droplets or ice crystals are larger. The
clouds may develop directly overhead, depending on
the temperature of the atmosphere, and may produce
a shower.
altostratus (As)
Dull, drab gray or blue middle-level clouds that
usually contain moisture in the form of water
droplets. Altostratus clouds are often opaque,
giving a "ground glass" view of the sun or moon
behind them. They may be a source of virga,
filaments of ice crystals or water droplets that
fall toward Earth but evaporate before touching the
ground.
cirrocumulus (Cc)
Loosely packed sheets of small white cloud segments
at altitudes of around 18,000 to 20,000 feet,
forming a "mackerel sky" resembling scales on a
fish. The clouds may consist of ice crystals or
water droplets or both. The patchy appearance is
caused by vertical air currents at the cloud level,
indicating a lack of stability and a possible
approaching storm.
cirrostratus (Cs)
Translucent veils of white fibrous cloud that tend
to occur at altitudes of around 20,000 feet or
more. Cirrostratus clouds often cover the entire
sky and may cause the appearance of halos or
reflected images of the sun or moon. They may
signal an approaching storm.
cirrus (Ci)
Generally, the highest clouds, forming "mares'
tails" at altitudes between 20,000 and 40,000 feet.
The clouds may appear as delicate white filaments,
featherlike tufts, or fibrous bands of ice
crystals.
cumulonimbus (Cb)
Thunderstorm clouds that may vary considerably in
altitude from ominously dark lower portions below
5,000 feet to white anvil-shaped tops that may
reach upward to 50,000 feet. They contain large
amounts of moisture, some of which may be in the
form of hail. The cumulonimbus cloud may appear
alone or as part of a wall of advancing storm
clouds.
cumulus (Cu)
Low-level billowy clouds that are usually dark on
the bottom while the top resembles a giant white
cotton ball. A cumulus cloud may be relatively
tall, extending from a base around 2,000 feet to
a top near 10,000 feet above ground. It casts a
dark shadow and may be a source of moisture but
generally produces no more than a summer shower.
nimbostratus (Ns)
Low, dark rain clouds with ragged tops that have
bottoms only a few hundred feet above ground and
may range upward to an altitude of 3,000 feet. They
obscure the sun and are associated with continuous
rain, sleet, or snow but are rarely accompanied by
thunder or lightning.
stratocumulus (Sc)
Dark, gray rolls of clouds that usually cover the
entire sky at an altitude from 1,500 to 6,500 feet.
The rounded segments may appear checkered or
wavelike and there may or may not be breaks of blue
sky between segments. Stratocumulus clouds contain
moisture but are usually not rain producers.
stratus (St)
Wispy foglike clouds that hover a few hundred feet
above ground, sometimes obscuring hills or tall
buildings. They may begin as ground fog and can be
a source of drizzle.
Lunar and Solar Eclipses
An eclipse occurs when a celestial body, such as
the sun or moon, produces a shadow so that another
celestial body seems to disappear. An eclipse of
the moon (lunar eclipse) occurs when the sun,
Earth, and moon are in a straight line so that the
moon is in the shadow of Earth. An eclipse of the
sun occurs when the sun, moon, and Earth are in a
straight line so that the moon casts a shadow on
Earth. As each of the celestial bodies is in
constant motion with respect to the others, and the
alignment of the bodies is not always perfect, an
eclipse seldom lasts more than a few minutes. The
eclipse may be total or partial.
Because a lunar eclipse results in the total
surface of the moon being in the shadow of Earth,
the eclipse is visible from any point on Earth. But
the shadow of a solar eclipse is visible only along
an arc-shaped path on a portion of Earth, and it
moves at a speed of between 1,060 and 2,100 miles
per hour, depending on the latitude of the shadow,
the rotation of Earth, and the speed of the moon
through its own orbit. An annual eclipse is one in
which the moon's shadow allows the corona, or outer
fringe, of the sun to reach Earth.
Because the sun, Earth, and moon travel in
relatively predictable orbits, astronomers since
the days of ancient Babylonia (700 B.C.) have been
able to calculate the future dates on which the
sun, Earth, and moon will once again be in
alignment. Therefore, they can forecast the time
and place of eclipses many years in advance. For
example, at regular intervals of 18 years, 9 to 11
days (depending on leap years), and 8 hours (a
period of one saros), the sun and moon will return
to the same orbital node relative to Earth. During
one saros, there are usually 41 total or partial
solar eclipses and 29 lunar eclipses, or an average
of about four eclipses a year. But each successive
solar eclipse is observed about 120 degrees to the
west of the previous phenomenon and can be expected
to recur at the same longitude on Earth after a
period equivalent to three times the length of one
saros. Each solar eclipse may affect an area only
about 100 miles wide and any given place on Earth
can expect a total eclipse about once every 400
years.
A total eclipse of the sun takes place when Earth,
the moon, and the sun are in alignment in such a
way that the umbra of the shadow of the moon
reaches Earth (the umbra is the dark central part
of the cone-shaped shadow projecting from the moon
to Earth during this phenomenon). All the light of
the sun is blocked or eclipsed because of the
moon's position. The penumbra (the lighter shadow)
shows a partial solar eclipse. The two arcs
indicate positions of Earth where a total
eclipse would not be possible.
In an annular solar eclipse, the alignment is just
the same as in a total solar eclipse, but the moon
is too far away from Earth at the time for the
umbra of the shadow to reach Earth. The circle of
the moon is not large enough to block our seeing
the sun, so a ring of light can be seen surrounding
the moon's circle.
Constellations
Twelve Zodiacal Constellations
Aquarius, the Water-Bearer
Ares, the Ram
Cancer, the Crab
Capricorn, the Goat
Gemini, the Twins
Leo, the Lion
Libra, the Balance or Scales
Pisces, the Fishes
Sagittarius, the Archer
Scorpio, the Scorpion
Taurus, the Bull
Virgo, the Virgin
Twenty-nine North of the Zodiac
Andromeda, the Chained Lady
Aquila, the Eagle
Auriga, the Charioteer
Bootes, the Wagoner
Camelopardalis, the Camelopard
Canes Venatici, the Hunting Dog
Cassiopeia, the Lady in the Chair
Cepheus, the King
Coma Bereniceses, Berenice's Hair
Corona Borealis, the Northern Crown
Cygnus, the Swan
Delphinus, the Dolphin
Draco, the Dragon
Equuleus, the Colt
Hercules (Kneeling)
Lacerta, the Lizard
Leo Minor, the Lesser Lion
Lynx, the Lynx
Lyra, the Lyre or Harp
Ophiuchus, the Serpent Holder (sometimes
called Serpentarius)
Pegasus, the Winged Horse
Perseus, the Hero (with Medusa's head)
Sagitta, the Arrow
Scutum, the Shield
Sepens, the Serpent
Triangulum, the Triangle
Ursa Major, the Greater Bear
Ursa Minor, the Lesser Bear
Vulpecula, the Fox (and the Goose)
Forty-nine South of the Zodiac
Antila (Pneumatica), the Air Pump
Apus (Avis Indica), Bird of Paradise (or of India)
Ara, the Altar
Argo Navis, the Ship (may include Carina, the Keel;
Malus, the Mast; Puppis, the Stern; Vela, the
Sails)
Caelum (Sculptorium), the (Engraver's) Tool
Canis Major, the Greater Dog
Canis Minor, the Lesser Dog
Carina, the Keel (Argo Navis)
Centaurus, the Centaur
Cetus, the Whale
Chamaeleon, the Chameleon
Circinus, the Pair of Compasses
Columba (Noachi), (Noah's) Dove
Corona Australis, the Southern Crown
Corvus, the Crow
Crater, the Bowl
Crux Australis, the Southern Cross
Darado (Xiphias), the Gilthead or Swordfish
Eridanus, the River Po
Fornax (Chemicae), the (Chemist's) Furnace or
Retort
Grus, the Crane
Horologium, the Clock
Hydra, the Water-Serpent or Hydra (fem.)
Hydrus, the Water-Snake or Sea-Serpent (masc.)
Indus, the Indian
Lepus, the Hare
Lupus, the Wolf
Malus, the Mast (Argo Navis)
Mensa (Mons Mensae), the Table Mountain
Microscorpium, the Microscope
Monoceros, the Unicorn
Musca (Apis), the Fly or Bee
Norma, the Square or Rule
Octans, the Octant
Orion, the Hunter
Pavo, the Peacock
Phoenix, the Fabulous Bird
Pictor (Equuleus Pictorius), the Painter's Easel
or Little Horse
Piscis Austrinus, the Southern Fish
Puppis, the Stern (Argo Navis)
Pyxis (nautica), the (Ship's) Compass
Reticulum, the Reticule or Net
Sculptor (Apparatus Sculptorius), the Sculptor's
Tools
Sextans, the Sextant
Telescopium, the Telescope
Triangulum Australe, the Southern Triangle
Tucana, the Toucan
Vela, the Sails (Argo Navis)
Volcans (Piscius Volans), the Flying Fish
Additional Sources of Information (The Outdoors)
Organizations and Services (The Outdoors)
American Astronomical Society
211 FitzRandolph Road
Princeton, NJ 08540
American Horticultural Society
Mount Vernon, VA 22121
American Institute of Biological Scientists
1401 Wilson Boulevard
Arlington, VA 22209
American Meteorological Society
45 Beacon Street
Boston, MA 02108
American Museum of Natural History
Central Park West and 79th Street
New York, NY 10024
Appalachian Mountain Club
5 Joy Street
Boston, MA 02108
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
Interior Building
18th and C Streets
Washington, DC 20240
Garden Club of America
598 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10022
Men's Garden Clubs of America
5560 Merle Hay Road
Des Moines, IA 50323
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
6010 Executive Boulevard
Rockville, MD 20852
National Parks and Conservation Association
1701 18th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20009
National Park Service
Interior Building
18th and C Streets
Washington, DC 20240
National Recreation and Park Association
1601 North Kent Street
Arlington, VA 22209
National Weather Service Public Affairs
8060 13th Street
Silver Springs, MD 20910
National Wildlife Federation
1412 16th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
Sierra Club
530 Bush Street
San Francisco, CA 94108
U.S. Department of Interior
Interior Building
18th and C Streets
Washington, DC 20240
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Interior Building
18th and C Streets
Washington, DC 20240
The Wilderness Society
1901 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20006
Books (The Outdoors)
Alden, Peter. Peterson's First Guide to Mammals.
Houghton-Mifflin, 1987.
Asimov, Isaac. The Universe: From Flat Earth to
Quasars. Avon, 1976.
Audubon Society and Little, Elbert L., Jr. Audubon
Field Guide to North American Trees. Knopf, 1980.
Berry, Richard. Discover the Stars: Star Watching
Using the Naked Eye, Binoculars or a Telescope.
Crown, 1987.
Encyclopedia of Astronomy. McGraw-Hill, 1983.
Faust, Joan Lee, ed. The New York Times Garden
Book. Ballantine, 1977.
Hardy, Ralph, et al. The Weather Book. Little,
Brown, 1982.
Muirden, James. The Amateur Astronomer's Handbook,
3rd ed. Harper & Row, 1982.
Peterson, Roger T. Peterson's First Guide to Birds.
Houghton-Mifflin, 1986.
Peterson, Roger T. Peterson's First Guide to
Wildflowers. Houghton-Mifflin, 1986.
Rand McNally Cosmopolitan World Atlas, rev. ed.
Rand McNally, 1987.
Rand McNally Road Atlas and Vacation Guide. Rand
McNally, 1987.
Weather and Forecasting. Macmillan Field Guide
Series, 1987.
Woodall's North American Campground Directory.
Woodall, 1988.
Wyman, Donald. The Gardening Encyclopedia.
Macmillan, 1987.
Sports and Games
Baseball
Baseball, named for the three bases and home
plate that are parts of the playing field, has
nine players on each side. The offensive team
sends to home plate one batter at a time, who
with a wooden or metal bat attempts to hit a
small cowhide-covered ball thrown from the
pitcher to the catcher, two members of the
defensive team. The defensive team also consists
of four infielders and three outfielders. If the
batter hits the ball on the ground, he must run
toward first base; he is out if a defensive
player throws the ball to a teammate standing on
first base before the runner reaches the base.
The batter is also out if the ball he hits is
caught by a defensive player before it hits the
ground, of if the batter fails in three attempts
to strike the pitched ball or fails to hit three
pitches determined by the umpire to be strikes.
This last situation is called a strikeout. Outs
may also be made by tagging a baserunner with
the ball when the runner is between bases, or by
stepping on second base, third base, or
homeplate while holding the ball if the runner
is forced to move to that base because the
batter or another baserunner is moving to occupy
the preceding base. The offensive team attempts
to score runs by causing offensive baserunners
to go around all four bases and cross home plate
safely. This can be done by accumulating hits,
balls hit between the two foul lines that go
uncaught, allowing a batter to safely reach
first base (a single), second base (a double),
or third base (a triple), thus driving runners
ahead of him to circle the bases. Batters can
also reach base and move the runners ahead up a
base by obtaining a walk, four pitches
determined by the umpire not to be strikes that
the batter does not swing at. Runs also can be
scored with a home run, whereby a batter hits
the ball over the outfield fence or far enough
that he can circle the bases. The game is
divided into nine innings, with three outs for
each team in each inning. The batting, or
offensive, team takes the field (defensive
positions) after making three outs, when the
opponents become batters. At the end of nine
innings, the team that has accumulated the most
runs is the winner.
U.S. and Canadian Major League Teams
American League
Eastern Division Western Division
Baltimore Orioles California Angels
Boston Red Sox Chicago White Sox
Cleveland Indians Kansas City Royals
Detroit Tigers Minnesota Twins
Milwaukee Brewers Oakland Athletics
New York Yankees Seattle Mariners
Toronto Blue Jays Texas Rangers
National League
Eastern Division Western Division
Chicago Cubs Atlanta Braves
Montreal Expos Cincinnati Reds
New York Mets Houston Astros
Philadelphia Phillies Los Angeles Dodgers
Pittsburgh Pirates San Diego Padres
St. Louis Cardinals San Francisco Giants
World Series
Ever year since 1903 (with the exception of 1904),
the winners of major league baseball's American
League pennant have played the winners of the
National League pennant in the World Series. This
has been a best-of-seven-game series since 1905;
the first team to win four games becomes champion.
The results since 1903 follow.
Note: The league name abbreviation is specified in
parenthesis before each team name; the winning team
is listed first; the losing team is listed below it.
Year Games Winner and Loser
---- ----- ----------------
1903 5-3 (AL) Boston Red Sox
(NL) Pittsburgh Pirates
1904 No Series
1905 4-1 (NL) New York Giants
(AL) Philadelphia Athletics
1906 4-2 (AL) Chicago White Sox
(NL) Chicago Cubs
1907 4-0 (NL) Chicago Cubs
(AL) Detroit Tigers
1908 4-1 (NL) Chicago Cubs
(AL) Detroit Tigers
1909 4-3 (NL) Pittsburgh Pirates
(AL) Detroit Tigers
1910 4-1 (AL) Philadelphia Athletics
(NL) Chicago Cubs
1911 4-2 (AL) Philadelphia Athletics
(NL) New York Giants
1912 4-3 (AL) Boston Red Sox
(NL) New York Giants
1913 4-1 (AL) Philadelphia Athletics
(NL) New York Giants
1914 4-0 (NL) Boston Braves
(AL) Philadelphia Athletics
1915 4-1 (AL) Boston Red Sox
(NL) Philadelphia Phillies
1916 4-1 (AL) Boston Red Sox
(NL) Brooklyn Dodgers
1917 4-2 (AL) Chicago White Sox
(NL) New York Giants
1918 4-2 (AL) Boston Red Sox
(NL) Chicago Cubs
1919 5-3 (NL) Cincinnati Reds
(AL) Chicago White Sox
1920 5-2 (AL) Cleveland Indians
(NL) Brooklyn Dodgers
1921 5-3 (NL) New York Giants
(AL) New York Yankees
1922 4-0 (NL) New York Giants
(AL) New York Yankees
1923 4-2 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) New York Giants
1924 4-3 (AL) Washington Senators
(NL) New York Giants
1925 4-3 (NL) Pittsburgh Pirates
(AL) Washington Senators
1926 4-3 (NL) St. Louis Cardinals
(AL) New York Yankees
1927 4-0 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Pittsburgh Pirates
1928 4-0 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) St. Louis Cardinals
1929 4-1 (AL) Philadelphia Athletics
(NL) Chicago Cubs
1930 4-2 (AL) Philadelphia Athletics
(NL) St. Louis Cardinals
1931 4-3 (NL) St. Louis Cardinals
(AL) Philadelphia Athletics
1932 4-0 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Chicago Cubs
1933 4-1 (NL) New York Giants
(AL) Washington Senators
1934 4-3 (NL) St. Louis Cardinals
(AL) Detroit Tigers
1935 4-2 (AL) Detroit Tigers
(NL) Chicago Cubs
1936 4-2 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) New York Giants
1937 4-1 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) New York Giants
1938 4-0 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Chicago Cubs
1939 4-0 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Cincinnati Reds
1940 4-3 (NL) Cincinnati Reds
(AL) Detroit Tigers
1941 4-1 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Brooklyn Dodgers
1942 4-1 (NL) St. Louis Cardinals
(AL) New York Yankees
1943 4-1 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) St. Louis Cardinals
1944 4-2 (NL) St. Louis Cardinals
(AL) St. Louis Browns
1945 4-3 (AL) Detroit Tigers
(NL) Chicago Cubs
1946 4-3 (NL) St. Louis Cardinals
(AL) Boston Red Sox
1947 4-3 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Brooklyn Dodgers
1948 4-2 (AL) Cleveland Indians
(NL) Boston Braves
1949 4-1 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Brooklyn Dodgers
1950 4-0 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Philadelphia Phillies
1951 4-2 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) New York Giants
1952 4-3 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Brooklyn Dodgers
1953 4-2 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Brooklyn Dodgers
1954 4-0 (NL) New York Giants
(NL) Cleveland Indians
1955 4-3 (NL) Brooklyn Dodgers
(AL) New York Yankees
1956 4-3 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Brooklyn Dodgers
1957 4-3 (NL) Milwaukee Braves
(AL) New York Yankees
1958 4-3 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Milwaukee Braves
1959 4-2 (NL) Los Angeles Dodgers
(AL) Chicago White Sox
1960 4-3 (NL) Pittsburgh Pirates
(AL) New York Yankees
1961 4-1 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Cincinnati Reds
1962 4-3 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) San Francisco Giants
1963 4-0 (NL) Los Angeles Dodgers
(AL) New York Yankees
1964 4-3 (NL) St. Louis Cardinals
(AL) New York Yankees
1965 4-3 (NL) Los Angeles Dodgers
(AL) Minnesota Twins
1966 4-0 (AL) Baltimore Orioles
(NL) Los Angeles Dodgers
1967 4-3 (NL) St. Louis Cardinals
(AL) Boston Red Sox
1968 4-3 (AL) Detroit Tigers
(NL) St. Louis Cardinals
1969 4-1 (NL) New York Mets
(AL) Baltimore Orioles
1970 4-1 (AL) Baltimore Orioles
(NL) Cincinnati Reds
1971 4-3 (NL) Pittsburgh Pirates
(AL) Baltimore Orioles
1972 4-3 (AL) Oakland Athletics
(NL) Cincinnati Reds
1973 4-3 (AL) Oakland Athletics
(NL) New York Mets
1974 4-1 (AL) Oakland Athletics
(NL) Los Angeles Dodgers
1975 4-3 (NL) Cincinnati Reds
(AL) Boston Red Sox
1976 4-0 (NL) Cincinnati Reds
(AL) New York Yankees
1977 4-2 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Los Angeles Dodgers
1978 4-2 (AL) New York Yankees
(NL) Los Angeles Dodgers
1979 4-3 (NL) Pittsburgh Pirates
(AL) Baltimore Orioles
1980 4-2 (NL) Philadelphia Phillies
(AL) Kansas City Royals
1981 4-2 (NL) Los Angeles Dodgers
(AL) New York Yankees
1982 4-3 (NL) St. Louis Cardinals
(AL) Milwaukee Brewers
1983 4-1 (AL) Baltimore Orioles
(NL) Philadelphia Phillies
1984 4-1 (AL) Detroit Tigers
(NL) San Diego Padres
1985 4-3 (AL) Kansas City Royals
(NL) St. Louis Cardinals
1986 4-3 (NL) New York Mets
(AL) Boston Red Sox
1987 4-3 (AL) Minnesota Twins
(NL) St. Louis Cardinals
1988 4-1 (NL) Los Angeles Dodgers
(AL) Oakland Athletics
Basketball
Basketball usually is played indoors on a
rectangular wooden court by two teams, each with
five players. At both ends of the court are
suspended two goals, or baskets, consisting of a
circular metal rim 10 feet above the floor
attached to a square backboard made of wood,
plastic, or fiberglass. A cord net is hung below
the rim. The object is to shoot the ball so that
it goes through the basket from above and to
prevent your opponents from doing the same.
Basketball uses a large rubber ball covered with
leather.
Play begins with a jump ball. The official throws
the ball upward at the center circle between two
opposing players. The two players try to tip or
slap the ball to a teammate and thus gain
possession of the ball. Each team defends one
goal. There is an offensive and defensive half of
the court for each team, divided by the mid-court
line. The ball can be advanced down the court by
passing to a teammate, dribbling (bouncing the
ball while walking or running), or shooting the
ball at the basket. Running or walking while
holding the ball is not permitted. If a shot goes
in the basket, two points are awarded to the
shooting team. If a shot is missed (usually
hitting the rim or backboard), a defensive player
may rebound the ball (catch it as it bounces away
from the basket). He then may begin to advance
the ball to the other end of the court in
preparation for a shot by his team. An offensive
player may also rebound a missed shot and shoot
again. A shot made from beyond the three-point
line (23 feet 9 inches from the rim) scores three
points instead of the usual two.
Holding, pushing, grabbing, and similar types of
body contact are not permitted; these are called
fouls. They may result in a foul shot or free
throw, an unimpeded shot taken by the offended
player from a line on the court 15 feet from the
basket. A successful free throw scores one point.
Professional basketball games are divided into
four 12-minute quarters; the team with more
points at the end of that time wins the game.
National Basketball Association (NBA)
Eastern Conference
Atlantic Division Central Division
Boston Celtics Atlanta Hawks
Charlotte Hornets Chicago Bulls
New Jersey Nets Cleveland Cavaliers
New York Knickerbockers Detroit Pistons
Philadelphia 76ers Indiana Pacers
Washington Bullets Milwaukee Bucks
Western Conference
Midwest Division Pacific Division
Dallas Mavericks Golden State Warriors
Denver Nuggets Los Angeles Clippers
Houston Rockets Los Angeles Lakers
Miami Heat Phoenix Suns
San Antonio Spurs Portland Trailblazers
Utah Jazz Sacramento Kings
Seattle Supersonics
Bowling
Bowling, or tenpins, is an indoor sport in which
a player attempts to knock down ten wooden pins
that are arranged in a triangular formation. This
is accomplished by rolling a ball down a wooden
lane, or alley. The ball, which usually weighs
about 16 pounds, is fitted with three holes for
thumb and finger grips. Each game is divided into
ten frames, and the bowler is allowed a maximum
of two rolls per frame, except for the last
frame, where he is allowed three. If a player
knocks down all ten pins with one roll, it is
called a strike; the second roll of the frame is
not used, except for the tenth frame, where three
strikes are possible. If a player knocks down all
ten pins using both rolls of the frame, it is
called a spare. The number of pins knocked down
by the end of the game determines the score, with
spares scoring 10 plus the number of pins knocked
down on the next roll and strikes scoring 10 plus
the number of pins knocked down on the next two
rolls. A perfect game of 12 consecutive strikes
scores 300.
Football
American football has 11 players on each team and
is played on a large rectangular field. At each
end of the field is an end zone, where the
H-shaped goal posts are placed. The object is to
gain possession of an inflated leather or pigskin
ball and move it across the opponents' goal line
by running or passing, thus scoring a touchdown,
which is worth six points. Passing the ball is
usually done by the quarterback. Points also are
scored by kicking the ball through the goalposts.
This opportunity is given automatically after a
touchdown; the point is called a point after
touchdown, or extra point. A field goal scores
three points. The defensive team can score by
downing an offensive player in his own end zone.
This is called a safety and scores two points.
The offensive team must gain 10 yards in four
tries, called downs, or give up possession of the
ball. If 10 or more yards are gained, the offense
has four more downs to advance the ball. If on
the fourth down (or, rarely, before) it seems
unlikely that the 10-yard minimum will be
reached, the offense has the option of kicking
the ball to the opponents. This is called a punt,
and the defensive team, after catching the ball,
goes on offense. The defensive team may also gain
possession of the ball, and thus become the
offense, by catching a ball passed by the
quarterback and intended for a teammate
(interception), or by recovering the ball after
it has been dropped by an offensive player
(fumble). The defense hinders the attempts of the
offense to gain yardage by tackling the ball
carrier and pulling him to the ground. Because
blocking and tackling can be very rough, football
players wear protective helmets and substantial
padding.
The game is divided into four 15-minute periods;
the team with the most points after the end of
that time is the winner.
National Football League (NFL)
National Conference
Eastern Division
Dallas Cowboys
New York Giants
Philadelphia Eagles
Phoenix Cardinals
Washington Redskins
Central Division
Chicago Bears
Detroit Lions
Green Bay Packers
Minnesota Vikings
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Western Division
Atlanta Falcons
New Orleans Saints
Los Angeles Rams
San Francisco 49ers
American Conference
Eastern Division
Buffalo Bills
Indianapolis Colts
Miami Dolphins
New England Patriots
New York Jets
Central Division
Cincinnati Bengals
Cleveland Browns
Houston Oilers
Pittsburgh Steelers
Western Division
Denver Broncos
Kansas City Chiefs
Los Angeles Raiders
San Diego Chargers
Seattle Seahawks
The Super Bowl
The Super Bowl, played in January, marks the end of
the professional football season that began the
previous fall. The first four Super Bowls were
played between the champions of the National
Football League and those of the American Football
League. The two leagues then merged; the game has
since been played between the National Football
Conference champions and the American Football
Conference champions. The winners and losers follow.
Note: The league or conference abbreviation is
specified in parenthesis before each team name; the
winning team is listed first; the losing team is
listed below it.
Year Score Winner and Loser
____ _____ ________________
I 1967 35-10 (NFL) Green Bay Packers
(AFL) Kansas City Chiefs
II 1968 35-14 (NFL) Green Bay Packers
(AFL) Oakland Raiders
III 1969 16-7 (AFL) New York Jets
(NFL) Baltimore Colts
IV 1970 23-7 (AFL) Kansas City Chiefs
(NFL) Minnesota Vikings
V 1971 16-13 (AFC) Baltimore Colts
(NFC) Dallas Cowboys
VI 1972 24-3 (NFC) Dallas Cowboys
(AFC) Miami Dolphins
VII 1973 14-7 (AFC) Miami Dolphins
(NFC) Washington Redskins
VIII 1974 24-7 (AFC) Miami Dolphins
(NFC) Minnesota Vikings
IX 1975 16-6 (AFC) Pittsburgh Steelers
(NFC) Minnesota Vikings
X 1976 21-17 (AFC) Pittsburgh Steelers
(NFC) Dallas Cowboys
XI 1977 32-14 (AFC) Oakland Raiders
(NFC) Minnesota Vikings
XII 1978 27-10 (NFC) Dallas Cowboys
(AFC) Denver Broncos
XIII 1979 35-31 (AFC) Pittsburgh Steelers
(NFC) Dallas COwboys
XIV 1980 31-19 (AFC) Pittsburgh Steelers
(NFC) Los Angeles Rams
XV 1981 27-10 (AFC) Oakland Raiders
(NFC) Philadelphia Eagles
XVI 1982 26-21 (NFC) San Francisco 49ers
(AFC) Cincinnati Bengals
XVII 1983 27-17 (NFC) Washington Redskins
(AFC) Miami Dolphins
XVIII 1984 38-9 (AFC) Los Angeles Raiders
(NFC) Washington Redskins
XIX 1985 38-16 (NFC) San Francisco 49ers
(AFC) Miami Dolphins
XX 1986 46-10 (NFC) Chicago Bears
(AFC) New England Patriots
XXI 1987 39-20 (NFC) New York Giants
(AFC) Denver Broncos
XXII 1988 42-10 (NFC) Washington Redskins
(AFC) Denver Broncos
XXIII 1989 20-16 (NFC) San Francisco 49ers
(AFC) Cincinnati Bengals
Golf
Golf is an outdoor game in which players hit a
small hard ball with specially designed clubs
that consist of a metal shaft and a wooden or
metal club head. The object is to strike the ball
with the club so that the ball goes into a cup
that is sunk in the ground and marked with a
flag. A standard golf course is divided into 18
holes, each with a tee, where the initial stroke
is made; a grass fairway; and a green, a smooth
grass surface where the cup is located. Each
player attempts to reach the green and hit the
ball into the cup using as few strokes as
possible. Obstacles-such as water, tall grass
called rough, or traps filled with sand-may be
found near the green or fairway. As many as 14
different types of clubs may be used depending on
the length of shot required or the terrain. The
distance from tee to cup varies greatly, but
generally it is from 100 to 600 yards. The length
and difficulty of the hole determine the par, the
number of strokes that a good golfer would need
to put the ball into the cup. After 18 holes, the
player with the lowest number of strokes is the
winner of that round. Golf tournaments are
typically won by the player with the best
(lowest) cumulative score after four rounds.
The Masters
Four major golf tournaments carry the most
important titles in professional golf. They are
the Masters, the Professional Golfer's
Association Tournament (PGA), the U.S. Open, and
the British Open. The Masters, played at the
Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta, Georgia,
is the most sought-after title in professional
golf. The winners of the Masters Tournament
follow.
Year Winner Score
1934 Horton Smith 284
1935 Gene Sarazen* 282
1936 Horton Smith 285
1937 Byron Nelson 283
1938 Henry Picard 285
1939 Ralph Guldahl 279
1940 Jimmy Demaret 280
1941 Craig Wood 280
1942 Byron Nelson* 280
1943 No tournament held
1944 No tournament held
1945 No tournament held
1946 Herman Keiser 282
1947 Jimmy Demaret 281
1948 Claude Harmon 279
1949 Sam Snead 282
1950 Jimmy Demaret 283
1951 Ben Hogan 280
1952 Sam Snead 286
1953 Ben Hogan 274
1954 Sam Snead* 289
1955 Cary Middlecoff 279
1956 Jack Burke 289
1957 Doug Ford 283
1958 Arnold Palmer 284
1959 Art Wall, Jr. 284
1960 Arnold Palmer 282
1961 Gary Player 280
1962 Arnold Palmer* 280
1963 Jack Nicklaus 286
1964 Arnold Palmer 276
1965 Jack Nicklaus 271
1966 Jack Nicklaus* 288
1967 Gay Brewer* 280
1968 Bob Goalby 277
1969 George Archer 281
1970 Billy Casper* 279
1971 Charles Coody 279
1972 Jack Nicklaus 286
1973 Tommy Aaron 283
1974 Gary Player 278
1975 Jack Nicklaus 276
1976 Ray Floyd 271
1977 Tom Watson 276
1978 Gary Player 277
1979 Fuzzy Zoeller* 280
1980 Severiano Ballesteros 275
1981 Tom Watson 280
1982 Craig Stadler* 284
1983 Severiano Ballesteros 280
1984 Ben Crenshaw 277
1985 Bernhard Langer 282
1986 Jack Nicklaus 279
1987 Larry Mize* 285
1988 Sandy Lyle 281
1989 Nick Faldo 283
* Won in a playoff.
Ice Hockey
Ice hockey is played on a rectangular rink that
is surrounded by a wooden wall. At each end of
the ice is placed a netted goal. Six skaters make
up each team, including the goalie, whose job it
is to protect the goal. By using wooden sticks,
the players attempt to propel a rubber disc,
called the puck, across the ice and into the
opponents' goal. This scores a point.
The game begins with a faceoff in the center of
the ice. The official drops the puck between two
players, one from each team. Both teams try to
gain control of the puck and to advance it toward
the opponent's goal by skating with the puck,
passing it to a teammate, or shooting it directly
toward the goal. The defense tries to hinder this
advance by deflecting or intercepting a pass or
shot or by bodychecking an opposing player. This
is physically blocking an opponent with a hip or
shoulder.
There is a wide range of penalties for which the
offending player may be removed from the ice for
a stated number of minutes. During this time, the
penalized team plays with one fewer player than
its opponents, giving a power play to the fully
manned team. Penalty times range from two minutes
for minor violations to ejection from the game
for the most serious fouls. Holding on to the
puck or to an opponent, checking from behind,
tripping, using the stick illegally, and fighting
all normally result in penalties. The offensive
player in control of the puck must cross his own
blue line before any of his teammates. In moving
down the ice and attacking the opponent's end, if
an attacking player without the puck crosses that
line first, he is offside. This is a violation,
leading to a resetting of the puck and a new
faceoff.
Hockey is a rough sport and players wear hip
pads, shoulder pads, padded gloves, and helmets.
The game consists of three 20-minute periods with
rest periods in between. The team with more goals
at the end of that time wins the game.
National Hockey League
Wales Conference
Adams Division Patrick Division
Boston Bruins New Jersey Devils
Buffalo Sabres New York Islanders
Hartford Whalers New York Rangers
Montreal Canadiens Philadelphia Flyers
Quebec Nordiques Pittsburgh Penguins
Washington Capitals
Campbell Conference
Norris Division Smythe Division
Chicago Black Hawks Calgary Flames
Detroit Red Wings Edmonton Oilers
Minnesota North Stars Los Angeles Kings
St. Louis Blues Vancouver Canucks
Toronto Maple Leafs Winnipeg Jets
The Stanley Cup
The Stanley Cup is awarded to the championship
team following a best-of-seven-games series
between professional ice hockey conference
champions. Until 1910, amateurs and professionals
were permitted to play on the same teams, but
since 1910, the cup has been presented to
entirely professional teams and since 1917 to the
champions of the National Hockey League (NHL).
Stanley Cup winners follow.
1894 Montreal A.A.A.
1895 Montreal Victorias
1896 Winnipeg Victorias
1897 Montreal Victorias
1898 Montreal Victorias
1899 Montreal Victorias
1900 Montreal Shamrocks
1901 Winnipeg Victorias
1902 Montreal A.A.A.
1903 Ottawa Silver Seven
1904 Ottawa Silver Seven
1905 Ottawa Silver Seven
1906 Montreal Wanderers
1907 Kenora Thistles (Jan.)
Montreal Wanderers (March)
1908 Montreal Wanderers
1909 Ottawa Senators
1910 Montreal Wanderers
1911 Ottawa Senators
1912 Quebec Bulldogs
1913 Quebec Bulldogs
1914 Toronto Ontarios
1915 Vancouver Millionaires
1916 Montreal Canadiens
1917 Seattle Metropolitans
1918 Toronto Arenas
1919 Championship series unfinished
1920 Ottawa Senators
1921 Ottawa Senators
1922 Toronto St. Patricks
1923 Ottawa Senators
1924 Montreal Canadiens
1925 Victoria Cougars
1926 Montreal Maroons
1927 Ottawa Senators
1928 New York Rangers
1929 Boston Bruins
1930 Montreal Canadiens
1931 Montreal Canadiens
1932 Toronto Maple Leafs
1933 New York Rangers
1934 Chicago Black Hawks
1935 Montreal Maroons
1936 Detroit Red Wings
1937 Detroit Red Wings
1938 Chicago Black Hawks
1939 Boston Bruins
1940 New York Rangers
1941 Boston Bruins
1942 Toronto Maple Leafs
1943 Detroit Red Wings
1944 Montreal Canadiens
1945 Toronto Maple Leafs
1946 Montreal Canadiens
1947 Toronto Maple Leafs
1948 Toronto Maple Leafs
1949 Toronto Maple Leafs
1950 Detroit Red Wings
1951 Toronto Maple Leafs
1952 Detroit Red Wings
1953 Montreal Canadiens
1954 Detroit Red Wings
1955 Detroit Red Wings
1956 Montreal Canadiens
1957 Montreal Canadiens
1958 Montreal Canadiens
1959 Montreal Canadiens
1960 Montreal Canadiens
1961 Chicago Black Hawks
1962 Toronto Maple Leafs
1963 Toronto Maple Leafs
1964 Toronto Maple Leafs
1965 Montreal Canadiens
1966 Montreal Canadiens
1967 Toronto Maple Leafs
1968 Montreal Canadiens
1969 Montreal Canadiens
1970 Boston Bruins
1971 Montreal Canadiens
1972 Boston Bruins
1973 Montreal Canadiens
1974 Philadelphia Flyers
1975 Philadelphia Flyers
1976 Montreal Canadiens
1977 Montreal Canadiens
1978 Montreal Canadiens
1979 Montreal Canadiens
1980 New York Islanders
1981 New York Islanders
1982 New York Islanders
1983 New York Islanders
1984 Edmonton Oilers
1985 Edmonton Oilers
1986 Montreal Canadiens
1987 Edmonton Oilers
1988 Edmonton Oilers
Tennis
Tennis is played either indoors or outdoors on a
rectangular court, which may be grass, clay, or
synthetic. A small felt-covered rubber ball is
hit back and forth over a net with the use of
wooden or metal rackets, which are fitted with
strings made of lamb's gut, nylon, or synthetic
material. The net, which is 3 feet above the
court's surface at its midpoint, is stretched
across the court. Tennis may be played either as
singles, with one player on each side, or as
doubles, with two players on each side. In
doubles, the court is 9 feet wider than in
singles, because of the addition of two doubles
alleys.
To initiate play, the server stands behind the
baseline and to the right of the center mark and
hits the ball with the racket so that the ball
lands in the diagonally opposite service court of
the opponent. If this first serve does not land
in this service area because it is hit too long
or too wide, or hits the net, the server may try
again with a second serve. If this second serve
is not a legal serve, the receiver scores a
point. At each point the serve alternates left to
right, with the server always serving from behind
the baseline to the diagonally opposite service
court. The receiver attempts to return a legal
serve by hitting the ball anywhere into the
opponent's court, which includes the alleys in
doubles. Play continues until one player (or one
team, in doubles) fails to make a legal return. A
point is then scored by the opponent.
Four points constitute a game, designated as 15,
30, 40, and game; a player must win each game by
at least two points. Thus, if after six points in
any game each player has scored three, the score
is 40-40 (this is called deuce). One player must
then score two consecutive points to win the
game; this player has the advantage after winning
the first of these two points. Having the
advantage, if the player wins the second
consecutive point, he or she wins the game; but
if the opponent wins that point, the score goes
back to 40-40, or deuce. Play then continues
until one player wins the game by scoring two
consecutive points.
Each player (or team, in doubles) alternates by
serving one game and receiving the next. The
first to win six games wins a set, provided the
margin of victory is two games or more. Thus, if
the score reaches six games to four, the set is
over, but at six to five, play continues. If the
score reaches six to six, a tiebreaker is usually
employed. A match consists of the best two out of
three sets in women's play and usually the best
three out of five in men's play.
Wimbledon
There are four major championships in
professional tennis that make up the Grand Slam:
the French Open, the Australian Open, the U.S.
Open, and the All-England Lawn Tennis
Championships, better known as Wimbledon.
Wimbledon is the oldest and most prestigious
tournament of the four. The winners since 1877
follow.
Men's Singles Champions
1877 Spencer W. Gore
1878 P. F. Hadow
1879 J. T. Hartley
1880 J. T. Hartley
1881 William Renshaw
1882 William Renshaw
1883 William Renshaw
1884 William Renshaw
1885 William Renshaw
1886 William Renshaw
1887 Herbert Lawford
1888 Ernest Renshaw
1889 William Renshaw
1890 Willoughby Hamilton
1891 Wilfred Baddeley
1892 Wilfred Baddeley
1893 Joshua Pim
1894 Joshua Pim
1895 Wilfred Baddeley
1896 Harold Mahoney
1897 Reginald Doherty
1898 Reginald Doherty
1899 Reginald Doherty
1900 Reginald Doherty
1901 Arthur Gore
1902 H. Laurence Doherty
1903 H. Laurence Doherty
1904 H. Laurence Doherty
1905 H. Laurence Doherty
1906 H. Laurence Doherty
1907 Norman Brookes
1908 Arthur Gore
1909 Arthur Gore
1910 Anthony F. Wilding
1911 Anthony F. Wilding
1912 Anthony F. Wilding
1913 Anthony F. Wilding
1914 Norman Brookes
1915 No tournament held
1916 No tournament held
1917 No tournament held
1918 No tournament held
1919 Gerald Patterson
1920 Bill Tilden
1921 Bill Tilden
1922 Gerald Patterson
1923 William Johnston
1924 Jean Borotra
1925 Jean Rene Lacoste
1926 Jean Borotra
1927 Henri Cochet
1928 Jean Rene Lacoste
1929 Henri Cochet
1930 Bill Tilden
1931 Sidney Wood
1932 Ellsworth Vines
1933 Jack Crawford
1934 Fred Perry
1935 Fred Perry
1936 Fred Perry
1937 Donald Budge
1938 Donald Budge
1939 Bobby Riggs
1940 No tournament held
1941 No tournament held
1942 No tournament held
1943 No tournament held
1944 No tournament held
1945 No tournament held
1946 Yvon Petra
1947 Jack Kramer
1948 Bob Falkenburg
1949 Ted Schroeder
1950 Budge Patty
1951 Dick Savitt
1952 Frank Sedgman
1953 Vic Seixas
1954 Jaroslav Drobny
1955 Tony Trabert
1956 Lew Hoad
1957 Lew Hoad
1958 Ashley Cooper
1959 Alex Olmedo
1960 Neale Fraser
1961 Rod Laver
1962 Rod Laver
1963 Chuck McKinley
1964 Roy Emerson
1965 Roy Emerson
1966 Manuel Santana
1967 John Newcombe
1968 Rod Laver
1969 Rod Laver
1970 John Newcombe
1971 John Newcombe
1972 Stan Smith
1973 Jan Kodes
1974 Jimmy Connors
1975 Arthur Ashe
1976 Bjorn Borg
1977 Bjorn Borg
1978 Bjorn Borg
1979 Bjorn Borg
1980 Bjorn Borg
1981 John McEnroe
1982 Jimmy Connors
1983 John McEnroe
1984 John McEnroe
1985 Boris Becker
1986 Boris Becker
1987 Pat Cash
1988 Stefan Edberg
Women's Singles Champions
1884 Maud Watson
1885 Maud Watson
1886 Blanche Bingley
1887 Lottie Dod
1888 Lottie Dod
1889 Blanche Bingley Hillyard
1890 L. Rice
1891 Lottie Dod
1892 Lottie Dod
1893 Lottie Dod
1894 Blanche Bingley Hillyard
1895 Charlotte Cooper
1896 Charlotte Cooper
1897 Blanche Bingley Hillyard
1898 Charlotte Cooper
1899 Blanche Bingley Hillyard
1900 Blanche Bingley Hillyard
1901 Charlotte Cooper Sterry
1902 Muriel Robb
1903 Dorothea Douglass
1904 Dorothea Douglass
1905 May Sutton
1906 Dorothea Douglass
1907 May Sutton
1908 Charlotte Cooper Sterry
1909 Dora Boothby
1910 Dorothea Douglass Chambers
1911 Dorothea Douglass Chambers
1912 Ethel Larcombe
1913 Dorothea Douglass Chambers
1914 Dorothea Douglass Chambers
1915 No tournament held
1916 No tournament held
1917 No tournament held
1918 No tournament held
1919 Suzanne Lenglen
1920 Suzanne Lenglen
1921 Suzanne Lenglen
1922 Suzanne Lenglen
1923 Suzanne Lenglen
1924 Kitty McKane
1925 Suzanne Lenglen
1926 Kitty McKane Godfree
1927 Helen Wills
1928 Helen Wills
1929 Helen Wills
1930 Helen Wills Moody
1931 Cilly Aussem
1932 Helen Wills Moody
1933 Helen Wills Moody
1934 Dorothy Round
1935 Helen Wills Moody
1936 Helen Jacobs
1937 Dorothy Round
1938 Helen Wills Moody
1939 Alice Marble
1940 No tournament held
1941 No tournament held
1942 No tournament held
1943 No tournament held
1944 No tournament held
1945 No tournament held
1946 Pauline Betz
1947 Margaret Osborne
1948 A. Louise Brough
1949 A. Louise Brough
1950 A. Louise Brough
1951 Doris Hart
1952 Maureen Connolly
1953 Maureen Connolly
1954 Maureen Connolly
1955 A. Louise Brough
1956 Shirley Fry
1957 Althea Gibson
1958 Althea Gibson
1959 Maria Bueno
1960 Maria Bueno
1961 Angela Mortimer
1962 Karen Susman
1963 Margaret Smith
1964 Maria Bueno
1965 Margaret Smith
1966 Billie Jean King
1967 Billie Jean King
1968 Billie Jean King
1969 Ann Jones
1970 Margaret Smith Court
1971 Evonne Goolagong
1972 Billie Jean King
1973 Billie Jean King
1974 Chris Evert
1975 Billie Jean King
1976 Chris Evert
1977 Virginia Wade
1978 Martina Navratilova
1979 Martina Navratilova
1980 Evonne Goolagong
1981 Chris Evert Lloyd
1982 Martina Navratilova
1983 Martina Navratilova
1984 Martina Navratilova
1985 Martina Navratilova
1986 Martina Navratilova
1987 Martina Navratilova
1988 Steffi Graf
1989 Steffi Graf
Volleyball
Volleyball is played either outdoors or indoors
on a rectangular court, with six players to a
side. An inflated ball is hit back and forth over
a net; the players try to prevent the ball from
hitting the court on their own side. The net's
top is 8 feet above the floor (slightly lower in
women's play). To initiate play the ball is
served by hitting it with the hand or fist and
thereby sending it over the net toward the
opponent's court. After the serve, the ball may
be hit with any part of the body. The ball may be
hit a maximum of three times by each team, the
third hit sending the ball over the net. Catching
or holding the ball is not permitted.
If the receiving team allows the ball to hit the
floor on its side, or hits the ball out of
bounds, the serving team scores a point and
serves again. If the serving team allows the ball
to hit the floor, hits it out of bounds, or fails
to make a legal serve, the serve is transferred
to the opponents, but no point is scored. The
first team to reach 15 points wins the game,
provided the margin of victory is at least two
points. In championship play, a match is won by
winning three out of five games. (See
illustration of court on page 588.)
HORSE RACING
The Triple Crown
The best-known horse races in America are the
Kentucky Derby, the Preakness, and the Belmont
Stakes. These three races for three-year-olds
make up horse racing's Triple Crown. Eleven
horses have won all three events.
Year Horse Year Horse
1919 Sir Barton 1946 Assault
1930 Gallant Fox 1948 Citation
1935 Omaha 1973 Secretariat
1937 War Admiral 1977 Seattle Slew
1941 Whirlaway 1978 Affirmed
1943 Count Fleet
Winning Horses in the Kentucky Derby
(Held at Churchill Downs; 1 1/4 miles)
1875 Aristides
1876 Vagrant
1877 Baden Baden
1878 Day Star
1879 Lord Murphy
1880 Fonso
1881 Hindoo
1882 Apollo
1883 Leonatus
1884 Buchanan
1885 Joe Cotton
1886 Ben Ali
1887 Montrose
1888 Macbeth II
1889 Spokane
1890 Riley
1891 Kingman
1892 Azra
1893 Lookout
1894 Chant
1895 Halma
1896 Ben Brush
1897 Typhoon H
1898 Plaudit
1899 Manuel
1900 Lieutenant Gibson
1901 His Eminence
1902 Alan-a-Dale
1903 Judge Himes
1904 Elwood
1905 Agile
1906 Sir Huon
1907 Pink Star
1908 Stone Street
1909 Wintergreen
1910 Donau
1911 Meridian
1912 Worth
1913 Donerail
1914 Old Rosebud
1915 Regret
1916 George Smith
1917 Omar Khayyam
1918 Exterminator
1919 Sir Barton
1920 Paul Jones
1921 Behave Yourself
1922 Morvich
1923 Zev
1924 Black Gold
1925 Flying Ebony
1926 Bubbling Over
1927 Whiskery
1928 Reigh Count
1929 Clyde Van Dusen
1930 Gallant Fox
1931 Twenty Grand
1932 Burgoo King
1933 Brokers Tip
1934 Cavalcade
1935 Omaha
1936 Bold Venture
1937 War Admiral
1938 Lawrin
1939 Johnstown
1940 Gallahadion
1941 Whirlaway
1942 Shut Out
1943 Count Fleet
1944 Pensive
1945 Hoop Jr.
1946 Assault
1947 Jet Pilot
1948 Citation
1949 Ponder
1950 Middleground
1951 Count Turf
1952 Hill Gail
1953 Dark Star
1954 Determine
1955 Swaps
1956 Needles
1957 Iron Liege
1958 Tim Tam
1959 Tomy Lee
1960 Venetian Way
1961 Carry Back
1962 Decidedly
1963 Chateauguay
1964 Northern Dancer
1965 Lucky Debonair
1966 Kauai King
1967 Proud Clarion
1968 Forward Pass*
1969 Majestic Prince
1970 Dust Commander
1971 Canonero II
1972 Riva Ridge
1973 Secretariat
1974 Cannonade
1975 Foolish Pleasure
1976 Bold Forges
1977 Seattle Slew
1978 Affirmed
1979 Spectacular Bid
1980 Genuine Risk
1981 Pleasant Colony
1982 Gato del Sol
1983 Sunny's Halo
1984 Swale
1985 Spend a Buck
1986 Ferdinand
1987 Alysheba
1988 Winning Colors
1989 Sunday Silence
* In 1968, Dancer's Image finished first but was
disqualified.
AUTO RACING
Indianapolis 500 Winners
1911 Ray Harroun
1912 Joe Dawson
1913 Jules Goux
1914 Rene Thomas
1915 Ralph DePalma
1916 Dario Resta
1917 No race held
1918 No race held
1919 Howard Wilcox
1920 Gaston Chevrolet
1921 Tommy Milton
1922 Jimmy Murphy
1923 Tommy Milton
1924 L. L. Corum-Joe Boyer
1925 Peter DePaolo
1926 Frank Lockhart
1927 George Souders
1928 Louis Meyer
1929 Ray Keech
1930 Billy Arnold
1931 Louis Schneider
1932 Fred Frame
1933 Louis Meyer
1934 Bill Cummings
1935 Kelly Petillo
1936 Louis Meyer
1937 Wilbur Shaw
1938 Floyd Roberts
1939 Wilbur Shaw
1940 Wilbur Shaw
1941 Floyd Davis=nMauri Rose
1942 No race held
1943 No race held
1944 No race held
1945 No race held
1946 George Robson
1947 Mauri Rose
1948 Mauri Rose
1949 Bill Holland
1950 Johnnie Parsons
1951 Lee Wallard
1952 Troy Ruttman
1953 Bill Vukovich
1954 Bill Vukovich
1955 Bob Sweikert
1956 Pat Flaherty
1957 Sam Hanks
1958 Jimmy Bryan
1959 Rodger Ward
1960 Jim Rathmann
1961 A. J. Foyt
1962 Rodger Ward
1963 Parnelli Jones
1964 A. J. Foyt
1965 Jim Clark
1966 Graham Hill
1967 A. J. Foyt
1968 Bobby Unser
1969 Mario Andretti
1970 Al Unser
1971 Al Unser
1972 Mark Donohue
1973 Gordon Johncock
1974 Johnny Rutherford
1975 Bobby Unser
1976 Johnny Rutherford
1977 A. J. Foyt
1978 Al Unser
1979 Rick Mears
1980 Johnny Rutherford
1981 Bobby Unser
1982 Gordon Johncock
1983 Tom Sneva
1984 Rick Mears
1985 Danny Sullivan
1986 Bobby Rahal
1987 Al Unser
1988 Rick Mears
1989 Emerson Fittipaldi
Olympic Games
Summer Games
Year Location
1896 Athens, Greece
1900 Paris, France
1904 St. Louis, Missouri
1908 London, England
1912 Stockholm, Sweden
1920 Antwerp, Belgium
1924 Paris, France
1928 Amsterdam, The Netherlands
1932 Los Angeles, California
1936 Berlin, Germany
1948 London, England
1952 Helsinki, Finland
1956 Melbourne, Australia
1960 Rome, Italy
1964 Tokyo, Japan
1968 Mexico City, Mexico
1972 Munich, West Germany
1976 Montreal, Canada
1980 Moscow, USSR
1984 Los Angeles, California
1988 Seoul, South Korea
Winter Games
Year Location
1924 Chamonix, France
1928 St. Moritz, Switzerland
1932 Lake Placid, New York
1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
1948 St. Moritz, Switzerland
1952 Oslo, Norway
1956 Cortina, Italy
1960 Squaw Valley, California
1964 Innsbruck, Austria
1968 Grenoble, France
1972 Sapporo, Japan
1976 Innsbruck, Austria
1980 Lake Placid, New York
1984 Sarajevo, Yugoslavia
1988 Calgary, Canada
1988 Olympic Events
Summer Games
Men
Boxing
Canoeing
Judo
Soccer (team)
Water polo (team)
Weightlifting
Wrestling
Freestyle
Greco-Roman
Men's swimming
50 m, 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 1500 m freestyle
100 m, 200 m backstroke
100 m, 200 m breast stroke
100 m, 200 m butterfly
200 m, 400 m individual medley
400 m, 800 m freestyle medley
400 m medley relay
Springboard dive
Platform dive
Men's track and field
100 m, 200 m, 400 m dash
800 m, 1500 m, 5000 m, 10,000 m run
Marathon
110 m, 400 m hurdles
3000 m steeplechase
20 km, 50 km walk
400 m relay (4 x 100)
1600 m relay (4 x 400)
High jump
Long jump
Triple jump
Pole vault
Shot put
Discus throw
Javelin throw
Hammer throw
Decathlon
Men and women
Archery
Basketball (team)
Cycling
Equestrian*
Fencing
Field hockey
Gymnastics
Handball (team)
Kayaking
Rowing
Shooting
Table tennis
Tennis
Volleyball (team)
Yachting
Women's swimming
50 m, 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 800 m freestyle
100 m, 200 m backstroke
100 m, 200 m breast stroke
100 m, 200 m butterfly
200 m, 400 m individual medley
400 m freestyle relay
400 m medley relay
Springboard dive
Platform dive
Synchronized swimming
Women's track and field
100 m, 200 m, 400 m dash
800 m, 1500 m, 3000 m run
100 m, 400 m hurdles
400 m relay (4 x 100)
1600 m relay (4 x 400)
Marathon
High jump
Long jump
Shot put
Discus throw
Javelin throw
Heptathlon
Modern pentathlon
* In equestrian sports, men and women compete
against one another.
Winter Games
Except for biathlon, bobsledding, and ice hockey,
all winter sports at the 1984 and 1988 games were
divided into two classes, one for men and the
other for women. Biathlon, bobsledding, and ice
hockey were played by men only. In paired figure
skating and ice dancing, men and women performed
together.
10 K biathlon
20 K biathlon
30 K biathlon relay
4-man bobsledding
2-man bobsledding
Figure skating
Ice dancing
Ice hockey
Luge
Alpine skiing
Downhill
Slalom
Giant slalom
Super giant slalom
Nordic skiing
Men's cross country 15 K, 30 K, 50 K, 40 K relay
combined cross country and jumping
ski jumping: 90 m, 70 m
Women's cross country 5 K, 10 K, 20 K, 20 K relay
Speed skating
Men: 500 m, 100 m, 1500 m, 5 K, 10 K
Women: 500 m, 100 m, 1500 m, 3 K, 5 K
Board Games
Backgammon
Backgammon is a board game played by two players,
each with 15 markers, or stones, which at the
beginning of the game are placed in a standard
initial configuration (see diagram) on the board.
The board is divided into two tables, each with
12 triangular spaces, or points. Each player
rolls two dice to determine the number of points
moved by the stones, with black moving around the
board in one direction and white moving in the
opposite direction. The numbers on each die can
be combined to move one stone the total amount
indicated, or each die's value can be applied
separately to single stones. If "doubles" are
thrown (i.e., two 6s), the player can move twice
as many points as are shown on the dice=min this
case, four stones can move six spaces each, one
can move six spaces and one eighteen spaces, two
can move 12 spaces each, or one stone can move 24
spaces. The object of the game is to be the first
person to move his or her stones around the board
and then off, called bearing off.
Any number of stones of the same color may stay
on one point, but stones of the opposite color
may not occupy the same point. A point occupied
by two or more stones of the same color is said
to be closed; it prevents the opponent from
landing there. A point occupied by one marker (or
none) is open. A single stone on any point is
called a blot, and the opponent may land there
with a hit. This sends the blot back to the
beginning by placing it on the bar. It must enter
the game again by rolling a number on one of the
dice corresponding to an open point or to one
occupied by stones of the same color before the
owner may make another move.
Backgammon depends on the roll of the dice and is
therefore partially a game of chance, but it can
also involve complex strategy and tactics. The
game may make use of the doubling cube, which is
a die with a number on each face (2, 4, 8, 16,
32, 64). Using this cube, either player can at
any point in the game double the stakes, whether
they be points, as in tournament play, or money,
as in the gambling version.
Checkers
Checkers is played by two players on a board with
64 squares alternating light and dark. Only the
dark squares of the board are used. The board is
eight squares wide and eight squares long. Each
player uses 12 wooden discs called checkers,
usually red for one player and black for the
other. The pieces are set up on the dark squares
of the first three ranks, four in each rank. The
players alternate turns by moving one checker
forward diagonally toward the opposing player's
checkers. The object is to jump over the
opponent's pieces, which are then removed from
play. A player wins when all the opponent's
pieces have been removed. If a player manages to
advance a piece to the last rank on the opposite
end of the board, that piece becomes a king and
thereby acquires the capability of moving
backward as well as forward.
Chess
Chess is a game for two players, one of them
directing the white pieces and one of them the
black pieces. It is played on a board with 64
squares of alternating colors, black and white.
The board is eight squares wide and eight long.
Squares on the board are normally referred to by
coordinates, using numbered ranks and lettered
files. Each player has 16 pieces: eight pawns,
two rooks, two knights, two bishops, a queen, and
a king. To start the game, the pieces are set up
using the 32 spaces of ranks 1 and 2 (for one
color) and 7 and 8 (for the other color). Rooks
occupy the outermost files (a and h), with
knights placed next to them (b and g); next to
them are the bishops (c and f). Toward the center
of the board (d and e) the king and queen are
placed, with the white queen on a white square
and the black queen on a black square. The pawns
are placed in front of these pieces, using ranks
2 and 7.
The object of the game is to capture the
opponent's king by placing him in checkmate. In
this position, the king is under attack by an
opposing piece (check), and wherever the king
moves, it remains under attack by that or another
opposing piece. The attacking side thus wins the
game. If a player feels that checkmate is
unavoidable, he or she may give up, or resign. If
neither white nor black is able to checkmate the
opponent or force resignation, a tie may be
agreed upon. This is called a stalemate.
Any piece may capture, or take, an opponent's
piece by landing on the square occupied by that
piece. However, the king can not be captured and
is instead put into check when attacked. If a
piece is captured, it is removed from the board
and, with one rare exception, it may not be used
again. The exception is called queening, whereby
a captured queen may return to the game to
replace a pawn that has safely reached the last
rank (1 or 8).
Each type of piece moves in a prescribed way. A
rook moves forward or back, left or right as many
squares in one direction as is desired. Knights
move two squares in one direction (forward, back,
left, or right) and one square at right angles to
the first direction-or one square in one
direction and two squares at right angles to the
first move-resulting in an L-shaped move. The
knight is the only piece that may jump over
another piece. Bishops move diagonally any number
of spaces in one direction. The queen moves
forward, back, left, right, or diagonally any
number of spaces in one direction. The king moves
as the queen does, but one space at a time. Pawns
move forward only, one space at a time, except
for the first move, which may be two spaces.
Pawns capture pieces by moving diagonally. There
are only two instances in which pieces may move
in other than these prescribed ways:
1. Castling is a two-part move involving the
king and a rook. If neither of these pieces has
moved previously, and if there are no pieces
placed between them, the king may move two spaces
toward the rook, and the rook may move to the far
side next to the king.
2. If, by moving ahead two squares on an opening
move, a black pawn becomes placed next to an
opposing white pawn on the same rank, the white
pawn may take the black pawn by moving diagonally
to the square immediately behind it. This is
called taking en passant, or capturing in
passing. Of course, a black pawn may capture a
white pawn in the same way.
Monopoly
Monopoly uses a board with 40 spaces around the
perimeter. Players, starting with a fixed amount
of money, roll two dice and, in turn, advance
their tokens around the board the number spaces
indicated by the dice. If a player lands on any
of 22 properties, that player may buy it at a
stated price. This money goes into the bank. The
player then receives a deed for that property,
which states the rent that an opposing player
must pay the owner if he or she lands on it. The
object of the game is to accumulate the
properties and, by charging rent when an opponent
lands there, to drive opposing players into
bankruptcy. Properties are grouped by colors,
with two or three to a group. If a player
acquires all the properties within a single
color, that player may develop those properties
by purchasing houses and hotels. These
dramatically increase the rent.
In addition to the color-coded properties, which
are given street names, there are also four
railroads and two utility companies that may be
purchased. These also carry rents, but they may
not be developed. If a player lands on any of six
spaces, three called "Chance" and three
"Community Chest," that player must pick up a
card from two piles placed in the center of the
board and follow its instructions. These involve
monetary transactions either beneficial or
harmful to the player. There is a neutral space
called "Free Parking," a "Jail" space, two tax
spaces, and a space called "Go." Play begins on
the Go space and the players collect $200 each
time they circle the board and pass it.
In informal play, Monopoly may involve
considerable negotiation and trading among
players. The game ends when all but one player
has gone bankrupt; the remaining player is the
winner.
THE MOST LANDED-ON SPACES ON THE MONOPOLY GAME BOARD
According to Irvin R. Hertzel of Iowa State
University, there are 10 spaces on the
Monopoly game board you can count on landing
on more than the others. Using a computer,
Hertzel, a mathematician, was able to figure out
the overall probability of landing on each
square. The following are the 10 most landed-on
spaces.
1.Illinois Avenue
2.Go
3.B.&O. Railroad
4.Free Parking
5.Tennessee Avenue
6.New York Avenue
7.Reading Railroad
8.St. James Place
9.Water Works
10.Pennsylvania Railroad
Scrabble
Scrabble is a word game for two, three, or four
players. The game uses a Scrabble board with
225 spaces, 100 lettered tiles, and a tile rack
for each player. Each player, starting with seven
letters, attempts to form words on the board
using letters from his or her own hand and from
words on the board. Words may read from left to
right or from top to bottom. Usually a new word
uses one letter from a word already on the board,
with which it interlocks at right angles, as in a
crossword. Letters may be added to an existing
word to form a new one.
Each player, after using some or all his or her
tiles to form a word on the board, replenishes
the playing hand from the pool of remaining
tiles, which are face down. Thus each player
always has seven tiles with which to form words,
except toward the end of the game, when the pool
runs out.
Each letter has a numerical value associated with
it; this number is marked on the tile. Players
score for each word formed, based on the value of
each letter in the word. These are recorded using
pencil and paper. Scores may be augmented by
using certain premium spaces on the board. These
special spaces result in doubling or tripling the
values of single letters or complete words. When
no player is able to form additional words, each
player's score is tallied. Values of unplayed
letters for each player are subtracted. The
highest score wins the game.
Card Games
Blackjack
Blackjack is a gambling game using a standard
52-card deck. A counts as 1 or 11; K, Q, J, and
10 count as 10 each; all other cards count their
face number. The object is to hold two or more
cards totaling 21 or as close to 21 as possible
without going over. Cards are dealt one at a
time, clockwise, starting with the player at the
dealer's left. Each player receives one down card
and one face-up card. After this initial deal,
each player may stand and refuse more cards or
take additional cards face-up. For example,
having been dealt a king down and a six up
(totaling 16), if the player chooses to take an
additional card and receives another six, that
player is out with 22. An ace and a picture card
or a 10 is called blackjack; it totals 21 and
beats all other hands.
Various betting methods are used, but usually
bets are made before and after the initial deal
and after each subsequent deal. All players play
against the dealer, and bets are settled
depending on which hands are closest to but not
over 21; if the dealer has the same count as a
given player, the hand is considered a stand-off.
Bridge
Contract bridge uses a standard 52-card deck and
is a game for four players, in partnerships of
two. The teams are designated North-South and
East-West. Cards in each suit rank A (high), K,
Q, J, 10, 9, .|.|. 2 (low), and suits rank spades
(high), hearts, diamonds, and clubs (low). Each
player receives cards, dealt one at a time
clockwise starting at the dealer's left.
Each player in turn gets a chance to make a bid,
which is a statement of the intention to win more
than six tricks. At the same time the player
either declares a high-ranking suit (trump) or
declares no trump. If a player chooses not to
bid, he or she may pass. Bids go around the table
in clockwise rotation, with each bid being higher
than any preceding bid. A bid may be doubled by
an opponent or redoubled by a partner. These
double the scoring value of a bid if it is
played. This bidding segment of the game is
called the auction, and the highest bid becomes
the contract. One member of the contracting team
declares the trump and becomes the declarer. That
person's partner spreads his or her hand face up
on the table and becomes the dummy.
The object of the game is to win tricks in order
to fulfill the contract or to defeat the
opponent's attempt to fulfill it. The player to
the declarer's left leads, and all players must
follow suit if possible. A trick is won by the
highest card of the suit led if no trump is
played, or by the highest trump played.
When all 13 tricks have been taken, the result is
scored. There is a complicated scoring system
depending primarily on whether or not the
contract was made and by how much. The two
members of a partnership score their combined
tricks as a single unit. Extra points may be
scored in several ways. A bonus is scored if a
doubled or redoubled bid is made. One of two
types of slams is scored if the contracting team
wins 12 tricks or all 13. Honors points are
scored when a player receives certain cards in
the deal (A, K, Q, J, 10 of trump, or the four
aces if no trump has been declared).
When a side accumulates 100 or more points in
trick scores, the game is over. The side that
first wins two out of three games wins a rubber.
After each rubber, partnerships may change and
play may begin again.
Pinochle
Pinochle is played by two to four players and
uses a 48-card deck, which includes two of each
rank from 9 to A in all four suits. The rank of
cards in each suit is A (high), 10, K, Q, J, 9.
Cards are dealt three at a time, clockwise,
starting to the dealer's left. In two-hand
pinochle, both players receive 12 cards; in
three-hand (auction pinochle), each receives 15;
and in four-hand (partnership pinochle), each
receives 12 cards. The remaining cards, if any,
form the stock. After an ad hoc high-ranking
suit, called trump, has been determined, the
player to the left of the dealer leads by placing
a card in the middle, followed by each player in
rotation. Tricks are won by the high trump or by
the higher card of the suit led if no trump is
played. The winner of the trick leads for the
next trick. Except in two-hand pinochle, a player
must always follow the suit that is led, if
possible.
Scoring is done by examining cards taken in
tricks, with each ace counting 11, each ten 10,
each king 4, each queen 3, and each jack 2. Nines
do not score. Points can also be scored by
winning the last trick. In addition, certain
combinations of cards, called melds, have scoring
value. These include the flush (A, 10, K, Q, J in
the same suit), the marriage (K and Q in the same
suit), groups of cards of the same rank (four
aces, four kings, etc.), and two special melds,
the nine of trump and the pinochle (queen of
spades and jack of diamonds).
Points taken in tricks are added to those
accumulated by melding. Usually the player or
team that first reaches 1,000 points wins the
game.
Poker
Poker is a popular card game using a standard
52-card deck, with cards ranking A (high), K, Q,
J, 10, 9, .|.|. 2 (low). The ace can also rank
low if used as part of A-2-3-4-5. Jokers are
sometimes used as wild cards, which can stand for
any card the holder chooses. There are hundreds
of forms of poker, but invariably the cards are
dealt clockwise, one at a time, starting with the
player to the dealer's left. Usually each player
receives five cards face down, but depending on
the type of poker, more cards may be dealt, or
some may be face up.
Poker is a gambling game using chips of different
monetary value. Bets by players go into a pile of
chips called the pot. The object is to win the
pot, either by showing the best hand or by making
a bet that no one is willing to match. The rank
of poker hands without wild cards is as follows:
1. Straight flush: five cards in sequence in the
same suit
2. Four of a kind: any four cards of the same
rank
3. Full house: three of a kind and a pair
4. Flush: five cards of the same suit
5. Straight: five cards in sequence, regardless
of suit
6. Three of a kind: three cards of the same rank
7. Two pair: two cards of the same rank and two
others of a different rank
8. One pair: two cards of the same rank
9. High card: five unmatched cards, one with the
highest rank of the five.
Rummy
Rummy uses a regular deck of 52 cards. The cards
rank K (high), Q, J, 10, .|.|. 2, A (low). Cards
are dealt one at a time, clockwise, starting at
the dealer's left. The number of cards dealt to
each player depends on the number of players in
the game: with two players, 10 cards each; with
three or four players, seven cards each; with
five or six players, six cards each. The undealt
remainder of the deck is placed face down,
forming the stock. Its top card is turned up next
to the stock, forming the discard file. The
object is to form groups (three or more cards of
the same rank) or sequences (three or more cards
of the same suit in sequence of rank). This is
called melding.
One at a time and proceeding clockwise, players
draw one card from the top of the stack or the
top of the discard pile. If melding is possible,
groups or sequences are placed face up in front
of the player. A player may also lay off, or add
to his or her own or an opponent's melds. A
player's turn ends by placing one card face up on
the discard pile. When one player melds all the
cards remaining in a hand, that player goes out,
thus ending that deal, which is then scored. The
player going out scores his or her own melds plus
the points left in the opponents' hands. The
other players score just their own melds. Aces
count as one; all picture cards count as 10; and
the rest of the cards count as their face number.
High score wins.
Except when going out, a player must discard one
card after each play, whether or not that player
has melded or laid off.
Solitaire
Solitaire, or Patience, refers to a group of card
games played by one person. The most popular and
best known of these games is Klondike. Using a
standard 52-card deck, a tableau or layout is
dealt in front of the player, consisting of seven
piles of cards. The first pile on the far left
has one card, the second pile two, and so on to
the far right pile, which has seven cards. These
cards are face down except for the top card in
each pile. On these piles, descending sequences
are built in alternating colors. For example, a
red nine may be placed on a black ten. Entire
sequences or individual cards may be moved from
pile to pile, provided correct colors and
sequences are maintained. If a down card in a
pile is revealed, it is turned face up and may
then become part of a sequence. When a pile is
exhausted, a king may replace it.
When they become available, aces are placed above
the original layout. The object is to build
sequences in suit from the four aces (the
foundations) up to the four kings, thus using all
cards of the original layout as well as the
remaining cards, which form the stock. From the
stock, the player turns up one card at a time,
forming a waste pile. The top card of the waste
pile is available for play on the layout or
foundations. The player goes through the stock
only once and wins the game if he or she
successfully places the entire deck on the
foundations. Many players employ alternative,
more liberal methods of dealing the stock.
Additional Sources of Information (Sports and Games)
Organizations and Services
General
Amateur Athletic Union of the U.S.
3400 West 86th Street
P.O. Box 68207
Indianapolis, IN 46268
317-872-2900
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
Nall Avenue at 63rd Street
P.O. Box 1906
Mission, KS 66201
913-384-3220
U.S. Olympic Committee
1750 East Boulder Street
Colorado Springs, CO 80909
719-632-5551
Baseball
American League
350 Park Avenue
New York, NY 10022
212-371-7600
Baseball Hall of Fame
Box 590
Cooperstown, NY 13326
607-547-9988
Major League Baseball Commissioner's Office
350 Park Avenue
New York, NY 10022
212-371-7800
National League
350 Park Avenue
New York, NY 10022
212-371-7300
Basketball
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame
P.O. Box 179, Highland Station
1150 West Columbus Avenue
Springfield, MA 01101
413-781-6500
National Baseball Association
645 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10022
212-826-7000
Football
National Football League
410 Park Avenue
New York, NY 10022
212-758-1500
Pro Football Hall of Fame
2121 George Halas Drive, NW
Canton, OH 44708
216-456-8207
Golf
Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA)
4675 Sweetwater Boulevard
Sugar Land, TX 77479
713-980-5742
Professional Golfer's Association of America
100 Avenue of the Champions
Palm Beach Gardens, FL 33410
305-626-3600
U.S. Golf Association
Liberty Corner Road
Far Hills, NJ 07931
201-234-2300
U.S. Golf Association Hall of Fame
Golf House
Far Hills, NJ 07931
201-234-2300
Hockey
Hockey Hall of Fame
Exhibition Place
Toronto, Ontario, Canada M6K 3C3
416-595-1345
National Hockey League
500 Fifth Avenue
34th Floor
New York, NY 10110
212-398-1100
Horse Racing
National Museum of Racing
Union Avenue
Saratoga Springs, NY 12866
518-584-0400
Thoroughbred Racing Association of North America
3000 Marcus Avenue
Lake Success, NY 11042
516-328-2660
U.S. Trotting Association
750 Michigan Avenue
Columbus, OH 43215
614-224-2291
Tennis
International Tennis Hall of Fame and Museum
194 Bellevue Avenue
Newport, RI 02840
401-849-3990
U.S. Tennis Association
1212 Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10036
212-302-3322
Track and Field
Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes
of America (IC4A)
P.O. Box 3
Centerville, MA 02632
617-771-5060
International Amateur Athletics Federation
3 Hans Crescent
Knightsbridge
London SWIX OLN, England
+ 44 + 1 /581-8771
U.S. Track and Field Hall of Fame
P.O. Box 297
Angola, IN 46703
219-495-7735
Books
Ainslie, Tom. Ainslie's Complete Guide to
Thoroughbred Racing. Simon & Schuster, 1988.
Collins, Bud, and Hollander, Zander. Bud Collins'
Modern Encyclopedia of Tennis. Doubleday, 1980.
Fischler, Shirley, and Fischler, Stan. The
Complete Record of Professional Ice Hockey.
Macmillan, 1983.
Fisher, David, and Bragonier, Reginald, Jr.
What's What in Sports: The Visual Glossary of the
Sports World. Hammond, 1984.
Frommer, Harvey. Sports Lingo: A Dictionary of
the Language of Sports. Atheneum, 1983.
Hollander, Zander. The Complete Handbook of Pro
Basketball. New American Library, annual.
Menke, Frank G. The Encyclopedia of Sports, 5th
rev. ed. A.S. Barnes, 1975.
Morrison, Ian. The Hamlyn Encyclopedia of Golf.
Salem House, 1986.
Neft, David S., and Cohen, Richard M. Sports
Encyclopedia: Baseball, 7th ed. St. Martin's,
1987.
Neft, David S., et al. Sports Encyclopedia:
Pro-Football, the Modern Era. 1960-The Present.
St. Martin's, 1987.
Odd, Gilbert. Encyclopedia of Boxing. Crescent,
1983.
The Oxford Companion to Sports and Games. Oxford
University Press, 1974.
Reichler, Joseph L. The Baseball Encyclopedia:
The Complete and Official Record of Major League
Baseball, 7th ed. Macmillan, 1989.
Treat, Roger. The Encyclopedia of Football, 16th
rev. ed. Doubleday, 1979.
Webster's Sports Dictionary. G & C Merriam, 1976.
Health
Height and Weight Charts for Adults and Children
------------------------------------------------
Height and Weight Charts for Adults
Desirable Weights in Pounds for Persons 25-29 Years Old
Men
---
Height Small Medium Large
(in shoes) Frame Frame Frame
----------------------------------------------------
5 ft. 2 in. 128-134 131-141 138-150
5 ft. 3 in. 130-136 133-143 140-153
5 ft. 4 in. 132-138 135-145 142-156
5 ft. 5 in. 134-140 137-148 144-160
5 ft. 6 in. 136-142 139-151 146-164
5 ft. 7 in. 138-145 142-154 149-168
5 ft. 8 in. 140-148 145-157 152-176
5 ft. 9 in. 142-151 148-160 155-176
5 ft. 10 in. 144-154 151-163 158-180
5 ft. 11 in. 146-157 154-166 161-184
6 ft. 149-160 157-170 164-188
6 ft. 1 in. 152-164 160-174 168-192
6 ft. 2 in. 155-168 164-178 172-197
6 ft. 3 in. 158-172 167-182 176-202
6 ft. 4 in. 162-176 171-187 181-209
Women
-----
Height Small Medium Large
(in shoes) Frame Frame Frame
----------------------------------------------------
4 ft. 10 in. 102-111 109-121 118-131
4 ft. 11 in. 103-113 111-123 120-134
5 ft. 104-115 113-126 122-137
5 ft. 1 in. 106-118 115-129 125-140
5 ft. 2 in. 108-121 118-132 128-143
5 ft. 3 in. 111-124 121-135 131-147
5 ft. 4 in. 114-127 124-138 134-151
5 ft. 5 in. 117-130 127-141 137-155
5 ft. 6 in. 120-133 130-144 140-159
5 ft. 7 in. 123-136 133-147 143-163
5 ft. 8 in. 126-139 136-150 146-167
5 ft. 9 in. 129-142 139-153 149-170
5 ft. 10 in. 132-145 142-156 152-173
5 ft. 11 in. 135-148 145-159 155-176
6 ft. 138-151 148-162 158-179
Height and Weight Charts for Children (Health)
Desirable Weights in Pounds for Boys and Girls 5 to
18 Years Old
Boys
Age
Height -------------------------------------------
(in Inches) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
-------------------------------------------------------
38 34 34
39 35 35
40 36 36
41 38 38 38
42 39 39 39 39
43 41 41 41 41
44 44 44 44 44
45 46 46 46 46 46
46 47 48 48 48 48
47 49 50 50 50 50 50
48 52 53 53 53 53
49 55 55 55 55 55 55
50 57 58 58 58 58 58 58
51 61 61 61 61 61 61 61
52 63 64 64 64 64 64 64
53 66 67 67 67 67 68 68
Age
-------------------------------------------
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
-------------------------------------------
54 70 70 70 70 71 71 72
55 72 72 73 73 74 74 74
56 75 76 77 77 77 78 78 80
57 79 80 81 81 82 83 83
58 83 84 84 85 85 86 87
59 87 88 89 89 90 90 90
60 91 92 92 93 94 95 96
Age
---------------------------------------
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
---------------------------------------
61 95 96 97 99 100 103 106
62 100 101 102 103 104 107 111 116
63 105 106 107 108 110 113 118 123
64 109 111 113 115 117 121 126
65 114 117 118 120 122 127 131
66 119 122 125 128 132 136
67 124 128 130 134 136 139
68 134 134 137 141 143
69 137 139 143 146 149
70 143 144 145 148 151
71 148 150 151 152 154
72 153 155 156 158
73 157 160 162 164
74 160 164 168 170
Girls
Age
Height -------------------------------------------
(in Inches) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
-------------------------------------------------------
38 33 33
39 34 34
40 36 36 36
41 37 37 37
42 39 39 39
43 41 41 41 41
44 42 42 42 42
45 45 45 45 45 45
46 47 47 47 48 48
47 49 50 50 50 50 50
48 52 52 52 52 53 53
49 54 55 55 56 56
50 56 57 58 59 61 62
51 59 60 61 61 63 65
52 63 64 64 64 65 67
53 66 67 67 68 68 69 71
54 69 70 70 71 71 73
Age
-------------------------------------------
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
-------------------------------------------
55 72 74 74 74 75 77 78
56 76 78 78 79 81 83
57 80 82 82 82 84 88 92
58 84 86 86 88 93 96 101
Age
--------------------------------------------
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
--------------------------------------------
59 87 90 90 92 96 100 103 104
60 91 95 95 97 101 105 108 109 111
61 99 100 101 105 108 112 113 116
62 104 105 106 109 113 115 117 118
63 110 110 112 116 117 119 120
64 114 115 117 119 120 122 123
65 118 120 121 122 123 125 126
66 124 124 125 128 129 130
67 128 130 131 133 133 135
68 131 133 135 136 138 138
69 135 137 138 140 142
70 136 138 140 142 144
71 138 140 142 144 145
Home Remedies
The following should not be considered medical
advice and is presented for informational purposes
only. Always consult a doctor for medical
problems.
acetaminophen
A painkiller and fever reducer for persons
allergic to aspirin.
alcohol
A mild antiseptic or germ killer used topically.
ammonia
For fainting, used as "smelling salts" by holding
an open container under the victim's nose so vapor
can be inhaled. Ammonia can also be used as a
counterirritant and to neutralize insect bites.
aspirin
A relatively safe, effective, and inexpensive pain
killer and inflammation and fever reducer.
baking soda
Used to neutralize acid burns.
benzalkonium chloride
A detergent-type cleanser and disinfectant for
treating wounds.
boric acid
A weak germ and fungus killer, used as dusting
powder.
burned toast
Used as a substitute for activated charcoal (see
universal antidote).
calamine lotion
Used for sunburn and minor thermal (heat) burns
that do not result in blisters.
chloride of lime (bleaching powder)
A disinfectant. Avoid direct contact with the
wound.
coffee
Used as a stimulant in shock cases if the victim
is conscious and bleeding internally.
egg white
Used as a demulcent to soothe the stomach and
retard absorption of a poison.
epsom salts
Dissolved in warm water, can be used in treating
wounds and to make wet dressings for them.
flour
Made into a thin paste, can be used as a demulcent
to soothe the stomach and retard absorption of a
poison.
hydrogen peroxide
A germ killer when in direct contact with
bacteria.
milk
Used as a demulcent to soothe the stomach and
retard absorption of a poison.
milk of magnesia
Used as a substitute for magnesium oxide (see
universal antidote). Milk of magnesia is also used
in small doses as an antacid for stomach upset.
mineral oil
Used as drops to treat thermal (heat) burns of the
eye.
oil of cloves
Used for temporary relief of a toothache.
olive oil
Used as drops to treat thermal (heat) burns of the
eye. Olive oil is also used as an emollient to
soften skin.
petrolatum (vaseline)
A skin softener and protective ointment used on
wound dressings.
powdered mustard (dry mustard)
Used as an emetic. Dissolve one to three
teaspoonfuls in a glass of warm water.
salt
See table salt.
soap suds (not detergents)
Used as an emetic and as an antidote for poisoning
by certain metal compounds, such as mercuric
chloride. Soap and clean water can also be used
to cleanse wounds.
starch, cooked
Made into a thin paste as a demulcent to soothe
the stomach and retard absorption of a poison.
table salt
Used as an emetic. Dissolve two teaspoonfuls in
a glass of warm water. (Clean sea water can be
used if an emetic or a wound cleanser is needed
for an accident near an ocean beach.)
tea
Made strong, used as a substitute for tannic acid.
Tea is also used as a stimulant in shock cases
when appropriate.
universal antidote
Recommended as an antidote for poisoning when the
poison cannot be identified. The universal
antidote is made by mixing 1/2 ounce activated
charcoal, 1/4 ounce magnesium oxide, and 1/4 ounce
tannic acid in a glass of water.
vaseline
See petrolatum.
vinegar (acetic acid)
Used to neutralize alkali burns.
SHELF LIFE OF MEDICINE
Pharmacists generally do not mark containers with
expiration dates, though the containers usually
show the dates of the original prescriptions. If a
prescription drug is more than one year old but is
not in its original container clearly showing the
expiration date, it should be replaced. First-aid
creams in tubes usually have expiration dates
marked on the tube, but the dates are generally
hard to see. After the components separate, the
creams should not be used. vitamins and minerals
will keep for a long time if protected from heat,
moisture, and light. A good rule of thumb about
the shelf life of drugs is "When in doubt, throw
it out." Below is a list of the shelf life of some
common drugs.
Cold tablets 1-2 years
Laxatives 2-3 years
Minerals 6 years or more
Nonprescription painkiller
tablets 1-4 years
Prescription antibiotics 2-3 years
Prescription antihypertension
tablets 2-4 years
Travel sickness tablets 2 years
Vitamins 6 years or more
Infectious Diseases and How They are Spread
-------------------------------------------
Disease Agent Transmission
------- ----- ------------
AIDS (acquired Virus Contact of body fluid
immune deficiency (semen, blood, vaginal
syndrome) secretions) with that of
an infected person.
Sexual contact and
sharing of unclean
paraphernalia for
intravenous drugs are
the most common means
of transmission.
Blastomycosis Fungus Inhaling contaminated dust
Botulism Bacteria Consuming contaminated
food
Chicken Pox Virus Direct or indirect contact
with infected person
Common Cold Virus Direct or indirect contact
with infected person
Diphtheria Bacteria Direct contact with
infected person
Encephalitis Virus Mosquito bite
Gonorrhea Bacteria Sexual contact
Hepatitis Virus Direct or indirect contact
with infected person
Herpes simplex Virus Direct contact with
infected person
Histoplasmosis Fungus Inhaling contaminated dust
Hookworm Nematode Contact with contaminated
soil
Infectious Virus Direct or indirect contact
mononucleosis with infected person
Influenza Virus Direct or indirect contact
with infected person
Lyme disease Bacteria Deer tick bite
Malaria Protozoa Mosquito bite
Measles Virus Direct or indirect contact
with infected person
Mumps Virus Direct or indirect contact
with infected person
Pertussis Bacteria Direct or indirect contact
(whooping cough) with infected person
Poliomyelitis Virus Direct contact with
infected person
Rubella (German Virus Direct or indirect contact
measles) infected person
Scarlet fever Bacteria Direct or indirect contact
with infected person
Spotted fever Rickettsia Tick bits
Syphilis Bacteria Sexual contact
Tapeworm Nematode Consuming infected meat or
fish
Toxoplasmosis Protozoa Consuming raw meat;contact
with contaminated soil
Trichomoniasis Protozoa Sexual contact
Typhus Rickettsia Lice, flea, tick bite
Yellow fever Virus Mosquito bite
Combining Forms of Medical Terms
--------------------------------
Prefix Meaning of prefix Example
------ ----------------- -------
a-, ab-,
an- away, lack of, without astigmatism
acro- extremity, end acroparesthesia
adeno- gland adenous
adreno- adrenal gland adrenocortex
aero- gas, air aerophagia
allo- different, another allorhythmia
ambi- both, both sides ambidextrous
antero- before, in front of anterograde
anti- against antiseptic
arterio- artery arteriospasm
arthro-,
arthr- joint arthritis
bacterio- bacteria bacteriological
blephari- eyelash, eyelid blepharitis
brady- slow bradycardia
broncho- windpipe bronchospasm
cardio- heart, heart region cardiovascular
cephalo- head cephalometry
cerebro- brain cerebrovascular
cervico- neck cervicobrachial
chole- bile cholecystis
chondro- cartilage chrondroblastoma
chromo- color chromogen
chylo- lymph chylomicron
contra- against, opposite contraindication
costo- rib costochondral
cyst- bladder, sac cystitis
dacryo- tears dacryocystis
derma- skin dermatitis
dextro- right side dextromanual
dys- abnormal, bad, painful dysentry
encephalo-,
encephal- brain encephalitis
endo- inside endocardium
entero- intestines enterospasm
ep-, epi- at, over, upon epiglottis
ex-, exo- out, outside excrement
fibrino- threadlike fibrinogen
fibro- fiber, fibrous fibrocystic
galact- milk galactose
gastro- stomach gastroenteric
gloss- tongue glossitis
hemi- half hemiplegic
hepato- liver hepatocolic
hydro- water hydrocephalic
hyper- above, beyond hyperacidity
hypo- below, less hypoglycemia
ileo- end of small intestine ileocolic
ilio- flank, upper hip bone iliopelvic
infra- below, inferior infraorbital
inter- between interdigital
intra- within intrauterine
kerat- cornea, hard tissue keratoid
laryngo-,
larying- voice box laryngitis
leuko-,
leuk- white leukocyte
mega- abnormally large megacolon
mela- black melanin
myelo-,
myel- marrow, nerve sheath myelination
myo- muscle myospasm
neo- new neoplasm
nephro-,
nephr- kidney nephritis
neuro-,
neuri-,
neur- nerve neuritis
osteo- bone osteoarthritis
peri-, around or about the pericardial
pneumo- lungs or air pneumonia
sacro- sacrum (triangular bone sacroiliac
above tailbone)
sero- serum, blood serofibrous
tachy- rapid tachycardia
thrombo- blood clot thrombosis
tracheo- windpipe tracheotomy
utero- uterus, womb uterotomy
vaso- blood vessel vasodilator
ventro- belly, abdominal ventroptosia
zymo- enzyme, fermentation zymocide
Breast Self-Examination (BSE)
-----------------------------
It is important for you to know the signs of
breast cancer, because most breast cancers are
discovered by women themselves, not their doctors.
If you discover any of the signs of breast cancer,
see your doctor immediately. It is a frightening
experience to find a lump or another possible
cancer sign, but you should know that 8 out of 10
lumps are not cancerous. Many women have naturally
lumpy breasts. but your doctor should determine
whether a lump or other sign is actually cancer or
a harmless condition.
Ask for a Breast Exam
Don't be embarrassed. Asking your doctor or nurse
for a breast examination is part of an office
visit is one good way to learn what is normal for
your breasts. But examination by a doctor is not
enough--you, too, should examine your breasts
monthly. Ask your doctor or nurse to teach you
breast self-examination (BSE) to be sure you are
practicing it correctly.
Practice Breast Self-Examination
Breast self-examination is an important key to
early diagnosis. Along with regular examination by
your physician, monthly BSE can give you peace of
mind because it helps you to know how your breasts
normally feel. Knowing the normal feel of your
breasts makes it easier to notice any changes
early, when treatment is most effective. To
examine your breasts correctly, you should follow
the six steps described.
1. Stand before a mirror. Inspect both breasts for
anything unusual, such as any discharge from the
nipples or puckering, dimpling, or scaling of the
skin.
The next two steps are designed to emphasize
any changes in the shape or contour of your
breasts. As you do them, you should be able to
feel your chest muscles tighten.
2. Watching closely in the mirror, clasp hands behind
your head and press hands forward.
3. Next, press hands firmly on hips and bow slightly
toward the mirror as you pull your shoulders and
elbows forward.
Some women do the next part of the exam in
the shower: Fingers glide over soapy skin, making
it easy to concentrate on the texture underneath.
4. Raise your left arm. Use three or four fingers of
your right hand to explore your left breast
firmly, carefully, and thoroughly. Beginning at
the outer edge, press the flat part of your fingers
in small circles, moving the circles slowly around
the breast. Gradually work toward the nipple. Be
sure to cover the entire breast. Pay special
attention to the area between the breast and the
armpit, including the armpit itself. Feel for any
unusual lump or mass under the skin.
5. Gently squeeze the nipple and look for a
discharge. Repeat the exam on your right breast.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 lying down. Lie flat on your
back with your left arm over your head and a
pillow or folded towel under your left shoulder.
This position flattens the breast and makes it
easier to examine. Use the same circular motion
described earlier. Repeat on your right breast.
When to Examine Your Breasts
Every month! If you menstruate, the best time to
practice BSE is two or three days after the end of
your period, when your breasts are least likely to
be tender or swollen. If you no longer menstruate,
choose a day such as your birthdate to practice
BSE. That way, you will remember to do it every
month.
Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances (RDAs)
Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances (RDAs) of
Calories and Proteins
Grams of
Height Calories protein
Age Pounds (in Inches) Needed needed
-------------------------------------------------------
Males 11-14 97 63 2,800 44
15-18 134 69 3,000 54
19-22 147 69 3,000 54
23-50 154 69 2,700 56
51+ 154 69 2,400 58
Females 11-14 97 62 2,400 44
15-18 119 65 2,100 48
19-22 128 65 2,100 46
23-50 128 65 2,000 46
51+ 128 65 1,800 46
Pregnant +300 +30
Nursing +500 +20
Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances (RDAs) of Fat-
Soluble Vitamins (in International Units)
Age Vitamin A Vitamin D Vitamin E
------------------------------------------------------
Males 11-14 5,000 400 12
15-18 5,000 400 15
19-22 5,000 400 15
23-50 5,000 15
51+ 5,000 15
Females 11-14 4,000 400 12
15-18 4,000 400 12
19-22 4,000 400 12
23-50 4,000 12
51+ 4,000 12
Pregnant 5,000 400 15
Nursing 6,000 400 15
Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances (RDAs) of Water-
Soluble Vitamins (in Milligrams)
Vitamin Folic
Age C Acid Niacin Riboflavin
--------------------------------------------------
Males 11-14 45 400 18 1.5
15-18 45 400 20 1.8
19-22 45 400 20 1.8
23-50 45 400 18 1.6
51+ 45 400 16 1.5
Females 11-14 45 400 16 1.3
15-18 45 400 14 1.4
19-22 45 400 14 1.4
23-50 45 400 13 1.2
51+ 45 400 12 1.1
Pregnant 60 800 +2 0.3
Nursing 80 800 +4 +0.5
Vitamin Vitamin
Age Thiamine B-6 B-12
---------------------------------------------
Males 11-14 1.4 1.6 3.0
15-18 1.5 2.0 3.0
19-22 1.5 2.0 3.0
23-50 1.4 2.0 3.0
51+ 1.2 2.0 3.0
Females 11-14 1.2 1.6 3.0
15-18 1.1 2.0 3.0
19-22 1.1 2.0 3.0
23-50 1.0 2.0 3.0
51+ 1.0 2.0 3.0
Pregnant +0.3 2.5 4.0
Nursing +0.3 2.5 4.0
Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances (RDAs) of
Minerals (in Milligrams)
Age Calcium Phosphorus Iodine
-------------------------------------------------
Males 11-14 1,200 1,200 130
15-18 1,200 1,200 150
19-22 800 800 140
23-50 800 800 130
51+ 800 800 110
Females 11-14 1,200 1,200 115
15-18 1,200 1,200 115
19-22 800 800 100
23-50 800 800 100
51+ 800 800 80
Pregnant 1,200 1,200 125
Nursing 1,200 1,200 150
Age Iron Magnesium Zinc
--------------------------------------------
Males 11-14 18 350 15
15-18 18 400 15
19-22 10 350 15
23-50 10 350 15
51+ 10 350 15
Females 11-14 18 300 15
15-18 18 300 15
19-22 18 300 15
23-50 18 300 15
51+ 10 300 15
Pregnant *18+ 450 20
Nursing 18 450 25
* A pregnant woman usually requires iron supplement
tablets because of the difficulty in providing an
adequate iron intake in an otherwise balanced diet.
VACCINES
Vaccines are disease-specific immunizations. The
period of effectiveness for common vaccines is
shown below:
Vaccine Immunization Period
Combination (diphtheria, 5-10 years
tetanus toxoids, and whooping
cough)
Diphtheria (antitoxin) 2-3 months
Diphtheria (toxoid) 5-10 years
Measles (attenuated virus) Over 10 years
Measles (immune blood serum, A few weeks
gamma globulin, or placental extract)
Mumps (attenuated virus) Probably life
Poliomyelitis (dead or Unknown
attenuated virus)
Rabies (attenuated virus) Unknown
Rubella (attenuated virus) Unknown
Tetanus (antitoxin) A few weeks
Tetanus (toxoid) 5-10 years
Typhoid (dead germs) 2-3 years
Whooping cough (dead germs) 2-5 years
Activities and the Calories They Consume
(for a person weighing approximately 150 pounds)
Calories expended
Activity per hour
Rest and light activity 50-200
Lying down or sleeping 80
Sitting 100
Typing 110
Driving 120
Standing 140
Housework 180
Shining shoes 185
Moderate activity 200-350
Bicycling (5 1/2 mph) 210
Walking (2 1/2 mph) 210
Gardening 220
Canoeing (2 1/2 mph) 230
Golf (foursome) 250
Lawn-mowing (power mower) 250
Fencing 300
Rowing a boat (2 1/2 mph) 300
Swimming ( 1/4 mph) 300
Calisthenics 300
Walking (3 1/4 mph) 300
Badminton 350
Horseback riding (trotting) 350
Square dancing 350
Volleyball 350
Roller-skating 350
Stacking heavy objects 350
(boxes, logs)
Vigorous activity over 350
Baseball pitching 360
Ditch-digging (hand shovel) 400
Ice-skating (10 mph) 400
Chopping or sawing wood 400
Bowling (continuous) 400
Tennis 420
Water-skiing 480
Hill-climbing 490
(100 feet per hour)
Basketball 500
Football 500
Skiing (10 mph) 600
Squash and handball 600
Bicycling (13 mph) 660
Rowing (machine) 720
Scull-rowing (race) 840
Running (10 mph) 900
Safe Alcohol Consumption
The effects of drinking alcoholic beverages depend
in part on the amount of actual ethyl alcohol
consumed and one's body weight. The level of
alcohol in the blood is calculated in terms of
milligrams (1 milligram = 1/30,000 of an ounce) of
pure alcohol per deciliter (1 deciliter ; = 3.5
fluid ounces) of blood. This is usually expressed
as mg/dl. Twelve ounces of beer, 4 ounces of wine,
or a 1.5-ounce shot of 80-proof whiskey, gin, or
vodka contain approximately the same amount of
ethyl alcohol, 8 grams, or 8,000 mg.
Blood alcohol concentrations often are expressed
as a percentage of blood, as .05 percent for 50
milligrams of alcohol per deciliters (dl) of
blood. It is recommended that drinkers keep their
blood alcohol concentration (BAC) below 0.4
percent.
Depending on body weight and other factors, it
takes the average adult nearly one hour for his or
her liver to metabolize (break down) 8 grams of
alcohol. Alcohol tends to accumulate in the blood
because it is absorbed faster than it is
metabolized.
Alcohol is absorbed through the membranes of the
mouth and esophagus, from the stomach, and from
the intestines. The rate of absorption is affected
by proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the
digestive tract, which can slow absorption; by
carbonation in drink mixers, which increases
absorption; by the amount of water added to dilute
the alcoholic beverage or the water or soft drinks
consumed between alcoholic beverages; and by the
presence of congeners (chemicals such as methyl
alcohol, tannins, and histamines) present in the
type of alcoholic beverage being consumed. The
health of the drinker is also important, as a
healthy liver metabolizes alcohol more
efficiently.
A blood level of 20 to 30 mg/dl (the equivalent of
.02 to .03 percent, or one or two drinks for an
average adult) causes central nervous system
changes in behavior, coordination, and ability to
think clearly. Because alcohol is an anesthetic,
the drinker may not notice the changes in his or
her own behavior.
At a blood level of 50 mg/dl (.05 percent), the
drinker may experience sedation or a tranquilized
feeling. Between 50 and 150 mg/dl (.05 to .15
percent), there is a definite loss of
coordination.
A concentration of 80 to 100 mg/dl (.08 to .10
percent) is considered evidence of "legal
intoxication" in many states, even though the
alcohol level may be estimated by a breath test
rather than actual blood analysis.
At blood levels between 150 and 200 mg/dl (.15 and
.20 percent), a person is obviously intoxicated
and may show signs of delirium.
At levels between 300 and 400 mg/dl (.30 and .40
percent), the drinker usually loses consciousness.
At an alcohol blood level above 500 mg/dl (.50
percent), the heart and respiration become so
depressed that they cease to function, and death
follows.
Additional Sources of Information (Health)
Organizations and Services
Alcoholics Anonymous World Services Office
468 Park Avenue South
New York, NY 10016
The American Academy of Allergy and Immunology
611 East Wells Street
Milwaukee, WI 53202
American Diabetes Association
2 Park Avenue
New York, NY 10016
American Heart Association
New York City Affiliate
205 East 42nd Street
New York, NY 10017
American Medical Association
535 North Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60610
Cancer Information Clearinghouse
National Cancer Institute
9000 Rockville Pike
Building 31, Room 10A18
Bethesda, MD 20205
Cancer Information Service
National Cancer Institute
9000 Rockville Pike
Bethesda, MD 20205
Center for Science in the Public Interest
1501 16th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
Centers for Disease Control
1600 Clifton Road, NW
Atlanta, GA 30333
Health and Human Services Department
200 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20201
National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development
9000 Rockville Pike
Bethesda, MD 20892
National Institute on Drug Abuse Prevention
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, MD 20857
National Institutes of Health
9000 Rockville Pike
Bethesda, MD 20892
National Library of Medicine
8600 Wisconsin Avenue
Bethesda, MD 20894
National Women's Health Network
224 7th Street, SE
Washington, DC 20003
The Nutrition Information Center
The New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center
515 East 71st Street
Room 904
New York, NY 10021
The President's Council on Physical Fitness and
Sports
450 Fifth Street, NW
Suite 7103
Washington, DC 20001
Smokenders
P.O. Box 3146
Glen Ellyn, IL 60138
U.S. Public Health Service
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, MD 20857
Books
American Medical Directory, 1988. 31st ed.
American Medical Association, 1906-.
Anderson, Kenneth. Orphan Drugs. Linden Press,
1983.
Anderson, Kenneth. Symptoms After 40. Arbor House,
1987.
Blake, John Ballard, and Roos, Charles. Medical
Reference Works. Medical Library Association,
1967-75.
Boston Women's Health Book Collective. The New Our
Bodies, Ourselves. Simon & Schuster, 1985.
Brace, Edward R., and Anderson, Kenneth N. The New
Pediatric Guide to Drugs & Vitamins. Price Stern,
1987.
Brace, Edward R., and Pacanowski, John P.
Childhood Symptoms. Harper & Row, 1985.
Brody, Jane. Jane Brody's Nutrition Book. Norton,
1981.
Brody, Jane. Jane Brody's The New York Times Guide
to Personal Health. Avon, 1983.
Directory of Medical Specialists, 22nd ed. 3 vols.
Marquis Who's Who, 1985.
Friedman, Jo-Ann. Home Health Care: A Guide for
Patients and Their Families. Norton, 1986.
Kutsky, Roman J. Handbook of Vitamins and
Hormones, 2nd ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1981.
Medical Books for the Lay Person. Boston Public
Library, 1976.
Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, 15th ed.
Merck, Sharp & Dohme, 1987.
Miller, Benjamin F., and Keane, Claire B.
Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing,
and Allied Health. Saunders, 1987.
Physician's Desk Reference, 1988. Medical
Economics, 1947-.
Urdang Dictionary of Current Medical Terms. Wiley,
1981.
Wilson, Doris B., and Wilson, Wilfred. Human
Anatomy, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 1982.
Wolman, Benjamin B., ed. International
Encyclopedia of Psychiatry, Psychology,
Psychoanalysis, and Neurology. 12 vols. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1977.
First Aid
Life-Saving Procedures
The American Medical Association recommends that,
when a person is injured or becomes suddenly ill,
priority be given to these objectives:
1. Maintain breathing
2. Maintain circulation
3. Prevent loss of blood
4. Prevent further injury
5. Prevent shock
6. Summon professional medical services
Maintaining Breathing and Circulation (First Aid)
When breathing stops, the victim has enough oxygen
in the blood and other tissues to sustain life for
only a very few minutes. Any delay in restoring the
flow of oxygen to the brain and other body organs
can result in death or permanent damage. Start
artificial respiration and manual external cardiac
massage immediately if the person is not breathing.
Basic cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)-
mouth-to-mouth breathing and external cardiac
massage-does not require equipment. It can be done
by only one or two rescuers, but having more
rescuers increases the chances for success.
If you are not directly involved in the rescue
effort, you can help by calling a doctor, emergency
medical services (EMS), or the police or fire
department. But rescuers should not wait for
professional support to arrive. Seconds count.
Rescue may involve three related actions: opening
an airway to the lungs, restoring breathing, and
restoring circulation.
First, place the victim on his or her back on a
hard, flat surface, such as the floor. If breathing
has stopped because of poisonous gas or lack of
oxygen, move the victim quickly to fresh air before
beginning CPR.
Second, examine the victim closely for possible
injuries or other obstacles that would interfere
with CPR action. Check for a pulse in the carotid
artery, on either side of the neck beneath the
chin. Try to get the attention of the victim by
talking, pinching, or tapping. If there is no
response, assume that the person is unconscious.
Look, listen, and feel for any signs of air moving
in or out of the victim's lungs.
Mouth-to-Mouth Breathing (First Aid)
If there are no signs of breathing or there is no
significant pulse, take the first step in
artificial respiration by placing one hand under
the victim's neck and the other on the forehead in
order to tilt the head back. This extends the neck
and helps prevent the tongue from dropping back
into the throat, blocking the airway. If available,
a plastic "stoma," or oropharyngeal airway device,
should be inserted now. If none is available, turn
the hand on the victim's forehead so that the thumb
and index finger can pinch closed his or her
nostrils. Your mouth should be placed over the
victim's mouth so as to make an airtight seal.
Next, blow into the victim's mouth four times in
succession, making each puff of increasing strength
and volume. The victim's chest should expand. After
the first set of puffs, remove your mouth and allow
the victim's chest to fall. The mouth-to-mouth
cycle of puffs should be repeated every five
seconds (see sidebar "Mouth-to-Mouth Breathing,"
page 654).
If the victim's chest fails to expand, the problem
may be an airway obstruction. Mouth-to-mouth
respiration should be interrupted briefly to apply
first aid for choking (see section on choking,
pages 664-65).
MOUTH-TO-MOUTH BREATHING (First Aid)
If there are no signs of breathing, place one hand
under the victim's neck and gently lift. At the
same time, push with the other hand on the victim's
forehead. This will move the tongue away from the
back of the throat to open the airway.
While maintaining the backward head tilt position,
place your cheek and ear close to the victim's
mouth and nose. Look for the chest to rise and fall
while you listen and feel for breathing. Check for
about 5 seconds.
Next, while maintaining the backward head tilt,
pinch the victim's nose with the hand that is on
the victim's forehead to prevent leakage of air,
open your mouth wide, take a deep breath, seal your
mouth around the victim's mouth, and blow into the
victim's mouth with four quick but full breaths.
For an infant, give gentle puffs and blow through
the mouth and nose and do not tilt the head back
as far as for an adult.
If you do not get an air exchange when you blow,
it may help to reposition the head and try again.
If there is still no breathing, give one breath
every 5 seconds for an adult and one gentle puff
every 3 seconds for an infant until breathing
resumes.
Cardiac Massage (First Aid)
Check the carotid artery pulse again. If there is
no pulse, begin external cardiac massage by
squeezing the heart between the sternum
(breastbone) and the spinal column. To begin
external cardiac massage, take a position facing
the victim and uncover his or her chest. Find the
bottom (xiphoid process) of the breastbone and
place your index and middle fingers next to it to
mark the location. Next, place the heel of your
other hand on the sternum, just above the xiphoid
process. Remove your first hand and place it on the
second, interlocking the fingers. Holding your arms
straight, rock back and forth from the hips and
press downward so the sternum is depressed between
one and two inches. Do not press on the xiphoid
process and do not exert enough pressure to cause
internal injuries to the liver or other organs in
the area.
If possible, mouth-to-mouth breathing and external
cardiac massage should be combined at a rate of 12
breath cycles and 60 chest compressions per minute.
If at least two rescuers are available, one should
perform mouth-to-mouth breathing while the other
does chest compressions.
Check frequently for signs of a carotid artery
pulse, a return of normal skin coloring, or signs
of spontaneous breathing. Even if normal breathing
returns, remain ready to resume CPR if necessary
and until a doctor or other professional medical
help arrives.
Mouth-to-Nose Breathing (First Aid)
When mouth-to-mouth breathing is not feasible,
mouth-to-nose breathing can be performed in a
similar manner by placing your mouth over the
victim's nose and holding his or her lips closed
between the thumb and forefinger.
For Small Children (First Aid)
If the victim is a small child, your mouth can be
placed over both the nose and mouth. Be careful
about extending the neck of an infant, because soft
tissues in the neck may obstruct the upper airway
if the head is tilted too far.
External cardiac massage for a small child should
be done with the pressure of two thumbs or two
fingers and compression should be limited to a
depth of only one-half to one inch, depending on
the size of the child.
For Drowning Victims (First Aid)
If drowning is the cause, do not wait until the
victim can be transported to shore or placed on a
flat surface to begin CPR. Mouth-to-mouth
artificial respiration can be started while the
victim is in a boat or is floating in the water.
(See also section on drowning, page 667.)
Preventing Loss of Blood (First Aid)
Heavy bleeding, or hemorrhaging, is a
life-threatening emergency. Bleeding from a large
artery can result in death in less than five
minutes. As with maintaining breathing and
circulation, immediate action is needed. Notify a
doctor, emergency medical service (EMS), the
police, or the fire department. If the victim can
be moved safely and quickly, take him or her to a
nearby hospital emergency room.
Covering the Wound (First Aid)
Unless there are injuries or other conditions that
might interfere, keep the victim lying down with
the bleeding part of the body raised higher than
the rest of the body. If the bleeding is external,
as from an open wound, place a clean cloth,
handkerchief, pad, or similar object directly over
the wound and press firmly, with both hands if
necessary.
If blood soaks through the cloth, add more cloth
and keep pressing, but do not take off the original
pad or cloth until the bleeding is under control.
Ice placed directly over the wound may help reduce
the blood flow by causing constriction of the blood
vessel that is the source of blood loss.
Apply firm pressure to the pressure point (see
sidebar and section on pressure points, below) that
can control blood flow to the wound. If possible,
apply pressure to the pressure point with one hand
while your other hand presses a pad over the wound.
Do not apply a tourniquet unless there is no other
way to stop the loss of blood. A tourniquet can
result in the death of tissues to an arm, leg,
hand, or foot and may lead to amputation.
General Care of the Victim (First Aid)
Heavy bleeding leads to symptoms of shock: thirst,
cold and clammy skin, dizziness, and falling blood
pressure. Keep the victim flat and covered with a
blanket or coat. Also, maintain body temperature
by making sure the victim is not lying on a cold
or damp surface.
Unless the victim is unconscious or suffering from
an abdominal wound, allow him or her to drink water
or other beverages as needed; blood loss requires
replacement of fluids. Do not give a wounded person
alcoholic beverages, which would have the effect
of increasing fluid depletion.
If the victim has suffered an open abdominal or
chest wound and professional medical help is not
immediately available, cover any protruding organs
with a clean damp cloth held in place with a
bandage or by hand pressure.
An open chest wound may result in a lung collapse
unless the wound can be covered quickly with a
gauze or cloth pad held in place by a firm bandage
to prevent air from moving in or out of the lung.
If a gauze pad is not available, make a pad from
plastic sheeting, aluminum foil, or other clean
material to form an airtight seal. If a bandage is
not available, use a belt to hold the pad in place.
Do not touch an open wound except as necessary to
apply pressure or a pad or other dressing. Never
try to explore a wound to locate fragments of
metal, glass, or other debris that may have caused
the injury.
Pressure Points (First Aid)
Fingers usually can be applied without worsening
a victim's condition to control bleeding at a
pressure point. There are a half-dozen pressure
points where bleeding from an artery can be stopped
or reduced by pressing the artery against a bone
located next to it.
One of the main pressure points is in the area of
the groin, where the femoral artery, supplying
blood from the thigh to the foot, passes over one
of the bones of the pelvis.
Bleeding in the upper arm may be controlled by
pressing on an artery that passes over the top rib
of the chest. Loss of blood for most of the rest
of the arm can usually be stopped by compressing
an artery that passes close to the upper arm bone
at a point about halfway between the shoulder and
elbow. A pressure point for bleeding from the neck,
mouth, or throat area is near the base of the neck,
where an artery passes alongside the trachea, or
windpipe, just below the Adam's apple. Bleeding
from the head between the level of the eye and the
jawbone usually can be stopped by pressing on an
artery that crosses the edge of the jawbone. For
bleeding above the eye level, there is a pressure
point in front of the upper portion of the ear.
If at first you do not find the exact pressure
point location, try again. The locations may vary
somewhat with different body builds. You will know
when you find the correct place, because bleeding
will diminish or stop. As when a tourniquet is
used, remember to release pressure at intervals to
allow some blood to flow to deprived tissues. Do
not continue compressing an artery if bleeding
stops. If a tourniquet is applied, as when it may
be necessary to stop the loss of blood from an arm
or leg so seriously damaged it may have to be
amputated, be sure to advise the doctor or EMS
personnel who will eventually take charge. Better
yet, attach a note or write a message with lipstick
on the victim's forehead that a tourniquet has been
used. Do not assume that a hospital emergency-room
doctor or intern many miles away will be aware that
a tourniquet, or any other special first-aid
measures, may have been applied at the scene of the
accident.
PRESSURE POINTS
PRESSURE POINT FOR NECK, MOUTH, OR THROAT
To stop bleeding from the neck, mouth, or throat
area, apply pressure at a point on the neck where
an artery passes alongside the trachea, or
windpipe. Place the thumb of the hand against the
back of the victim's neck and the fingers on the
neck just below the larynx, or Adam's apple. Then
push the fingers against the artery.
STOP BLEEDING FROM TWO-THIRDS OF ARM
An artery supplying the lower arm passes close to
the bone of the upper arm about halfway along the
length of the upper arm. By applying pressure at
that point, pressing the artery against the arm
bone, bleeding from nearly any point beyond can be
stopped.
PRESSURE POINT IN UPPER ARM
A pressure point for controlling the loss of blood
in the area of the upper arm, shoulder, or armpit
should be found where an artery passes over the
outer surface of the top rib. Place the thumb in
the position shown (the top rib is indicated in the
drawing) and the fingers over the shoulder so they
press against the area behind the collarbone. Apply
pressure to the artery crossing the top rib.
BLEEDING BELOW EYE AND ABOVE JAWBONE
Bleeding from an artery supplying the area of the
face below the level of the eye usually can be
controlled by finding the pressure point that is
located along the edge of the jawbone.
BLEEDING FROM HEAD ABOVE EYE LEVEL
For bleeding above the level of the eye, the
rescuer should be able to find a pressure point
where an artery passes over one of the skull bones
in front of the upper portion of the ear, as shown
in the drawing.
PRESSURE POINT FOR LEG
To stop bleeding from a leg or foot, apply pressure
at a point in the area of the groin where the
femoral artery passes over one of the bones of the
pelvis, as shown in the drawing. If the blood flow
slackens or stops, you can assume you have found
the pressure point.
Preventing Further Injury (First Aid)
First aid in an emergency should be limited to no
more than is necessary to save a life or prevent
further injury. In most cases, do not move an
injured person from an accident site before a
doctor, emergency personnel, or police or fire
personnel arrive. An exception is a situation, such
as a building fire or potential explosion, in which
the lives of the rescuers as well as the victims
could be in danger. If there is an injury to the
neck or spine, a victim should not be moved until
a stretcher or other carrying device that provides
firm support is available. Improper movement of the
victim could cause a broken or dislocated bone that
may damage an internal organ or pinch or sever a
vital nerve trunk and result in death or permanent
disability.
If the victim appears to have a head injury,
movement should be delayed until a doctor has
examined the person. Even then, any movement should
be supervised by a physician. Do not move the head,
or other body parts, if there is bleeding from the
nose, mouth, or ears. If the victim is unconscious,
you must assume that he or she has a head injury.
Never assume that an unconscious, disoriented, or
apparently incoherent person is drunk. The victim
may have suffered a head injury in a fall, a
physical assault, or an accident. There are
numerous causes of impaired consciousness,
including brain hemorrhage, concussion, carbon
monoxide poisoning, epilepsy, encephalitis,
diabetic coma, hypoglycemia, heart trouble,
psychiatric disorders, and barbiturates or other
medications. Never give alcoholic beverages to an
accident victim, and never offer fluids of any kind
to a person who is unconscious or semiconscious or
who has internal injuries.
Preventing Shock (First Aid)
Shock can be expected at any accident scene. It is
a common, natural reaction to any severe physical
or psychological injury. Generally, shock results
from an automatic change in a person's blood
circulation, as nature suddenly diverts blood to
the vital organs in an effort to ensure the
victim's survival. However, the natural reaction
can also lead to death through circulatory
collapse.
Shock prevention is next in priority to maintaining
respiration and control of bleeding. Watch for-but
do not wait for-the common shock signs: (1) a weak,
rapid pulse, (2) skin that is cold and moist with
"cold sweat," (3) dilated pupils or eyes that
appear "vacant," (4) restless or abnormally anxious
behavior, (5) nausea or thirst, (6) faintness and
weakness. If the person becomes quiet and slips
into unconsciousness, shock has already progressed
beyond the first stages.
A usual first-aid measure for shock is to position
the victim so the head is lower than the rest of
the body, thus allowing gravity to pull blood
toward the brain. An exception may be necessary if
the victim has a head injury and cannot be moved.
Keep the victim warm and protected from the
weather. However, do not provide too much warmth,
which could lead to sweating with loss of vital
body fluids and redirection of the blood flow from
the vital organs to the surface of the body. Fluids
may be given to a shock victim under certain
circumstances-if the person is conscious, does not
have internal injuries, and can swallow. Fluids can
be vital for the survival of a victim who has
suffered burns. It is better to give fluids in the
early stages of shock, because fluids may not be
absorbed from the digestive system later. If the
accident site is some distance from the nearest
hospital or doctor's office, small amounts of warm
water or tea may be offered. But do not offer
fluids if emergency service personnel or other
professional help are nearby and the victim is
likely to be anesthetized for surgery. If a
physician is available, by telephone or otherwise,
let the doctor make the final decision about fluids
for accident victims.
Some persons at an accident scene may suffer only
minor cuts and bruises but experience psychological
shock. The signs and symptoms are the same as for
victims with serious physical injuries. Time and
personnel permitting, emotional shock cases should
receive the same care for their shock symptoms as
the severely injured. If those with psychological
shock are allowed to slip into unconsciousness with
possible circulatory failure, their condition will
obviously complicate the overall rescue effort.
Treatment for Health Emergencies
Burns (Treatment) (Health)
Burns can be caused by contact with heat,
chemicals, electricity, or radiation. One of the
effects is "burn shock," in which body fluid is
diverted from normal blood flow to the brain,
heart, and other vital organs to the burned area
of the body. Burn shock is the same as physical or
psychological shock and can even follow severe
sunburn. Small thermal burns, as may occur from
fire, steam, or touching a hot object, usually
result in pain, a reddened skin area, and blisters.
In many cases, the burn can be treated with ice or
cold water. Do not try to open a blister. It can
be protected by a pad held in place with a loose
bandage.
Never apply ointments or grease, including butter
or margarine, baking soda, or other household
substances, to a burned skin area.
A severe or extensive thermal burn requires
professional care in a hospital. A doctor and/or
emergency personnel should be summoned. While
waiting for professional medical care, the victim
should be made to lie down with the head and chest
lower than the legs (shock position). Cover the
burn area with a clean cloth to exclude air.
Infection is a common complication if the skin is
broken. If the victim is conscious and can swallow,
provide adequate nonalcoholic liquids to drink.
Because of burn shock, body tissues require fluid
replacement.
First- and Second-Degree Burns (Treatment) (Health)
First-degree burns are marked by redness or other
skin discoloration, pain, and swelling. An ordinary
sunburn is typical of a first-degree burn. These
burns generally are treated as small thermal burns
and usually will heal with the application of cold
water followed by a dry dressing.
Second-degree burns are often the result of
exposure to flame, scalding liquids, or a very
severe sunburn. The skin is usually reddish,
mottled, and damaged, with signs of body fluid
loss. These burns are treated as extensive thermal
burns, requiring professional medical care.
Third-Degree Burns (Treatment) (Health)
Third-degree burns are marked by damage to tissues
beneath the skin. The area may resemble a
second-degree burn at first, but it quickly
progresses to a whitish or charred coloration.
Third-degree burns often result from contact with
high-voltage electricity, steam, or boiling water,
or from an accident in which the person is trapped
in burning clothing. A third-degree burn is a true
medical emergency. While ice or cold water may be
used as a first-aid measure for first- or
second-degree burns, nothing should be applied to
a third-degree burn. Do not even remove clothing
from burn areas. However, burn areas can be covered
temporarily with sterile dressings, clean sheets,
or even plastic garment bags. Do not put plastic
materials over facial burns.
If the third-degree burn victim is conscious and
not vomiting, small amounts of fluid should be
offered. The recommended beverage is lukewarm water
containing a teaspoon of salt and one-half teaspoon
of baking soda per quart of liquid, to be sipped
at a rate of one ounce every four or five minutes
while waiting for professional medical help.
Chemical Burns (Treatment) (Health)
Chemical burns, either acid or alkali, are
generally corrosive reactions that tend to affect
the skin, eyes, and digestive tract. They usually
result from spills, leaks, and splashes. A strong
acid or alkali can cause permanent tissue damage.
An alkali burn may be more serious than an acid
burn because an acid usually is neutralized by
contact with body tissues, whereas an alkali can
continue causing damage until it is neutralized by
another substance or washed away with copious
amounts of water.
As a result, all chemical burns should be flooded-
not merely rinsed-with water. It is usually
important to remove contaminated clothing, which
tends to absorb the chemical and hold it next to
the skin, exacerbating the damage. Water flooding
should continue while clothing is being removed.
If possible, insert a hose under the clothing to
inject water between the skin and the contaminated
fabric.
Poisoning (Treatment) (Health)
A poison is anything that may be injurious to
health or dangerous to life if it is swallowed,
inhaled, or touched by the skin. Common sources of
poisons include contaminated foods, carbon monoxide
gas, cleaning products and solvents, certain
household plants, pesticides, and medicines.
Food Poisoning (Treatment) (Health)
Food poisoning may be caused by enterotoxins, or
poisons produced by bacteria that may or may not
still be in the food. Symptoms usually include
nausea and vomiting, cramps, diarrhea, fever, and
headache, which may begin minutes to hours after
the food has been eaten.
First aid in most cases includes bed rest,
preferably close to a bathroom, and avoidance of
any food or beverage until vomiting has stopped.
When vomiting has ended, the victim should be
offered sweetened tea or soft drinks and strained
broth or bouillon with a little salt added. It is
important to replace the body fluids and
electrolytes (minerals) lost in vomiting or
diarrhea.
In addition to vomiting, cramps, or diarrhea,
symptoms of poisoning may include loss of
consciousness, confusion or disorientation, an
unusual odor on the breath, pain or a burning
sensation in the mouth or throat, and stains or
discoloration in or about the mouth from the leaves
or berries of poisonous plants.
If the symptoms are severe, with signs of shock or
the presence of blood or mucus in the diarrhea, a
doctor should be notified.
A potentially fatal form of food poisoning that
does not always cause vomiting or diarrhea is
botulism. It is caused by a bacteria-produced
poison, usually found in home-canned or processed
foods. Botulism attacks the nervous system. The
victim may feel no symptoms for a day or two, then
experience visual problems, dry mouth and
swallowing difficulty, and constipation as the
poison gradually paralyzes various organ systems.
Immediate hospitalization is needed to prevent the
spread of the paralyzing effects to the respiratory
system.
In any case of a swallowed poison, the container
of food or other substance should be saved, with
the label and any remaining contents, so that
doctors or Poison Control Center personnel can
recommend the most rapid and effective treatment.
First aid for most cases of swallowed poisons
depends on the type of substance involved and the
condition of the victim. Do not try to induce
vomiting in any poisoning victim if he or she is
unconscious or having convulsions.
Corrosive Poisons (Treatment) (Health)
Do not induce vomiting if the victim may have
swallowed a corrosive substance, such as an acid
or alkali, or has a burning pain in the mouth or
throat. Examples of corrosive substances are toilet
bowl cleaners, drain cleaners, lye, washing soda,
and chlorine bleach.
Do not attempt to "neutralize" swallowed acids or
alkalis.
Do not use activated charcoal for swallowed
corrosive poisons.
Do give the victim adequate amounts of milk or
water.
Do begin CPR if breathing stops.
Petroleum Distillates (Treatment) (Health)
For swallowed petroleum distillates, such as
gasoline, kerosene, lighter fluid, paint thinner,
or furniture polish, call the nearest Poison
Control Center or hospital emergency room
immediately for specific instructions. The exact
type and amount of the poison may determine the
treatment. Some products contain more than one kind
of poison.
Symptoms may include coughing, choking, cyanosis
(blue skin), breath-holding, a burning sensation
in the stomach, lethargy, coma, convulsions, and
spontaneous vomiting.
Do not induce vomiting. There is a great risk that
some of the vomited poison may enter the lungs;
some hydrocarbon products are more than a hundred
times as poisonous in the lungs as in the digestive
tract.
Do, if recommended by a doctor, give the person a
glass of milk to dilute the poison and reduce
stomach irritation.
Noncorrosive Poisons (Treatment) (Health)
Most medicines, such as aspirin, may be
noncorrosive poisons. Generally, the doctor may
recommend that you try to induce vomiting if the
person has swallowed a noncorrosive poison that is
not a petroleum distillate product. If you do not
know whether the swallowed substance is corrosive
or noncorrosive-or even if it is actually
poisonous-call a Poison Control Center.
To induce vomiting, use syrup of ipecac (1
tablespoon for a child; 2 tablespoons for an adult)
when it is available. The syrup of ipecac should
be followed with one or more 8-ounce glasses of
water.
If the person does not vomit within 15 minutes
after one dose of syrup of ipecac, repeat the dose.
If syrup of ipecac is not available, use soapy
water or a handwashing liquid detergent dissolved
in water, or place the handle of a spoon or your
finger at the back of the victim's throat. If the
victim is a child, hold the child with the head
lower than the hips while you induce vomiting. This
position will reduce the chance of vomit entering
the lungs.
Save a sample of the vomit so it can be analyzed
in a medical laboratory.
Inhaled Poisons (Treatment) (Health)
A common type of inhaled poison is carbon monoxide
gas, as produced by a car or truck engine in a
confined area or by a faulty furnace or fireplace.
The first symptoms are usually headache, yawning,
breathing difficulty, dilated pupils, dizziness,
faintness, ringing in the ears (tinnitus), nausea,
and heart palpitations, followed by loss of
consciousness. A distinctive sign is a cherry-red
coloring of the mucous membranes. Persons with a
light complexion may show a similar bright red
coloring of the skin.
First aid requires fresh air and oxygen. Give
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation until an emergency
medical unit can arrive to provide 100-percent
oxygen by mask. Do not give any stimulants, but
keep the victim warm and as quiet as possible.
In rescuing a person from an inhaled poison, such
as smoke or carbon monoxide, protect yourself
against becoming a victim of the same dangerous
situation. Be sure that oxygen is available by
opening doors or windows of an enclosed space. If
possible, carry an independent air supply if you
must enter a confined or overheated area to rescue
a victim of inhaled poisons. When a second rescuer
is present, tie a rope around your waist and give
the other end to the second rescuer, who can pull
you to safety if you also are overcome by poisonous
fumes.
Plant Poisons (Treatment) (Health)
The major contact poison plants in North America
are poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac. They
are usually identified by their clusters of three
shiny leaflets. Signs and symptoms of contact with
these plants include itching skin and blisters.
These are effects of a poisonous resin in the
leaves. Some first-aid relief can be had by
diluting and washing away the resin with a strong
laundry soap and water. Follow-up treatments can
include mild wet dressings or starch or oatmeal
baths to relieve the itching. Do not break the
blisters. If there is oozing and crusting of the
blisters, exposing them to dry air may give some
relief. More serious adverse effects can result
from chewing the leaves of poison ivy or inhaling
the smoke of plants being burned. Swallowing or
inhaling the resin causes painful swelling of the
lining of the throat, accompanied by fever and
weakness. The symptoms may require professional
medical treatment.
Insect Bites (Treatment) (Health)
Bites or stings of ants, bees, hornets, wasps,
yellow jackets, mosquitoes, and other insects
usually result in the injection of substances under
the skin of the person attacked. The body's
reaction may vary from mild itching to a severe
form of shock, depending on the venom or other
foreign protein injected and the sensitivity of the
person to the substance. Some hypersensitive
persons can experience an extreme allergic
reaction, known as anaphylactic shock, marked by
breathing difficulty or circulatory failure within
a few minutes after a bite or sting. Such
individuals require special prescription drugs that
should be carried when they expect to be near
stinging or biting insects.
For most people who experience insect bites and
stings, first aid may require only the application
of ice or a cold compress to slow the rate of venom
absorption. If the insect leaves its stinger in the
skin, remove it with care, as the venom sac usually
is still attached and should not be squeezed.
Ticks and other insects that may cling to the skin
may require application of a petroleum product or
similar irritant in order to remove them. In
addition to local pain, swelling, and irritation,
bites of ticks and other insects can result in
serious infections requiring hospitalization.
Snake Bites (Treatment) (Health)
Most snake bites should be treated like those of
any wild animal. If the bite is from a poisonous
snake, the symptoms may vary according to the type
of snake and its venom. But most poisonous snake
bites will be followed immediately by an intense
pain and a feeling of numbness in the bite area.
The bite of a pit viper, such as a rattlesnake,
cottonmouth, or copperhead, is often identified by
fang punctures about one-half inch apart. It may
also produce swelling. Other snake bites may or may
not leave fang marks. A coral snake-bite wound may
show a chewing action of the snake's jaws.
In general, a snake-bite victim should remain
still. Any body movement will tend to increase the
spread of venom. If the bite is in an arm or leg,
the limb should be immobilized and kept lower than
the level of the heart. If a hospital or other
medical facility is less than 30 to 40 minutes
away, the victim should be delivered there for
professional care as quickly as possible. Other
first-aid measures are suggested only for cases in
which a doctor or hospital is not easily available.
A constriction band should be tied around the arm
or leg a few inches above the bite and between the
bite and the heart. The bite may be washed with
soap and water and covered with a sterile dressing.
Ice or a cold compress can be applied, but not
directly over the bite. As in any other serious
injury, the victim should be monitored closely for
signs of shock. In some cases, an incision can be
made in the bite area for removal of some of the
venom by suction. However, incision and suction
should be performed only if a doctor is not
available and immediately after the bite has been
inflicted. The person making the incision should
be aware that when cutting into an arm or leg,
there is a high risk of causing permanent damage
to nerves, blood vessels, muscles, or other tissue.
Animal Bites (Treatment) (Health)
Animal bites, whether by a pet or a wild animal,
can cause a puncture wound, laceration, or an
avulsion, in which part of the flesh is torn away.
First aid should be directed toward control of
bleeding and protecting the wound from infection
until it can be examined by a doctor. Unless the
wound is extremely painful or bleeding profusely,
clean it with soap and water and cover it with a
sterile dressing before taking the victim to a
doctor's office or hospital emergency room.
Many animal bites require a tetanus shot and, if
the animal is identified as being rabid, additional
protection against rabies. In most communities,
local health authorities require notification of
any serious animal bite.
Electric Shock (Treatment) (Health)
Severe electric shock can be caused by contact with
ordinary electric lines in a home, office, or
factory, as well as by high-voltage lines or a
lightning bolt. An electric charge can have a
number of effects on the body, including muscular
contractions or seizures, paralysis of the lungs,
abnormal heart function, bone fractures, thermal
burns, and changes in blood chemistry.
Saving a person from further injury or death by
electrocution should be done carefully so that the
rescuer does not also become a victim. The electric
shock victim first must be safely separated from
contact with the electricity by turning the
electricity off or by removing a wire or electric
appliance with an insulated tool, such as a dry
stick. In some cases, it may be easier to throw a
loop of rope or cloth about the victim's arm or leg
and drag him or her away from the source of
electricity. If the victim is alive but
unconscious, summon a doctor or emergency medical
personnel. If breathing has stopped or there is no
pulse, begin CPR immediately while awaiting the
arrival of medical professionals.
Choking (Treatment) (Health)
Obstruction of the airways leading to the lungs can
be caused by food, candy, chewing gum, or other
objects accidentally inhaled. If air is unable to
reach the lungs, the body's oxygen supply can
become exhausted in a few minutes, resulting in
death.
NOTE: A person whose windpipe (trachea) is blocked
cannot talk but must make those around aware that
he or she is choking, using sign language or any
other means so that first aid can be given
immediately.
There are two accepted ways of giving first aid to
a choking person.
1. The Heimlich maneuver, which consists of a
series of thrusts to the upper abdomen. Stand
behind the victim and put your arms around his or
her upper abdomen so that your hands can be clasped
in a fist at the bottom of the victim's breastbone.
Then quickly push your fist upward into the
victim's chest, putting pressure on the lungs so
that any air in them will be squeezed backward up
into the windpipe, pushing the obstruction into the
mouth. The Heimlich maneuver may have to be
repeated six or more times to dislodge a foreign
body in the throat. If the victim is pregnant, or
very obese, the rescue pressure should be directed
through the chest rather than the abdomen.
2. Firm blows over the spinal column between the
shoulder blades. Stand behind the choking person
and help him or her lean over, using one hand on
the victim's chest to lend support. Then hit high
on the back with the heel of your hand. Four or
more back blows may be needed to dislodge the
object in the windpipe.
Frostbite (Treatment) (Health)
The most common cold-weather injury is frostbite.
Severe cold can constrict the blood vessels,
thereby reducing the normal flow of warm blood to
the exposed tissues. The symptoms usually include
a very cold feeling in the exposed skin area
followed by a loss of feeling. The skin may appear
flushed or red at first, but later it becomes white
or a grayish yellow. Because of the loss of
feeling, the victim is often unaware of the danger
of frostbite.
The victim should be taken into a warm environment
and all tight or wet clothing in the affected body
area should be removed. The frostbitten area should
be immersed in warm-but not extremely hot-water
(experts recommend a water temperature of around
105 deg.).
You can offer the victim hot coffee, tea, cocoa,
or soup, but smoking should be avoided because it
has an effect similar to that of cold, causing
constriction of blood vessels. Do not rub the
frostbitten tissues. If bleeding, swelling from
fluid accumulation, or other complications develop
after the exposed areas have thawed, notify a
doctor immediately.
Abrasions (Treatment) (Health)
A minor break in the skin, such as may be caused
by scraping or rubbing against a rough surface,
should be washed with soap and water and treated
with mild antiseptic, such as hydrogen peroxide.
Then cover the abrasion with a sterile gauze
dressing held in place with a bandage. If signs of
infection appear, consult a doctor.
Black Eyes and Bruises (Treatment) (Health)
Black eyes and bruises are actually a type of
closed wound in which blood from a damaged vessel
in the soft tissues has leaked into a space beneath
the skin. Apply ice or a cold compress to reduce
the swelling and control the further loss of blood
under the skin. In most cases, the pool of blood
will be reabsorbed and the skin color will return
to normal.
Boils and Blisters (Treatment) (Health)
A boil is a tender, often painful, pus-filled
swelling of the skin. A boil is also known as a
furuncle, and a group of furuncles is a carbuncle.
Boils should be treated quickly and carefully to
prevent the spread of a more serious infection and
the formation of a scar. A boil around the nose or
face can be particularly serious and should be
treated with antibiotics by a doctor. Most other
boils should be treated with moist heat to cause
spontaneous rupture and drainage. The pus contains
staphylococcus bacteria and should not be allowed
to spread the infection.
Blisters are fluid-filled skin eruptions that may
be caused by allergy, injury, sunburn, insect
bites, infection, or drug reaction. Correcting the
cause is important if the cause is an infection,
allergy, or drug reaction. Most ordinary blisters
can be treated with a mild antiseptic and a
protective dressing. Do not puncture a blister. If
the blister is accidentally broken, treat it as a
wound.
Concussions (Treatment) (Health)
A concussion can result from a head injury and may
be accompanied by a brief or longer period of
unconsciousness. The victim may experience
headache, blurred vision, or other signs of nervous
system damage and may lapse into a coma. The
victim, even if conscious, should be treated as an
unconscious person. Keep the person quiet and warm,
watch for signs of shock, and help maintain
breathing if necessary while awaiting arrival of
a doctor or emergency medical personnel.
Convulsions (Treatment) (Health)
A convulsion, or seizure, involves a disturbance
of the nervous system that affects the muscles of
movement. The person experiencing a convulsion may
have uncontrollable twitching of the muscles, or
the muscles may become rigidly contracted. There
are many possible causes and types of such
seizures. In general, however, first aid should be
aimed at protecting the victim from self-injury.
Place a firm but soft object, such as a folded
handkerchief, in the mouth to protect the tongue.
Do not try to protect the tongue with a hard object
that may damage the teeth and do not insert your
fingers between the jaws of the victim. Clothing
about the neck should be loosened. Place pillows,
cushions, or rolled blankets about the head and
body. Meanwhile, summon a doctor or EMS.
Drowning (Treatment) (Health)
Drowning is a form of asphyxiation due to an
inability of the victim to get oxygen into the
lungs. It may also be complicated by inhalation of
fluid into the lungs. First aid for a drowning
victim requires CPR procedures (described on page
654) to maintain breathing and circulation. Do not
waste time trying to squeeze water out of the
lungs, particularly if the accident occurred in
fresh water. If the victim has been in sea water,
try to keep the body positioned with the head and
chest lower than the abdomen and legs to assist
fluid drainage from the lungs.
Heat Cramps, Heat Exhaustion, Heat Stroke (Health)
Prolonged exposure to high temperatures can lead
to several life-threatening health problems. The
most serious effects are heat exhaustion and heat
stroke. Heat cramps are usually in the form of
painful muscle spasms caused by excessive sweating
and loss of body salt. The skin may be hot and dry
or cool and clammy. In most cases, heat cramps can
be treated with food and liquid containing sodium
chloride (ordinary table salt).
Heat exhaustion, or heat prostration, is due to
loss of body fluid. It is marked by nausea,
weakness, excessive sweating, and faintness. The
skin is pale and clammy, the pulse is weak, and the
victim may show signs of shock. The loss of body
fluid results in loss of blood volume and, in turn,
a deficiency of oxygenated blood reaching the
brain. Have the victim lie flat with the head down
and give him or her small sips of cool, slightly
salted liquids every few minutes. Do not give the
victim too much fluid too rapidly.
Heat stroke, or sunstroke, is the most serious type
of heat injury. It may begin suddenly with
headache, dizziness, and fatigue. The skin is hot,
dry, and flushed and the pulse is extremely rapid.
The victim can develop a very high fever of around
105 degrees F, experience convulsions, or become
unconscious. Unless first aid is given immediately,
the person may suffer circulatory collapse and die.
Cool the body by wrapping the victim in wet
clothing or bedding. Use snow or ice, if available,
or immerse the person in cool water while awaiting
the arrival of an emergency medical crew or a
physician. Check the victim's temperature every 10
minutes to make sure the body temperature does not
fall too rapidly. Hypothermia, or excessively cold
body temperature, could complicate the condition.
Nosebleeds (Treatment) (Health)
Nosebleeds are usually caused by rupture of the
numerous capillaries in the soft tissues near the
tip of the nose. A nosebleed may be started by an
injury, high blood pressure, physical activity, or
sudden change in atmospheric pressure, as may occur
in traveling from sea level to a mountaintop. First
aid requires keeping the victim quiet and in a
seated position with the head leaning forward.
Apply pressure to the outside of the bleeding
nostril, or insert gauze pads in one or both
nostrils and squeeze the outside of the nose toward
the midline. Also, apply ice or a cold compress to
the nose and surrounding areas of the face. If the
nose continues to bleed, notify a doctor.
FIRST-AID KITS
Many people are confused about the meanings of
terms, such as bandages and dressings, used by
health professionals. A bandage is a strip or
muslin, gauze, or other material used to hold a
compress or dressing in place. A roller bandage is
a long strip of cloth that can be used as a
dressing or compress as well as a bandage. A
triangular bandage is one cut from a square of
cloth along a diagonal line.
A compress is a square of fabric, generally of
flannel or wool, used to apply heat, cold, or
medications to the skin. A dressing can be anything
placed over an open wound to control bleeding,
absorb blood or secretions, and prevent infectious
agents from entering the body through the wound.
The best kind of dressing is a piece of sterile
gauze, but in an emergency, any clean material may
become a dressing-even sheet plastic or a
newspaper. However, fluffy materials, such as
cotton wool, should not be used because the loose
fibers will stick to body tissues. Dressings are
held in place by bandages.
An ideal family first aid kit should contain the
following:
12 4-by-4-inch sterile dressings in sealed
envelopes
12 2-by-2-inch sterile dressings in sealed
envelopes
2 15-foot roller bandages, 1 inch wide
2 15-foot roller bandages, 2 inches wide
1 roll of adhesive tape
4 triangular bandages with safety pins
1 clean bedsheet
2 small bath towels
2 large bath towels
1 pair of blunt-nose scissors
1 pair of tweezers
1 pair of needle-nose pliers
1 eyedropper
1 set of measuring spoons
12 wooden tongue blades (for finger splints)
12 wood splints, 12-18 inches long
1 bar of antiseptic soap
1 package of salt
1 package of baking soda
1 package of aspirin tablets
1 package of antihistamine tablets
1 package of anti-motion sickness tablets
1 large package of adhesive bandages, assorted
sizes
1 package of paper cups
Directory of Poison Control Centers
Following is a list of state coordinators' offices.
Alabama (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Public Health
Montgomery, AL 36117
205-832-3194
Alaska (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health and Social Services
Juneau, AK 99811
907-465-3100
Arizona (Poison Control Centers)
College of Pharmacy
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ 85724
602-626-6016
800-362-0101
Arkansas (Poison Control Centers)
University of Arkansas
Medical Science Campus
Little Rock, AR 72201
501-661-6161
California (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health Services
Sacramento, CA 95814
916-322-4336
Colorado (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
EMS Division
Denver, CO 80220
303-320-8476
Connecticut (Poison Control Centers)
University of Connecticut
Health Center
Farmington, CT 06032
203-674-3456
Delaware (Poison Control Centers)
Wilmington Medical Center
Delaware Division
Wilmington, DE 19801
302-655-3389
District of Columbia (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Human Services
Washington, DC 20009
202-673-6741
202-673-6736
Florida (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health and Emergency Medical Services
Tallahassee, FL 32301
904-487-1566
Georgia (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Human Resources
Atlanta, GA 30308
404-894-5170
Hawaii (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
Honolulu, HI 96801
808-531-7776
Idaho (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health and Welfare
Boise, ID 83701
208-334-2241
Illinois (Poison Control Centers)
Division of Emergency Medical Services and Highway
Safety
Springfield, IL 62761
217-785-2080
Indiana (Poison Control Centers)
State Board of Health
Indianapolis, IN 46206
317-633-0332
Iowa (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
Des Moines, IA 50319
515-281-4964
Kansas (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health and Environment
Topeka, KS 66620
913-862-9360
Ext. 451
Kentucky (Poison Control Centers)
Department for Human Resources
Frankfort, KY 40601
502-564-3970
Louisiana (Poison Control Centers)
Emergency Medical Services of Louisiana
Baton Rouge, LA 70801
504-342-2600
Maine (Poison Control Centers)
Maine Poison Control Center
Portland, ME 04102
207-871-2950
Maryland (Poison Control Centers)
Maryland Poison Information Center
University of Maryland
School of Pharmacy
Baltimore, MD 21201
301-528-7604
Massachusetts (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Public Health
Boston, MA 02111
617-727-2700
Michigan (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Public Health
Lansing, MI 48909
517-373-1406
Minnesota (Poison Control Centers)
State Department of Health
Minneapolis, MN 55404
612-296-5281
Mississippi (Poison Control Centers)
State Board of Health
Jackson, MS 39205
601-354-6660
Missouri (Poison Control Centers)
Missouri Division of Health
Jefferson City, MO 65102
314-751-2713
Montana (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health and Environmental Sciences
Montana Poison Control System
Cogswell Building
Helena, MT 59620
406-449-3895
800-525-5042
Nebraska (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
Lincoln, NE 68502
402-471-2122
Nevada (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Human Resources
Carson City, NV 86710
702-885-4750
New Hampshire (Poison Control Centers)
New Hampshire Poison Center
May Hitchcock Hospital
2 Maynard Street
Hanover, NH 03755
603-643-4000
New Jersey (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health, Accident Prevention and
Poison
Control Program
Trenton, NJ 08625
609-292-5666
New Mexico (Poison Control Centers)
New Mexico Poison, Drug Information and Medical
Crisis Center
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque, NM 87131
505-843-2551
800-432-6866
New York (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
Albany, NY 12237
518-474-3785
North Carolina (Poison Control Centers)
Duke University Medical Center
Durham, NC 27710
919-684-8111
North Dakota (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
Bismarck, ND 58505
701-224-2388
Ohio (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
Columbus, OH 43216
614-466-5190
Oklahoma (Poison Control Centers)
Oklahoma Poison Control Center
Oklahoma Children's Memorial Hospital
P.O. Box 26307
Oklahoma City, OK 73126
405-271-5454
800-522-4611
Oregon (Poison Control Centers)
Oregon Poison Control and Drug Information Center
University of Oregon
Health Sciences Center
Portland, OR 97201
503-225-8968
800-452-7165
Pennsylvania (Poison Control Centers)
Director, Division of Epidemiology
Department of Health
P.O. Box 90
Harrisburg, PA 17108
717-787-2307
Rhode Island (Poison Control Centers)
Rhode Island Poison Control Center
Rhode Island Hospital
593 Eddy Street
Providence, RI 02902
401-277-5727
South Carolina (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health and Environmental Control
Columbia, SC 29201
803-758-5654
South Dakota (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
Pierre, SD 57501
605-773-3361
Tennessee (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Public Health
Division of Emergency Services
Nashville, TN 37216
615-741-2407
Texas (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
Division of Occupational Health
Austin, TX 78756
512-458-7254
Utah (Poison Control Centers)
Utah Department of Health
Division of Family Health Services
Salt Lake City, UT 84113
801-533-6161
Vermont (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
Burlington, VT 05401
802-862-5701
Virginia (Poison Control Centers)
Bureau of Emergency Medical Services
Richmond, VA 23219
804-786-5188
Washington (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Social and Health Services
Seattle, WA 98115
206-522-7478
West Virginia (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health
Charleston, WV 25305
304-348-2971
Wisconsin (Poison Control Centers)
Department of Health and Social Services
Division of Health
Madison, WI 53701
608-267-7174
Wyoming (Poison Control Centers)
Office of Emergency Medical Services
Department of Health and Social Services
Cheyenne, WY 82001
307-777-7955
THE SIGNS AND SIGNALS OF HEART ATTACKS AND STROKES
Heart Attack Warning Signs
Uncomfortable pressure, fullness, squeezing, or
pain in the center of the chest lasting 2 minutes
or more.
Spreading of pain to shoulders, neck, or arms.
Severe pain, dizziness, fainting, sweating, nausea,
or shortness of breath
Not all of these signals are always present. Don't
wait! Get help immediately.
Stroke Warning Signs
Sudden, temporary weakness or numbness of the face,
arm, and leg on one side of the body
Temporary loss of speech, or trouble speaking or
understanding speech
Temporary dimness or loss of vision, particularly
in one eye
Unexplained dizziness, unsteadiness, or sudden
falls
Many major strokes are preceded by "little
strokes," warning signals like the above
experienced days, weeks, or months before the more
severe event.
In Case of Emergency
If you are having chest discomfort that lasts for
2 minutes or more, call the emergency medical
services (EMS) in your area.
If you can get to a hospital faster by car, have
someone drive you.
Before an Emergency
Find out which hospitals in your area offer 24-hour
emergency cardiac care.
Select in advance the facility nearest your home
and office, and tell your family and friends so
that they will know what to do.
Keep a list of emergency rescue service numbers
next to your telephone and in a prominent place in
your pocket, wallet, or purse.
Additional Sources of Information (First Aid)
Organizations and Services
American College of Emergency Physicians
P.O. Box 61991
Dallas, TX 75261
American Medical Association
535 North Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60610
American National Red Cross
17th and D Streets
Washington, DC 20006
202-737-8300
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians
P.O. Box 334
Newton Highlands, MA 02161
Books
American National Red Cross Standard First Aid and
Personal Safety. Doubleday, 1989.
Bevar, James. The Pocket Medical Encyclopedia and
First Aid Guide. Simon & Schuster, 1979.
Consumer Guide editors and Charles Mosher.
Emergency First Aid. Fawcett, 1980.
Emergency Family First Aid Guide. Simon & Schuster,
1978.
Henderson, John. Emergency Medical Guide.
McGraw-Hill, 1978.
Nourse, Alan E. The Outdoorsman's Medical Guide:
Common Sense Advice and Essential Health Care for
Campers, Hikers and Backpackers. Harper & Row,
1974.
Rothenberg, Robert. First Aid: What to Do in an
Emergency. Crown, 1976.
The United States
State Populations
State Population
Alabama 3,893,888
Alaska 401,851
Arizona 2,718,425
Arkansas 2,365,000
California 23,667,565
Colorado 2,889,735
Connecticut 3,107,576
Delaware 594,317
District of Columbia 638,432
Florida 9,746,324
Georgia 5,463,105
Hawaii 964,691
Idaho 944,038
Illinois 11,426,518
Indiana 5,490,260
Iowa 2,913,808
Kansas 2,364,236
Kentucky 3,660,257
Louisiana 4,206,312
Maine 1,125,027
Maryland 4,216,975
Massachusetts 5,737,037
Michigan 9,262,078
Minnesota 4,075,970
Mississippi 2,520,638
Missouri 4,916,759
Montana 786,690
Nebraska 1,569,825
Nevada 800,493
New Hampshire 920,610
New Jersey 7,364,823
New Mexico 1,302,981
New York 17,558,072
North Carolina 5,881,813
North Dakota 652,717
Ohio 10,797,624
Oklahoma 3,025,290
Oregon 2,633,149
Pennsylvania 11,863,895
Rhode Island 947,154
South Carolina 3,121,833
South Dakota 690,768
Tennessee 4,591,120
Texas 14,229,288
Utah 1,461,037
Vermont 511,456
Virginia 5,346,818
Washington 4,132,180
West Virginia 1,950,279
Wisconsin 4,705,521
Wyoming 469,557
Immigration Statistics
Immigration, 1820-1986
(in thousands, except rate, for fiscal years ending in
year shown, except as noted)
Total
----------------
Period or Year Number Rate(1)
-----------------------------------------
1820-1986 53,122 3.4
----------------
1820-30(2).............. 152 1.2
1831-40(3).............. 599 3.9
1841-50(4).............. 1,713 8.4
1851-60(4).............. 2,598 9.3
1861-70(5).............. 2,315 6.4
1871-80................. 2,182 6.2
1881-90................. 5,247 9.2
1891-1900............... 3,688 5.3
1901-10................. 8,795 10.4
1911-20................. 5,736 5.7
1921-30................. 4,107 3.5
1931-40................. 528 .4
1941-50................. 1,035 .7
1951-60................. 2,515 1.5
1961-70................. 3,322 1.7
1971-80(6).............. 4,493 2.1
1981-86................. 3,466 2.4
1965.................... 297 1.5
1966.................... 323 1.6
1967.................... 362 1.8
1968.................... 454 2.3
1969.................... 359 1.8
1970.................... 373 1.8
1971.................... 370 1.8
1972.................... 385 1.8
1973.................... 400 1.9
1974.................... 395 1.9
1975.................... 386 1.8
1976.................... 399 1.9
1977.................... 462 2.1
1978.................... 601 2.8
1979.................... 460 2.1
1980.................... 531 2.3
1981.................... 597 2.6
1982.................... 594 2.6
1983.................... 560 2.4
1984.................... 544 2.3
1985.................... 570 2.4
1986.................... 602 2.5
(1) Annual rate per 1,000 U.S. population. Rate
computed by dividing sum of annual immigration
totals by sum of annual U.S. population totals for
same number of years.
(2) October 1, 1819 - September 30, 1830.
(3) October 1, 1830 - December 31, 1840.
(4) Calendar years.
(5) January 1, 1861 - June 30, 1870.
(6) Includes transition quarter, July 1 to September
30, 1976.
Immigrations, by Country of Birth, 1961-86
(in thousands)
1961- 1971- 1981-
1970, 1980, 1985,
Country of birth total total total 1986
------------------------------------------------------
All countries.... 3,321.7 4,493.3 2,864.4 601.7
----------------------------------
Europe(1)........... 1,238.6 801.3 321.8 62.5
Austria.......... 13.7 4.7 1.9 .5
Belgium.......... 8.5 4.0 2.6 .6
Czechoslovakia... 21.4 10.2 5.1 1.1
Denmark.......... 11.8 4.5 2.5 .6
Finland.......... 5.8 3.4 1.6 .3
France........... 34.3 17.8 10.1 2.5
Germany.......... 200.0 66.0 34.5 7.1
Greece........... 90.2 93.7 16.3 2.5
Hungary.......... 17.3 11.6 3.7 1.0
Ireland.......... 42.4 14.1 5.6 1.8
Italy............ 206.7 130.1 17.8 3.1
Netherlands...... 27.8 10.7 5.6 1.3
Norway........... 16.4 4.0 1.9 .4
Poland........... 73.3 43.6 36.3 8.5
Portugal......... 79.3 104.5 21.4 3.8
Rumania.......... 14.9 17.5 16.8 5.2
Soviet Union(2).. 15.7 43.2 39.5 2.6
Spain............ 30.5 30.0 7.6 1.6
Sweden........... 16.7 6.3 4.7 1.1
Switzerland...... 16.3 6.6 3.2 .7
United Kingdom... 230.5 123.5 71.7 13.7
Yugoslavia....... 46.2 42.1 8.1 2.0
Asia(1)............. 445.3 1,633.8 1,376.3 268.2
Cambodia......... 1.2 8.4 70.1 13.5
China: Mainland.. 25.1
Taiwan....} 96.7 202.5 180.9 13.4
Hong Kong........ 25.6 47.5 25.7 5.0
India............ 31.2 176.8 119.7 26.2
Iran............. 10.4 46.2 62.5 16.5
Iraq............. 6.4 23.4 12.9 1.3
Israel........... 12.9 26.6 16.3 3.8
Japan............ 38.5 47.9 20.0 4.0
Jordan........... 14.0 29.6 14.9 3.1
Korea............ 35.8 272.0 166.0 35.8
Laos............. .1 22.6 97.4 7.8
Lebanon.......... 7.5 33.8 17.0 4.0
Pakistan......... 4.9 31.2 25.8 6.0
Philippines...... 101.5 360.2 221.2 52.6
Thailand......... 5.0 44.1 26.3 6.2
Turkey........... 6.8 18.6 11.4 1.8
Vietnam.......... 4.6 179.7 234.8 30.0
North America(1).... 1,351.1 1,645.0 885.7 207.7
Canada........... 286.7 114.8 55.6 11.0
Mexico........... 443.3 637.2 335.2 66.5
Caribbean(1)..... 519.5 759.8 371.6 101.6
Barbados....... 9.4 20.9 9.4 1.6
Cuba........... 256.8 276.8 58.9 33.1
Dominican
Republic..... 94.1 148.0 104.6 26.2
Haiti.......... 37.5 58.7 43.9 12.7
Jamaica........ 71.0 142.0 100.5 19.6
Trinidad and
Tobago....... 24.6 61.8 17.0 2.9
Central America(1).. 97.7 132.4 123.1 28.4
El Salvador...... 15.0 34.4 42.9 10.9
Guatemala........ 15.4 25.6 19.9 5.2
Nicaragua........ 10.1 13.0 14.3 2.8
Panama........... 18.4 22.7 15.4 2.2
South America(1).... 228.3 284.4 184.0 41.9
Argentina........ 42.1 25.1 10.2 2.2
Brazil........... 20.5 13.7 8.7 2.3
Colombia......... 70.3 77.6 51.6 11.4
Ecuador.......... 37.0 50.2 22.2 4.5
Guyana........... 7.1 47.5 42.7 10.4
Peru............. 18.6 29.1 21.8 4.9
Africa(1)........... 39.3 91.5 77.0 17.5
Egypt............ 17.2 25.5 14.2 3.0
Australia........... 9.9 14.3 6.6 1.4
New Zealand......... 3.7 5.3 3.2 .6
Other Countries..... 5.5 17.7 9.8 1.9
(1) Includes countries not shown separately.
(2) Europe and Asia.
Estimated Refugee Arrivals by Selected Country of
Citizenship, 1982-86
Country of
Citizenship 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
------------------------------------------------------
Total....... 97,300 60,700 70,600 67,800 62,250
---------------------------------------
Afghanistan.... 4,250 2,900 2,000 2,200 2,400
Angola......... 100 -- 100 50 --
Bulgaria....... 100 150 150 150 150
Cambodia....... 20,850 13,200 19,850 19,250 10,050
Cuba........... 500 650 50 150 150
Czechoslovakia. 700 1,250 800 950 1,400
Ethiopia....... 3,150 2,550 2,500 1,750 1,250
Hungary........ 450 650 550 500 650
Iran........... -- 900 2,850 3,450 3,200
Iraq........... 2,000 1,600 150 250 300
Laos........... 9,600 2,950 7,200 5,250 12,900
Poland......... 6,500 5,550 3,950 2,850 3,600
Rumania........ 2,900 3,750 4,250 4,500 2,600
Soviet Union... 2,750 1,400 750 650 800
Vietnam........ 41,700 23,050 24,950 25,400 22,450
Others(1)...... 1,750 150 500 450 350
-- Represents zero.
(1) Includes those from countries other than those
listed, those whose country of citizenship is
unknown, and those with no country of citizenship.
Immigrants Admitted as Permanent Residents Under
Refugee Acts, by Country of Birth, 1961-86
(for fiscal years ending in year shown, covers
immigrants who were allowed to enter the United
States under the 1953 Refugee Relief Act and later
acts)
1961- 1971- 1981-
1970, 1980, 1985,
Country of birth total total total 1986
-------------------------------------------------------
Total........... 212,843 539,447 554,026 104,383
Europe(1).......... 55,235 71,858 71,083 11,868
Austria......... 233 185 182 53
Bulgaria........ 1,799 1,238 513 134
Czechoslovakia.. 5,709 3,646 3,601 841
Germany......... 665 143 287 104
Greece.......... 586 478 800 27
Hungary......... 4,044 4,358 1,616 543
Italy........... 1,198 346 177 24
Netherlands..... 3,134 8 7 --
Poland.......... 3,197 5,882 14,596 3,949
Portugal........ 1,361 21 18 --
Rumania......... 7,158 6,812 12,979 4,308
Soviet Union.... 871 31,309 35,318 1,654
Spain........... 4,114 5,317 378 114
Yugoslavia...... 18,299 11,297 186 32
Others.......... 2,867 818 425 85
Asia(1)............ 19,895 210,693 436,183 58,685
Cambodia........ -- 7,739 68,936 13,300
China: Mainland. 618
Taiwan... 5,308 13,760 5,317 1
Indonesia....... 7,658 222 913 148
Japan........... 554 56 91 5
Korea........... 1,316 65 99 6
Laos............ -- 21,690 96,643 7,556
Vietnam......... 7 150,266 216,079 23,930
Others.......... 5,052 16,885 48,105 13,121
North America...... 132,068 252,633 34,515 31,086
Cuba............ 131,557 251,514 32,458 30,333
Others.......... 511 1,119 2,057 753
South America...... 123 1,244 927 195
Africa............. 5,486 2,991 11,281 2,547
Others............. 36 38 37 2
-- Represents zero.
(1) Through 1970, Turkey is included in Europe;
thereafter, it is included in Asia.
Refugee Arrivals by Selected Area of Citizenship and
State, 1980-1986
(for fiscal years ending in years shown)
Eastern
Europe(2)/
Southeast Asia(1) Soviet Other,
---------------------- Union, (3)
State 1980 1985 1986 1986 1986
-------------------------------------------------------
U.S.(4)..... 166,727 49,853 45,391 9,077 7,204
---------------------------------------
Alabama........ 853 206 276 14 4
Alaska......... 111 24 39 14 12
Arizona........ 1,254 871 657 150 133
Arkansas....... 1,112 114 137 18 2
California..... 48,540 16,107 15,168 1,811 3,066
Colorado....... 2,792 539 515 74 128
Connecticut.... 1,770 608 521 237 38
Delaware....... 72 7 30 3 6
District of
Columbia.... 3,191 200 107 64 125
Florida........ 2,926 1,104 883 217 121
Georgia........ 2,427 1,043 823 85 120
Hawaii......... 2,385 302 251 10 --
Idaho.......... 335 211 201 117 5
Illinois....... 7,012 1,776 1,548 847 239
Indiana........ 1,585 242 191 67 36
Iowa........... 2,837 563 751 35 6
Kansas......... 1,924 803 517 7 14
Kentucky....... 790 354 387 3 18
Louisiana...... 2,116 725 599 5 16
Maine.......... 278 214 150 83 36
Maryland....... 1,257 546 502 170 317
Massachusetts.. 3,748 2,520 1,941 293 87
Michigan....... 3,142 362 491 495 142
Minnesota...... 7,425 1,480 1,936 69 82
Mississippi.... 436 128 137 4 1
Missouri....... 1,713 629 713 189 86
Montana........ 540 31 33 3 2
Nebraska....... 741 74 126 41 28
Nevada......... 719 163 131 27 100
New Hampshire.. 130 143 46 15 4
New Jersey..... 1,613 507 436 399 126
New Mexico..... 1,274 271 126 9 20
New York....... 5,938 2,185 1,946 1,602 729
North Carolina. 1,734 540 473 71 31
North Dakota... 331 92 51 62 7
Ohio........... 2,465 778 594 156 81
Oklahoma....... 2,204 506 393 21 38
Oregon......... 6,213 767 713 107 38
Pennsylvania... 6,689 1,744 1,380 370 79
Rhode Island... 1,132 492 371 57 2
South Carolina. 573 61 71 3 10
South Dakota... 389 36 40 53 27
Tennessee...... 2,032 591 811 77 38
Texas.......... 12,251 4,219 3,493 376 477
Utah........... 3,568 815 620 79 18
Vermont........ 151 39 25 94 4
Virginia....... 3,153 1,211 1,177 39 341
Washington..... 7,972 2,443 2,100 285 141
West Virginia.. 213 22 13 6 5
Wisconsin...... 2,492 420 737 41 17
Wyoming........ 113 6 9 3 1
-- Represents zero.
(1) Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
(2) Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Rumania.
(3) Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, and Ethiopia.
(4) Includes those in Guam and whose destination is
unknown.
Economic Statistics
Federal Government Receipts by Source (Statistics)
Tax Sources 1987 1988
Income
Individual 364.0 392.8*
Corporate 104.8 117.2
Social insurance taxes and
contributions:
Employment 273.2 307.4
Unemployment 23.8 22.2
Other retirement contributions 4.4 3.5
Excise 32.6 33.4
Estate and gift 6.0 5.8
Other Sources
Customs duties 14.4 15.3
Miscellaneous 19.1 18.9
Total Receipts 824.4 916.6
*Dollars in billions
Federal Government Expenditures (Economic Statistics)
1987 1988
Agriculture 31.1 26.3
Commerce and housing credit 9.3 2.5
Community and regional
development 6.2 5.5
Defense 282.2 297.6
Education, training,
employment, and social services 29.8 28.4
Energy 3.8 3.3
General government 6.8 7.5
General-purpose fiscal
assistance 1.9 1.5
Health 39.7 38.9
Income security 124.9 124.8
International affairs 14.6 15.2
Justice administration 8.3 9.2
Natural resources and
environment 13.9 14.2
Science, space, and technology 9.5 11.4
Social Security and Medicare 270.4 280.9
Transportation 27.0 25.5
Veterans benefits and services 26.7 27.2
Net interest 137.5 139.0
Allowances ---- ----
Undistributed offsetting
receipts -37.1 -45.4
Total Expenditures 1,015.6 1,024.3
Per Capita Personal Income by States (Statistics)
State 1980 1984 1985 1986-1
Alabama $7,465 $9,987 $10,670 $11,115
Alaska 13,007 17,550 18,140 17,744
Nebraska 8,895 12,572 13,286 13,777
Arizona 8,854 11,822 12,771 13,220
Arkansas 7,113 9,734 10,471 10,773
California 11,021 14,471 16,070 16,778
Colorado 10,143 13,848 14,797 15,113
Connecticut 11,532 16,547 18,101 19,208
Delaware 10,059 13,692 14,269 15,010
District of
Columbia 12,251 16,870 18,239 18,980
Florida 9,246 12,773 13,744 14,281
Georgia 8,021 11,548 12,546 13,224
Hawaii 10,129 13,028 13,845 14,691
Idaho 8,105 10,146 11,130 11,432
Illinois 10,454 13,705 14,736 15,420
Indiana 8,914 11,725 12,443 12,944
Iowa 9,226 12,123 12,603 13,222
Kansas 9,880 13,311 13,782 14,379
Kentucky 7,679 10,232 10,815 11,129
Louisiana 8,412 10,741 11,261 11,227
Maine 7,760 10,849 11,873 12,709
Maryland 10,394 14,443 15,862 16,588
Massachusetts 10,103 14,755 16,387 17,516
Michigan 9,801 12,621 13,608 14,064
Minnesota 9,673 13,212 14,092 14,737
Mississippi 6,573 8,684 9,182 9,552
Missouri 8,812 12,075 13,228 13,657
New Hampshire 9,150 13,386 14,947 15,922
New Jersey 10,966 15,389 17,214 18,284
New Mexico 7,940 10,256 10,909 11,037
New York 10,179 14,341 16,083 17,118
North Carolina 7,780 10,852 11,605 12,245
North Dakota 8,642 12,290 12,052 12,284
Ohio 9,399 12,326 13,223 13,743
Oklahoma 9,018 11,629 12,215 12,368
Oregon 9,309 11,613 12,630 13,217
Pennsylvania 9,353 12,292 13,426 13,944
Rhode Island 9,227 12,860 13,926 14,670
South Carolina 7,392 10,111 10,626 11,096
South Dakota 7,800 10,904 11,159 11,850
Tennessee 7,711 10,400 11,230 11,831
Texas 9,439 12,575 13,467 13,523
Utah 7,671 9,715 10,491 10,743
Vermont 7,957 10,828 12,111 12,845
Virginia 9,413 13,291 14,553 15,374
Washington 10,256 12,755 13,882 14,498
West Virginia 7,764 9,708 10,190 10,530
Wisconsin 9,364 12,378 13,152 13,796
Wyoming 11,018 12,238 13,212 13,230
1 Preliminary.
Income of Households (Economic Statistics)
Aggregate
money income Mean income
Characteristic in billions) (in dollars)
Age of householder:
15-24 97.5 17,708
25-34 569.5 27,904
35-44 640.8 35,606
45-54 501.9 38,316
55-64 411.8 32,045
65 and over 349.6 18,800
Region:
Northeast 578.1 31,146
Midwest 615.0 28,149
South 819.7 27,044
West 558.3 31,475
Size of household:
One person 338.8 15,997
Two persons 818.8 29,525
Three persons 551.8 34,300
Four persons 511.9 37,161
Five persons 229.0 36,495
Six persons 77.5 36,257
Seven persons or more 43.3 34,053
Educational attainment of householder:
Elementary school:
Less than 8 years 92.2 13,938
8 years 99.1 17,329
High school:
1-3 years 214.9 19,419
4 years 827.5 26,462
College:
1-3 years 480.7 31,416
4 years or more 856.8 46,349
Occupation of longest job of householder:
Total3 2,164.0 34,121
Managerial and
professional specialty 803.3 47,042
Technical, sales, and
administrative support 518.1 33,437
Service workers 149.7 22,169
Farming, forestry,
and fishing 45.6 19,756
Precision production,
crafts, and repair 349.2 32,110
Operators, fabricators,
and laborers 296.7 27,3 14
1-Includes other races not shown separately.
2-Includes persons in armed forces not shown
separately.
State Government
All states (except Nebraska) have a lawmaking
body, in most cases called a legislature or
general assembly, that is divided into two houses.
(Nebraska's state government is unicameral, or
single-chambered, and all its officials are called
senators.) In most states, the upper house is
called the Senate and the lower house is called
the House of Representatives. State senators
usually are elected every four years, while
representatives or assembly members are elected
every two years. State legislatures generally meet
biennially, though a few meet annually.
The table on page 693 shows the name of each of
the 50 states along with the year it became a
state, the official abbreviation used by the
United States Postal Service, the capital, and the
name of the lawmaking body.
State Facts (State Government)
State Date Entered Postal Capital
Union Abbreviation
Alabama 1819 AL Montgomery
Alaska 1959 AK Juneau
Arizona 1912 AZ Phoenix
Arkansas 1836 AR Little
Rock
California 1850 CA Sacramento
Colorado 1876 CO Denver
Connecticut 1788 CT Hartford
Delaware 1787 DE Dover
Florida 1845 FL
Tallahassee
Georgia 1788 GA Atlanta
Hawaii 1959 HI Honolulu
Idaho 1890 ID Boise
Illinois 1818 IL
Springfield
Indiana 1816 IN Indianapolis
Iowa 1846 IA Des Moines
Kansas 1861 KS Topeka
Kentucky 1792 KY Frankfort
Louisiana 1812 LA Baton
Rouge
Maine 1820 ME Augusta
Maryland 1788 MD Annapolis
Massachusetts 1788 MA Boston
Michigan 1837 MI Lansing
Minnesota 1858 MN St. Paul
Mississippi 1817 MS Jackson
Missouri 1821 MO Jefferson
City
Montana 1889 MT Helena
Nebraska 1867 NE Lincoln
Nevada 1864 NV Carson
City
New Hampshire 1788 NH Concord
New Jersey 1787 NJ Trenton
New Mexico 1912 NM Santa Fe
New York 1788 NY Albany
North Carolina 1789 NC Raleigh
North Dakota 1889 ND Bismarck
Ohio 1803 OH Columbus
Oklahoma 1907 OK Oklahoma
City
Oregon 1859 OR Salem
Pennsylvania 1787 PA Harrisburg
Rhode Island 1790 RI Providence
South Carolina 1788 SC Columbia
South Dakota 1889 SD Pierre
Tennessee 1796 TN Nashville
Texas 1845 TX Austin
Utah 1896 UT Salt Lake
City
Vermont 1791 VT Montpelier
Virginia 1788 VA Richmond
Washington 1889 WA Olympia
West Virginia 1863 WV Charleston
Wisconsin 1848 WI Madison
Wyoming 1890 WY Cheyenne
1-The lower house is called the Assembly.
2-The lower house is called the House of
Delegates.
3-The lower house is called the General Assembly.
Territories and Commonwealths (State Government)
Date
Name Acquired Abbr. Capital Legislature
---- -------- ----- ------- -----------
American Samoa 1899 -- Pago Legislature
Pago
Canal Zone CZ Balboa Canal Zone
Heights Government
Guam 1950 -- Agana Legislature*
Midway Islands 1867 -- Administered
by U.S. Navy
Northern Mariana
Islands 1947 -- Saipan Legislature
Puerto Rico 1898 PR San Juan Legislative
Assembly
Virgin Islands 1927 -- Charlotte Legislature*
Amalie
Wake Islands 1899 -- Administered
by U.S. Navy
* Legislatures are unicameral.
State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames
Alabama (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Camellia Bird: Yellowhammer
Motto: We dare defend our rights
Nickname: Heart of Dixie; Camellia State
Alaska (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Forget-me-not Bird: Willow ptarmigan
Motto: North to the future
Nickname: The Last Frontier
Arizona (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Saguaro Bird: Cactus Wren
Motto: Diat Deus (God enriches)
Nickname: Grand Canyon State
Arkansas (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Apple blossom Bird: Mockingbird
Motto: Regnat Populus (The people rule)
Nickname: Land of Opportunity
California (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Golden Poppy Bird: California valley
quail
Motto: Eureka (I have found it)
Nickname: Golden State
Colorado (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Blue columbine Bird: Lark bunting
Motto: Nil sine numine (Nothing without providence)
Nickname: Centennial State
Connecticut (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Mountain laurel Bird: American robin
Motto: Qui transtulit sustinet (He who transplanted
still sustains)
Nickname: Constitution State; Nutmeg State
Delaware (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Peach blossom Bird: Blue hen chicken
Motto: Liberty and independence
Nickname: First State; Diamond State
District of Columbia (Flowers/Birds/Mottos/Nicknames)
Flower: American Beauty Bird: Wood thrush
Rose
Motto: Justitia Omnibus (Justice for all)
Nickname: Capital City
Florida (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Orange blossom Bird: Mockingbird
Motto: In God we trust
Nickname: Sunshine State
Georgia (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Cherokee rose Bird: Brown thrasher
Motto: Wisdom, justice, and moderation
Nickname: Empire State of the South; Peace State
Hawaii (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Hibiscus Bird: Nene goose
Motto: The life of the land is perpetuated in
righteousness
Nickname: Aloha State
Idaho (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Syringa Bird: Mountain bluebird
Motto: Esto perpetua (It is perpetual)
Nickname: Gem State
Illinois (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Native violet Bird: Cardinal
Motto: State sovereignty -- national union
Nickname: Prairie State
Indiana (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Peony Bird: Cardinal
Motto: Crossroads of America
Nickname: Hoosier State
Iowa (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Wild rose Bird: Goldfinch
Motto: Our liberties we prize and our rights we will
maintain
Nickname: Hawkeye State
Kansas (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Sunflower Bird: Western meadowlark
Motto: Ad astra per aspera (To the stars through
difficulties)
Nickname: Sunflower State
Kentucky (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Goldenrod Bird: Kentucky cardinal
Motto: United we stand, divided we fall
Nickname: Bluegrass State
Louisiana (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Magnolia Bird: Eastern brown
pelican
Motto: Union, justice and confidence
Nickname: Pelican State
Maine (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Pine cone and Bird: Chickadee
tassel
Motto: Dirigo (I direct)
Nickname: Pine Tree State
Maryland (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Black-eyed Susan Bird: Baltimore oriole
Motto: Fatti maschii, parole femine (Manly deeds,
womanly words)
Nickname: Old Line State; Free State
Massachusetts (State Flowers/Birds/Mottos/Nicknames)
Flower: Mayflower Bird: Chickadee
Motto: Ense petit placidam sub libertate (By the
sword we seek peace, but peace only under
liberty)
Nickname: Bay State; Colony State
Michigan (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Apple Bird: Robin
Motto: Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam (If you seek a
pleasant peninsula, look about you)
Nickname: Great Lake State; Wolverine State
Minnesota (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Showy lady Bird: Common loon
slipper
Motto: L'Etoile du nord (Star of the North)
Nickname: North Star State; Gopher State
Mississippi (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Magnolia Bird: Mockingbird
Motto: Virtute et armis (By valor and arms)
Nickname: Magnolia State
Missouri (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Hawthorn Bird: Bluebird
Motto: Salus populi suprema lex esto (The welfare of
the people shall be the supreme law)
Nickname: Show-Me State
Montana (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Bitterroot Bird: Western meadowlark
Motto: Oro y plata (Gold and silver)
Nickname: Treasure State
Nebraska (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Goldenrod Bird: Meadowlark
Motto: Equality before the law
Nickname: Cornhusker State
Nevada (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Sagebrush Bird: Mountain bluebird
Motto: All for our country
Nickname: Sagebrush State; Battle-Born State
New Hampshire (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Purple lilac Bird: Purple finch
Motto: Live free or die
Nickname: Granite State
New Jersey (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Purple violet Bird: Eastern goldfinch
Motto: Liberty and prosperity
Nickname: Garden State
New Mexico (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Yucca Bird: Roadrunner
Motto: Crescit eundo (It grows as it goes)
Nickname: Land of Enchantment
New York (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Rose (any color) Bird: Bluebird
Motto: Excelsior (Ever upward)
Nickname: Empire State
North Carolina (State Flowers/Birds/Mottos/Nicknames)
Flower: Dogwood Bird: Cardinal
Motto: Esse quam videri (To be rather than to seem)
Nickname: Tar Heel State; Old North State
North Dakota (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Wild prairie rose Bird: Western meadowlark
Motto: Liberty and union, now and forever, one and
inseparable
Nickname: Peace Garden State
Ohio (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Scarlet Bird: Cardinal
carnation
Motto: With God, all things are possible
Nickname: Buckeye State
Oklahoma (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Mistletoe Bird: Scissor-tailed
flycatcher
Motto: Labor omnia vincit (Labor conquers all
things)
Nickname: Sooner State
Oregon (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Oregon grape Bird: Western meadowlark
Motto: The union
Nickname: Beaver State
Pennsylvania (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Mountain laurel Bird: Ruffed grouse
Motto: Virtue, liberty and independence
Nickname: Keystone State
Rhode Island (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Violet Bird: Rhode Island hen
Motto: Hope
Nickname: Little Rhody; Ocean State
South Carolina (State Flowers/Birds/Mottos/Nicknames)
Flower: Carolina Bird: Carolina wren
jessamine
Motto: Dum spiro spero (When I breathe, I hope)
Nickname: Palmetto State
South Dakota (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Pasqueflower Bird: Pheasant
Motto: Under God, the people rule
Nickname: Coyote State; Sunshine State
Tennessee (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Iris Bird: Mockingbird
Motto: Agriculture and commerce
Nickname: Volunteer State
Texas (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Bluebonnet Bird: Mockingbird
Motto: Friendship
Nickname: Lone Star State
Utah (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Sego Lily Bird: Seagull
Motto: Industry
Nickname: Beehive State
Vermont (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Red clover Bird: Thrush
Motto: Freedom and unity
Nickname: Green Mountain State
Virginia (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Flowering dogwood Bird: Cardinal
Motto: Sic semper tyrannis (Thus always to tyrants)
Nickname: Old Dominion
Washington (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Rhododendron Bird: Willow goldfinch
Motto: Alki (By and by)
Nickname: Evergreen State
West Virginia (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Big rhododendron Bird: Cardinal
Motto: Montani semper liberi (Mountaineers are
always free)
Nickname: Mountain State
Wisconsin (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Wood violet Bird: Robin
Motto: Forward
Nickname: Badger State
Wyoming (State Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Indian paintbrush Bird: Meadowlark
Motto: Equal rights
Nickname: Equality State
United States Territories and Commonwealths
American Samoa (Flowers/Birds/Mottos/Nicknames)
Flower: Paogo (Ula-fala)
Motto: Samoa Muamua le Atua (In Samoa, God is first)
Guam (Flowers, Birds, Mottos, and Nicknames)
Flower: Puti tai nobio Bird: Toto (fruit dove)
(bougainvillea)
Motto: Where America's day begins
Puerto Rico (Flowers, Birds, Mottos, Nicknames)
Flower: Maga Bird: Reinita
Motto: Joannes est nomen eius (John is his name)
Virgin Islands (State Flowers/Birds/Mottos/Nicknames)
Flower: Yellow elder or Bird: Yellow breast
yellow trumpet
State Name Origins
Alabama (Name Origins)
Originally the name for "tribal town," the
territory of Alabama was later the home of the
Alabama, or Alibamon, Indians of the Creek
confederacy.
Alaska (Name Origins)
The Russians adopted the word meaning "great
lands"
or "land that is not an island" from the
Aleutian
word alakshak.
Arizona (Name Origins)
The Spanish coined the name either from the
Pima
Indian word meaning "little spring place" or
from
the Aztec arizuma, meaning "silver-bearing."
Arkansas (Name Origins)
Once the territory of the Siouan Quapaw
(downstream
people), Arkansas is the French derivative of
this Indian name.
California (Name Origins)
The name of a fictitious earthly paradise in
Las Serged de Esplandian, a sixteenth-century
Spanish romance. It is believed that Spanish
conquistadors named this state.
Colorado (Name Origins)
A Spanish word for "red." The name Colorado
first referred to the Colorado River.
Connecticut (Name Origins)
The Algonquin and Mohican Indian word for "long
river place."
Delaware (Name Origins)
This version of the name of Lord De La Warr, a
governor of Virginia, was first used to name
the Delaware River and later adopted by the
Europeans to rename the local Indians, originally
called the Lenni-Lenape.
District of Columbia (Name Origins)
Named for Christopher Columbus in 1791.
Florida (Name Origins)
In his search for the "Fountain of Youth,"
Ponce de Leon named this region "flowery Easter"
or "feast of flowers" on Easter Sunday, 1513.
Georgia (Name Origins)
Named for King George II of England, who
granted James Oglethorpe a charter to found the
colony of Georgia in 1732.
Hawaii (Name Origins)
Commonly believed to be an English adaptation
of the native word for "homeland," hawaiki or
owhyhee.
Idaho (Name Origins)
A name coined by the state meaning "gem of the
mountains" or "light on the mountains."
Originally the name Idaho was to be used for the
Pike's Peak mining territory in Colorado, and later
for the mining territory of the Pacific Northwest.
Others believe the name derives from the Kiowa
Apache word for the Comanche.
Illinois (Name Origins)
From the French version of the Algonquin word
meaning "men" or "soldiers," Illini.
Indiana (Name Origins)
English-speaking settlers named the territory
to mean "land of the Indians."
Iowa (Name Origins)
The Sioux word for "one who puts to sleep" or
"beautiful land."
Kansas (Name Origins)
Derived from the Sioux word for those who lived
south (the "south wind people") of their
territory, which was mainly Wisconsin, Iowa,
Minnesota, and North and South Dakota.
Kentucky (Name Origins)
Originally the term for the Kentucky Plains in
Clark County, Kentucky is believed to derive
from the Indian word meaning "dark and bloody
ground," "meadow land," or "land of tomorrow."
Louisiana (Name Origins)
Present-day Louisiana is just a fraction of the
territory that was named for the French king
Louis XIV by Sieur de La Salle.
Maine (Name Origins)
Originally a French territory, Maine was the
ancient French word for "province." It is also
believed that it refers to the mainland, as
distinct from the many islands off the state's
coast.
Maryland (Name Origins)
Named for Queen Henrietta Maria, wife of
Charles I of England.
Massachusetts (Name Origins)
The name of the Indian tribe that lived near
Milton, Massachusetts, meaning "large hill
place."
Michigan (Name Origins)
Believed to be from the Chippewa word micigama,
meaning "great water," after Lake Michigan,
although Alouet defined it in 1672 as
designating a clearing.
Minnesota (Name Origins)
Named from the Sioux description of the
Minnesota River, "sky-tinted water" or "muddy
water."
Mississippi (Name Origins)
Most likely derived from the Chippewa words
mici (great) and zibi (river), it was first
written by La Salle's lieutenant Henri de Tonti as
"Michi Sepe."
Missouri (Name Origins)
Meaning "muddy water," this state is named
after an Algonquin Indian tribe.
Montana (Name Origins)
Derived from the Latin word meaning
"mountainous."
Nebraska (Name Origins)
Descriptive of the Platte River, Nebraska
is from the Omaha or Otos Indian word for
"broad water" or "flat river."
Nevada (Name Origins)
Spanish word meaning "snow-clad."
New Hampshire (Name Origins)
Captain John Mason named this colony for his
home county in England in 1629.
New Jersey (Name Origins)
Named after the Isle of Jersey in England by
John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret.
New Mexico (Name Origins)
Named by the Spanish for the territory north
and west of the Rio Grande.
New York (Name Origins)
Originally named New Netherland, New York was
later named after the Duke of York and Albany, who
received a patent to the region from his
brother Charles II of England and captured it from
the Dutch in 1644.
North Carolina (Name Origins)
From the Latin name Carolus, meaning "Charles."
The colony was originally given to Sir Robert Heath
by Charles I and was to be called Province of
Carolana. Carolana was divided into North and
South Carolina in 1710.
North Dakota (Name Origins)
From the Sioux word meaning "friend" or "ally."
Ohio (Name Origins)
From an Iroquois Indian word variously meaning
"great," "fine," or "good river."
Oklahoma (Name Origins)
The Choctaw Indian word meaning "red man,"
which was coined by the Reverend Allen Wright, a
Choctaw-speaking Indian.
Oregon (Name Origins)
Though its exact origin is unclear, one theory
maintains that it may have been a variation on
the name of the Wisconsin River, which was called
Ouaricon-sint on a French map dated 1715.
Later, the English explorer Major Robert Rogers
named a river "called by the Indians Ouragon" in
his request to seek a Northwest Passage from the
Great Lakes. Another theory derives the word from
the Algonquin wauregan, meaning "beautiful water."
Pennsylvania (Name Origins)
Named after the colony's founder, the Quaker
William Penn. The literal translation is
"Penn's woods."
Rhode Island (Name Origins)
Possibly named by Giovanni de Verrazano, who
charted an island about the size of an island
of the same name in the Mediterranean. Another
theory suggests Rhode Island was named Roode
Eylandt by Dutch explorer Adrian Block because of
its red clay.
South Carolina (Name Origins)
See North Carolina.
South Dakota (Name Origins)
See North Dakota.
Tennessee (Name Origins)
The state of Franklin, or Frankland, from 1784
to 1788, it was finally named after the Cherokee
villages called tanasi on the Little Tennessee
River.
Texas (Name Origins)
Also written texias, tejas, and teysas, Texas
is a variation on the Caddo Indian word for
"friend" or "ally."
Utah (Name Origins)
Meaning "upper" or "higher, Utah is derived
from a name used by the Navajos (Utes) to designate
a Shoshone tribe.
Vermont (Name Origins)
It is believed Samuel de Champlain coined the
name from the French words vert (green) and mont
(mountain). Later, Dr. Thomas Young proposed
this name when the state was formed in 1777.
Virginia (Name Origins)
Named for the Virgin Queen of England, Queen
Elizabeth I, by Sir Walter Raleigh, who first
visited its shores in 1584.
Washington (Name Origins)
Originally named the Territory of Columbia, it
was changed to Washington in honor of the first
U.S. President because of the already existing
District of Columbia.
West Virginia (Name Origins)
Named when this area refused to secede from the
Union in 1863.
Wisconsin (Name Origins)
A Chippewa word that was spelled Ouisconsin and
Mesconsing by early explorers. Wisconsin was
formally named by Congress when it became a
state.
Wyoming (Name Origins)
The Algonquin word meaning "large prairie
place,"the name was adopted from Wyoming Valley,
Pennsylvania, the site of an Indian massacre.
It was widely known from Thomas Campbell's poem
"Gertrude of Wyoming."
ADMISSION OF THE 13 ORIGINAL STATES
State Date of Admission
----- -----------------
1. Delaware December 7, 1787
2. Pennsylvania December 12, 1787
3. New Jersey December 18, 1787
4. Georgia January 2, 1788
5. Connecticut January 9, 1788
6. Massachusetts February 6, 1788
7. Maryland April 28, 1788
8. South Carolina May 23, 1788
9. New Hampshire June 21, 1788
10. Virginia June 25, 1788
11. New York July 26, 1788
12. North Carolina November 21, 1789
13. Rhode Island May 29, 1790
SECESSION OF AMERICAN STATES
State Secession Date
----- --------------
1. South Carolina December 20, 1860
2. Mississippi January 9, 1861
3. Florida January 10, 1861
4. Alabama January 11, 1861
5. Georgia January 19, 1861
6. Louisiana January 26, 1861
7. Texas February 1, 1861
8. Virginia April 17, 1861
9. Arkansas May 6, 1861
10. North Carolina May 20, 1861
11. Tennessee June 8, 1861
READMISSION OF AMERICAN STATES
State Date of Readmission
----- -------------------
1. Tennessee July 24, 1866
2. Arkansas June 22, 1868
3. Alabama June 25, 1868
4. Florida June 25, 1868
5. Georgia June 25, 1868*
6. Louisiana June 25, 1868
7. North Carolina June 25, 1868
8. South Carolina June 25, 1868
9. Virginia January 26, 1870
10. Mississippi February 23, 1870
11. Texas March 30, 1870
* readmitted a second time July 15, 1870
The Declaration of Independence
IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776
The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United
States of America
When in the course of human events, it becomes
necessary for one people to dissolve the
political bands which have connected them with
another, and to assume among the powers of the
earth, the separate and equal station to which
the laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle
them, a decent respect to the opinions of
mankind requires that they should declare the
causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that
all men are created equal, that they are
endowed by their Creator with certain
unalienable rights, that among these are life,
liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to
secure these rights, governments are instituted
among men, deriving their just powers from the
consent of the governed,- That whenever any
form of government becomes destructive of these
ends, it is the right of the people to alter or
to abolish it, and to institute new government,
laying its foundation on such principles and
organizing its powers in such form, as to them
shall seem most likely to effect their safety
and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate
that governments long established should not be
changed for light and transient causes; and
accordingly all experience hath shown, that
mankind are more disposed to suffer, while
evils are sufferable, than to right themselves
by abolishing the forms to which they are
accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and
usurpations, pursuing invariably the same
object evinces a design to reduce them under
absolute despotism, it is their right, it is
their duty, to throw off such government, and
to provide new guards for their future
security. - Such has been the patient
sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now
the necessity which constrains them to alter
their former systems of government. The history
of the present King of Great Britain is a
history of repeated injuries and usurpations,
all having in direct object the establishment
of an absolute tyranny over these States. To
prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid
world.
He has refused his assent to laws, the most
wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of
immediate and pressing importance, unless
suspended in their operation till his assent
should be obtained; and when so suspended, he
has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other laws for the
accommodation of large districts of people,
unless those people would relinquish the right
of representation in the legislature, a right
inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants
only.
He has called together legislative bodies at
places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from
the depository of their public records, for the
sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance
with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses
repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness
his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such
dissolutions, to cause others to be elected;
whereby the legislative powers, incapable of
annihilation, have returned to the people at
large for their exercise; the State remaining
in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of
invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of
these States; for that purpose obstructing the
laws for naturalization of foreigners; refusing
to pass others to encourage their migrations
hither, and raising the conditions of new
appropriations of lands.
He has obstructed the administration of
justice, by refusing his assent to laws for
establishing judiciary powers.
He has made judges dependent on his will alone,
for the tenure of their offices, and the amount
and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of new offices, and
sent hither swarms of officers to harass our
people, and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace,
standing armies without the consent of our
legislatures.
He has affected to render the military
independent of and superior to the civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a
jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and
unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent
to their acts of pretended legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops
among us:
For protecting them, by a mock trial, from
punishment for any murders which they should
commit on the inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our trade with all parts of the
world:
For imposing taxes on us without our consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits
of trial by jury:
For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for
pretended offenses:
For abolishing the free system of English laws
in a neighbouring province, establishing
therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging
its boundaries so as to render it at once an
example and fit instrument for introducing the
same absolute rule into these colonies:
For taking away our charters, abolishing our
most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally
the forms of our governments:
For suspending our own legislatures, and
declaring themselves invested with power to
legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated government here, by declaring
us out of his protection and waging war against
us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts,
burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our
people.
He is at this time transporting large armies of
foreign mercenaries to complete the works of
death, desolation and tyranny, already begun
with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy
scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages,
and totally unworthy of the head of a civilized
nation.
He has constrained our fellow citizens taken
captive on the high seas to bear arms against
their country, to become the executioners of
their friends and brethren, or to fall
themselves by their hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst
us, and has endeavoured to bring on the
inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless
Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is
an undistinguished destruction of all ages,
sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these oppressions we have
petitioned for redress in the most humble
terms: Our repeated petitions have been
answered only by repeated injury. A prince,
whose character is thus marked by every act
which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the
ruler of a free people.
Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our
British brethren. We have warned them from time
to time of attempts by their legislature to
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us.
We have reminded them of the circumstances of
our emigration and settlement here. We have
appealed to their native justice and
magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the
ties of our common kindred to disavow these
usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt
our connections and correspondence. They too
have been deaf to the voice of justice and of
consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in
the necessity which denounces our separation,
and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind,
enemies in war, in peace friends.
WE, THEREFORE, the Representatives of the
United States of America, in General Congress,
Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of
the world for the rectitude of out intentions,
do, in the name, and by authority of the good
people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and
declare, That these United Colonies are, and of
right ought to be FREE AND INDEPENDENT
STATES; that they are absolved from all
allegiance to the British Crown, and that all
political connection between them and the State
of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally
dissolved; and that as free and independent
States, they have full power to levy war,
conclude peace, contract alliances, establish
commerce, and to do all other acts and things
which independent States may of right do. And
for the support of this Declaration, with a
firm reliance on the protection of Divine
Providence, we mutually pledge to each other
our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor.
JOHN HANCOCK
New Hampshire
Josiah Bartlett
Wm. Whipple Matthew Thornton
Massachusetts Bay
Saml Adams Robt Treat Paine
John Adams Elbridge Gerry
Rhode Island
Step. Hopkins William Ellery
Connecticut
Roger Sherman Wm. Williams
Saml Huntington Oliver Wolcott
New York
Wm. Floyd Frans. Lewis
Phil. Livingston Lewis Morris
New Jersey
Richd. Stockton
Jno Witherspoon John Hart
Fras. Hopkinson Abra Clark
Pennsylvania
Robt Morris
Benjamin Rush Jas. Smith
Benja. Franklin Geo. Taylor
John Morton James Wilson
Geo. Clymer Geo. Ross
Delaware
Caesar Rodney
Geo Read Tho M'Kean
Maryland
Samuel Chase
Wm. Paca Charles Carroll
Thos. Stone of Carrollton
Virginia
George Wythe Thos. Nelson, Jr.
Richard Henry Lee Francis Lightfoot
Th Jefferson Lee
Benja. Harrison Carter Braxton
North Carolina
Wm Hooper
Joseph Hewes John Penn
South Carolina
Edward Rutledge Thomas Lynch Junr.
Thos. Heyward junr. Arthur Middleton
Georgia
Button Gwinnett
Lyman Hall Geo Walton.
The Constitution of the United States of America
PREAMBLE (U.S.Constitution)
WE THE PEOPLE of the United States, in order to
form a more perfect Union, establish justice,
insure domestic tranquility, provide for the
common defense, promote the general welfare,
and secure the blessings of liberty to
ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and
establish this Constitution for the United
States of America.
ARTICLE I (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
All legislative powers herein granted shall be
vested in a Congress of the United States,
which shall consist of a Senate and House of
Representatives.
SECTION 2.
The House of Representatives shall be composed
of members chosen every second year by the
people of the several States, and the electors
in each State shall have the qualifications
requisite for electors of the most numerous
branch of the State Legislature.
No person shall be a Representative who shall
not have attained to the age of twenty-five
years, and been seven years a citizen of the
United States, and who shall not, when elected,
be an inhabitant of that State in which he
shall be chosen.
Representatives and direct taxes shall be
apportioned among the several States which may
be included within this Union, according to
their respective numbers, which shall be
determined by adding to the whole number of
free persons, including those bound to service
for a term of years, and excluding Indians not
taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The
actual enumeration shall be made within three
years after the first meeting of the Congress
of the United States, and within every
subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as
they shall by law direct. The number of
representatives shall not exceed one for every
thirty thousand, but each State shall have at
least one Representative; and until such
enumeration shall be made, the State of New
Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three,
Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and
Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five,
New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania
eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia
ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five,
and Georgia three.
When vacancies happen in the representation
from any State, the executive authority thereof
shall issue writs of election to fill such
vacancies.
The House of Representatives shall choose their
Speaker and other officers; and shall have the
sole power of impeachment.
SECTION 3.
The Senate of the United States shall be
composed of two Senators from each State,
chosen by the legislature thereof, for six
years and each Senator shall have one vote.
Immediately after they shall be assembled in
consequence of the first election, they shall
be divided as equally as may be into three
classes. The seats of the Senators of the first
class shall be vacated at the expiration of the
second year, of the second class at the
expiration of the fourth year, and of the third
class at the expiration of the sixth year, so
that one-third may be chosen every second year;
and if vacancies happen by resignation, or
otherwise, during the recess of the legislature
of any State, the executive thereof may make
temporary appointments until the next meeting
of the legislature, which shall then fill such
vacancies.
No person shall be a Senator who shall not have
attained to the age of thirty years, and been
nine years a citizen of the United States, and
who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant
of that State for which he shall be chosen.
The Vice President of the United States shall
be President of the Senate, but shall have no
vote, unless they be equally divided.
The Senate shall choose their other officers,
and also a President pro tempore, in the
absence of the Vice President, or when he shall
exercise the office of President of the United
States.
The Senate shall have the sole power to try all
impeachments. When sitting for that purpose,
they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the
President of the United States is tried, the
Chief Justice shall preside: and no person
shall be convicted without the concurrence of
two thirds of the members present.
Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not
extend further than to removal from office, and
disqualification to hold and enjoy any office
of honor, trust or profit under the United
States: but the party convicted shall
nevertheless be liable and subject to
indictment, trial, judgment and punishment,
according to law.
SECTION 4.
The times, places and manner of holding
elections for Senators and Representatives,
shall be prescribed in each State by the
legislature thereof; but the Congress may at
any time by law make or alter such regulations,
except as to the places of choosing Senators.
The Congress shall assemble at least once in
every year, and such meeting shall be on the
first Monday in December, unless they shall by
law appoint a different day.
SECTION 5.
Each House shall be the judge of the elections,
returns and qualifications of its own members,
and a majority of each shall constitute a
quorum to do business; but a smaller number may
adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized
to compel the attendance of absent members, in
such manner, and under such penalties as each
House may provide.
Each House may determine the rules of its
proceedings, punish its members for disorderly
behaviour, and, with the concurrence of
two-thirds, expel a member.
Each House shall keep a journal of its
proceedings, and from time to time publish the
same, excepting such parts as may in their
judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and the
nays of the members of either house on any
question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of
those present, be entered on the journal.
Neither House, during the session of Congress,
shall, without the consent of the other,
adjourn for more than three days, nor to any
other place than that in which the two Houses
shall be sitting.
SECTION 6.
The Senators and Representatives shall receive
a compensation for their services, to be
ascertained by law, and paid out of the
Treasury of the United States. They shall in
all cases, except treason, felony and breach of
the peace, be privileged from arrest during
their attendance at the session of their
respective Houses, and in going to and
returning from the same; and for any speech or
debate in either House, they shall not be
questioned in any other place.
No Senator or Representative shall, during the
time for which he was elected, be appointed to
any civil office under the authority of the
United States, which shall have been created,
or the emoluments whereof shall have been
increased during such time; and no person
holding any office under the United States,
shall be a member of either House during his
continuance in office.
SECTION 7.
All bills for raising revenue shall originate
in the House of Representatives; but the Senate
may propose or concur with amendments as on
other bills.
Every bill which shall have passed the House of
Representatives and the Senate, shall, before
it becomes a law, be presented to the President
of the United States; if he approves he shall
sign it, but if not he shall return it, with
his objections to that House in which it shall
have originated, who shall enter the objections
at large on their journal, and proceed to
reconsider it. If after such reconsideration
two thirds of that House shall agree to pass
the bill, it shall be sent, together with the
objections, to the other House, by which it
shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved
by two thirds of that House, it shall become a
law. But in all such cases the votes of both
Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays,
and the names of the persons voting for and
against the bill shall be entered on the
journal of each House respectively. If any bill
shall not be returned by the President within
ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have
been presented to him, the same shall be a law,
in like manner as if he had signed it, unless
the Congress by their adjournment prevent its
return, in which case it shall not be a law.
Every order, resolution, or vote to which the
concurrence of the Senate and House of
Representatives may be necessary (except on a
question of adjournment) shall be presented to
the President of the United States; and before
the same shall take effect, shall be approved
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be
repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House
of Representatives, according to the rules and
limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.
SECTION 8.
The Congress shall have power to lay and
collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to
pay the debts and provide for the common
defense and general welfare of the United
States; but all duties, imposts and excises
shall be uniform throughout the United States;
To borrow money on the credit of the United
States;
To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and
among the several States, and with the Indian
tribes;
To establish a uniform rule of naturalization,
and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies
throughout the United States;
To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and
of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights
and measures;
To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting
the securities and current coin of the United
States;
To establish post offices and post roads;
To promote the progress of science and useful
arts, by securing for limited times to authors
and inventors the exclusive right to their
respective writings and discoveries;
To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme
Court;
To define and punish piracies and felonies
committed on the high seas, and offenses
against the law of nations;
To declare war, grant letters of marque and
reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on
land and water;
To raise and support armies, but no
appropriation of money to that use shall be for a
longer term than two years;
To provide and maintain a navy;
To make rules for the government and regulation
of the land and naval forces;
To provide for calling forth the militia to
execute the laws of the Union, suppress
insurrections and repel invasions;
To provide for organizing, arming, and
disciplining the militia, and for governing
such part of them as may be employed in the service
of the United States, reserving to the States
respectively, the appointment of the officers,
and the authority of training the militia according
to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases
whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding
ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular
States, and the acceptance of Congress, become
the seat of the Government of the United
States, and to exercise like authority over all
places purchased by the consent of the
legislature of the State in which the same
shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines,
arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful
buildings; - And
To make all laws which shall be necessary and
proper for carrying into execution the
foregoing powers, and all other powers vested
by this Constitution in the Government of the
United States, or in any department or officer
thereof.
SECTION 9.
The migration or importation of such persons as
any of the States now existing shall think
proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the
Congress prior to the year one thousand eight
hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be
imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten
dollars for each person.
The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall
not be suspended, unless when in cases of
rebellion or invasion the public safety may
require it.
No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall
be passed.
No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be
laid, unless in proportion to the census or
enumeration herein before directed to be taken.
No tax or duty shall be laid on articles
exported from any State.
No preference shall be given by any regulation
of commerce or revenue to the ports of one
State over those of another: nor shall vessels
bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to
enter, clear, or pay duties in another.
No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but
in consequence of appropriations made by law;
and a regular statement and account of the
receipts and expenditures of all public money
shall be published from time to time.
No title of nobility shall be granted by the
United States: And no person holding any office
of profit or trust under them, shall, without
the consent of the Congress, accept of any
present, emolument, office, or title, of any
kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or
foreign State.
SECTION 10.
No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance,
or confederation; grant letters of marque and
reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit;
make any thing but gold and silver coin a
tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of
attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing
the obligation of contracts, or grant any title
of nobility.
No State shall, without the consent of the
Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports
or exports, except what may be absolutely
necessary for executing its inspection laws:
and the net produce of all duties and imposts,
laid by any state on imports or exports, shall
be for the use of the Treasury of the United
States; and all such laws shall be subject to
the revision and control of the Congress.
No State shall, without the consent of
Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops,
or ships of war in time of peace, enter into
any agreement or compact with another State, or
with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless
actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as
will not admit of delay.
ARTICLE II (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
The executive power shall be vested in a
President of the United States of America. He
shall hold his office during the term of four
years, and together with the Vice President,
chosen for the same term, be elected, as
follows:
Each State, shall appoint, in such manner as
the legislature thereof may direct, a number of
electors, equal to the whole number of Senators
and Representatives to which the State may be
entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or
Representative, or person holding an office of
trust or profit under the United States, shall
be appointed an elector.
The electors shall meet in their respective
States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of
whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of
the same State with themselves. And they shall
make a list of all the persons voted for, and
of the number of votes for each; which list
they shall sign and certify, and transmit
sealed to the seat of the Government of the
United States, directed to the President of the
Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in
the presence of the Senate and House of
Representatives, open all the certificates, and
the votes shall then be counted. The person
having the greatest number of votes shall be
the President, if such number be a majority of
the whole number of electors appointed; and if
there be more than one who have such majority,
and have an equal number of votes, then the
House of Representatives shall immediately
choose by ballot one of them for President; and
if no person have a majority, then from the
five highest on the list the said House shall
in like manner choose the President. But in
choosing the President, the votes shall be
taken by States, the representation from each
State having one vote; a quorum for this
purpose shall consist of a member or members
from two thirds of the States, and a majority
of all the States shall be necessary to a
choice. In every case, after the choice of the
President, the person having the greatest
number of votes of the electors shall be the
Vice President. But if there should remain two
or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall
choose from them by ballot the Vice President.
The Congress may determine the time of choosing
the electors, and the day on which they shall
give their votes; which day shall be the same
throughout the United States.
No person except a natural born citizen, or a
citizen of the United States, at the time of
the adoption of this Constitution, shall be
eligible to the office of President; neither
shall any person be eligible to that office who
shall not have attained to the age of
thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a
resident within the United States.
In case of the removal of the President from
office, or of his death, resignation, or
inability to discharge the powers and duties of
the said office, the same shall devolve on the
Vice President, and the Congress may by law
provide for the case of removal, death,
resignation, or inability, both of the
President and Vice President, declaring what
officer shall then act as President, and such
officer shall act accordingly, until the
disability be removed, or a President be
elected.
The President shall, at stated times, receive
for his services, a compensation, which shall
neither be increased nor diminished during the
period for which he shall have been elected,
and he shall not receive within that period any
other emolument from the United States, or any
of them.
Before he enter on the execution of his office,
he shall take the following oath or
affirmation: - "I do solemnly swear (or affirm)
that I will faithfully execute the office of
President of the United States, and will to the
best of my ability, preserve, protect and
defend the Constitution of the United States."
SECTION 2.
The President shall be Commander in Chief of
the Army and Navy of the United States, and of
the militia of the several States, when called
into the actual service of the United States;
he may require the opinion, in writing, of the
principal officer in each of the executive
departments, upon any subject relating to the
duties of their respective offices, and he
shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons
for offenses against the United States, except
in cases of impeachment.
He shall have power, by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate, to make treaties,
provided two thirds of the Senators present
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with
the advice and consent of the Senate, shall
appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and all
other officers of the United States, whose
appointments are not herein otherwise provided
for, and which shall be established by law: but
the Congress may by law vest the appointment of
such inferior officers, as they think proper,
in the President alone, in the courts of law,
or in the heads of departments.
The President shall have power to fill up all
vacancies that may happen during the recess of
the Senate, by granting commissions which shall
expire at the end of their next session.
SECTION 3.
He shall from time to time give to the Congress
information of the State of the Union, and
recommend to their consideration such measures
as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he
may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both
Houses, or either of them, and in case of
disagreement between them, with respect to the
time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to
such time as he shall think proper; he shall
receive ambassadors and other public ministers;
he shall take care that the laws be faithfully
executed, and shall commission all the officers
of the United States.
SECTION 4.
The President, Vice President and all civil
officers of the United States, shall be removed
from office on impeachment for, and conviction
of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and
misdemeanors.
ARTICLE III (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
The judicial power of the United States, shall
be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such
inferior courts as the Congress may from time
to time ordain and establish. The judges, both
of the Supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold
their offices during good behaviour, and shall,
at stated times, receive for their services, a
compensation, which shall not be diminished
during their continuance in office.
SECTION 2.
The judicial power shall extend to all cases,
in law and equity, arising under this
Constitution, the laws of the United States,
and treaties made, or which shall be made,
under their authority; - to all cases affecting
ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls; - to all cases of admiralty and
maritime jurisdiction; - to controversies to
which the United States shall be a party; - to
controversies between two or more
States; - between a State and citizens of
another State; - between citizens of different
States, - between citizens of the same State
claiming lands under grants of different
States, and between a State, or the citizens
thereof, and foreign States, citizens or
subjects.
In all cases affecting ambassadors, other
public ministers and consuls, and those in
which a State shall be a party, the Supreme
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all
the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme
Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both
as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and
under such regulations as the Congress shall
make.
The trial of all crimes, except in cases of
impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial
shall be held in the State where the said
crimes shall have been committed; but when not
committed within any State, the trial shall be
at such place or places as the Congress may by
law have directed.
SECTION 3.
Treason against the United States, shall
consist only in levying war against them, or in
adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and
comfort. No person shall be convicted of
treason unless on the testimony of two
witnesses to the same overt act, or on
confession in open court.
The Congress shall have power to declare the
punishment of treason, but no attainder of
treason shall work corruption of blood, or
forfeiture except during the life of the person
attainted.
ARTICLE IV (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
Full faith and credit shall be given in each
State to the public acts, records, and judicial
proceedings of every other State. And the
Congress may by general laws prescribe the
manner in which such acts, records, and
proceedings shall be proved, and the effect
thereof.
SECTION 2.
The citizens of each State shall be entitled to
all privileges and immunities of citizens in
the several States.
A person charged in any State with treason,
felony, or other crime, who shall flee from
justice, and be found in another State, shall
on demand of the executive authority of the
State from which he fled, be delivered up, to
be removed to the State having jurisdiction of
the crime.
No person held to service or labour in one
State, under the laws thereof, escaping into
another, shall, in consequence of any law or
regulation therein, be discharged from such
service or labour, but shall be delivered up on
claim of the party to whom such service or
labour may be due.
SECTION 3.
New States may be admitted by the Congress into
this Union; but no new State shall be formed or
erected within the jurisdiction of any other
State; nor any State be formed by the junction
of two or more States, or parts of States,
without the consent of the legislatures of the
States concerned as well as of the Congress.
The Congress shall have power to dispose of and
make all needful rules and regulations
respecting the Territory or other property
belonging to the United States; and nothing in
this Constitution shall be so construed as to
prejudice any claims of the United States, or
of any particular State.
SECTION 4.
The United States shall guarantee to every
State in this Union a republican form of
Government, and shall protect each of them
against invasion; and on application of the
legislature, or of the executive (when the
legislature cannot be convened) against
domestic violence.
ARTICLE V (U.S.Constitution)
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both
Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose
amendments to this Constitution, or on the
application of the legislatures of two thirds
of the several States, shall call a convention
for proposing amendments, which, in either
case, shall be valid to all intents and
purposes, as part of this Constitution, when
ratified by the legislatures of three fourths
of the several States, or by conventions in
three fourths thereof, as the one or the other
mode of ratification may be proposed by the
Congress; provided that no amendment which may
be made prior to the year one thousand eight
hundred and eight shall in any manner affect
the first and fourth clauses in the Ninth
Section of the First Article; and that no
State, without its consent, shall be deprived
of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
ARTICLE VI (U.S.Constitution)
All debts contracted and engagements entered
into, before the adoption of this Constitution,
shall be as valid against the United States
under this Constitution, as under the
Confederation.
This Constitution, and the laws of the United
States which shall be made in pursuance
thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall
be made, under the authority of the United
States, shall be the supreme law of the land;
and the judges in every State shall be bound
thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws
of any State to the contrary notwithstanding.
The Senators and Representatives before
mentioned, and the members of the several State
legislatures, and all executive and judicial
officers, both of the United States and of the
several States, shall be bound by oath or
affirmation, to support this Constitution; but
no religious test shall ever be required as a
qualification to any office or public trust
under the United States.
ARTICLE VII (U.S.Constitution)
The ratification of the conventions of nine
States shall be sufficient for the
establishment of this Constitution between the
States so ratifying the same.
Done in convention by the unanimous consent of
the States present the seventeenth day of
September in the year of our Lord one thousand
seven hundred and eighty seven and of the
independence of the United States of America
the twelfth. In witness whereof we have
hereunto subscribed our names,
GO.WASHINGTON - Presid't.and
deputy from Virginia
Attest WILLIAM JACKSON Secretary
New Hampshire
JOHN LANGDON NICHOLAS GILMAN
Massachusetts
NATHANIEL GORHAM RUFUS KING
Connecticut
WM. SAML. JOHNSON ROGER SHERMAN
New York
ALEXANDER HAMILTON
New Jersey
WIL: LIVINGSTON WM. PATERSON
DAVID BREARLEY JONA: DAYTON
Pennsylvania
B. FRANKLIN THOS. FITZSIMONS
THOMAS MIFFLIN JARED INGERSOLL
ROBT MORRIS JAMES WILSON
GEO. CLYMER GOUV MORRIS
Delaware
GEO: READ RICHARD BASSETT
GUNNING BEDFORD JUN JACO: BROOM
JOHN DICKINSON
Maryland
JAMES MCHENRY
DAN OF ST. THOS. JENIFER DANL CARROLL
Virginia
JOHN BLAIR - JAMES MADISON JR.
North Carolina
WM. BLOUNT
RICHD. DOBBS SPAIGHT HU WILLIAMSON
South Carolina
J. RUTLEDGE
CHARLES COTESWORTH CHARLES PINCKNEY
PINCKNEY PIERCE BUTLER
Georgia
WILLIAM FEW ABR BALDWIN
Amendments
(The first ten amendments to the Constitution
are called the Bill of Rights and were
adopted in 1791.)
Article I (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
Congress shall make no law respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the
free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom
of speech, or of the press; or the right of the
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition
the Government for a
redress of grievances.
Article II (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
A well regulated militia, being necessary to the
security of a free State, the right of the
people to keep and bear arms, shall not be
infringed.
Article III (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered
in any house, without the consent of the owner,
nor in time of war, but in a manner to be
prescribed by law.
Article IV (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
The right of the people to be secure in their
persons, houses, papers, and effects, against
unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not
be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but
upon probable cause, supported by oath or
affirmation, and particularly describing the
place to be searched, and the persons or things
to be seized.
Article V (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
No person shall be held to answer for a
capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on
a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury,
except in cases arising in the land or naval
forces, or in the militia, when in actual
service in time of war or public danger; nor
shall any person be subject for the same
offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life
or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal
case to be a witness against himself, nor be
deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law; nor shall private property
be taken for public use, without just
compensation.
Article VI (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall
enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial,
by an impartial jury of the State and district
wherein the crime shall have been committed,
which district shall have been previously
ascertained by law, and to be informed of the
nature and cause of the accusation; to be
confronted with the witnesses against him; to
have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in
his favor, and to have the assistance of
counsel for his defense.
ARTICLE VII (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
In suits at common law, where the value in
controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the
right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and
no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise
reexamined in any Court of the United States,
than according to the rules of the common law.
ARTICLE VIII (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor
excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual
punishments inflicted.
ARTICLE IX (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain
rights, shall not be construed to deny or
disparage others retained by the people.
ARTICLE X (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
The powers not delegated to the United States
by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to
the States, are reserved to the States
respectively, or to the people.
ARTICLE XI (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
The judicial power of the United States shall
not be construed to extend to any suit in law
or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one
of the United States by citizens of another
State, or by citizens or subjects of any
foreign State.
ARTICLE XII (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
The electors shall meet in their respective
States, and vote by ballot for President and
Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall
not be an inhabitant of the same State with
themselves; they shall name in their ballots
the person voted for as President, and in
distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice
President, and they shall make distinct
lists of all persons voted for as President, and
of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of
the number of votes for each, which lists they
shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to
the seat of the government of the United
States, directed to the President of the
Senate; - The President of the Senate
shall, in the presence of the Senate and House
of Representatives, open all the certificates
and the votes shall then be counted; The
person having the greatest number of votes for
President, shall be the President, if such
number be a majority of the whole number of
electors appointed; and if no person have
such majority, then from the persons having the
highest numbers not exceeding three on the list
of those voted for as President, the House of
Representatives shall choose immediately, by
ballot, the President. But in choosing the
President, the votes shall be taken by States, the
representation from each State having one vote; a
quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member
or members from two-thirds of the States, and a
majority of all the States shall be necessary of
a choice. And if the House of Representatives
shall not choose a President whenever the right of
choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth
day of March next following, then the Vice
President shall act as President, as in the
case of the death or other constitutional
disability of the President. - The person having
the greatest number of votes as Vice President,
shall be the Vice President, if such number be a
majority of the whole number of electors
appointed, and if no person have a majority, then
from the two highest numbers on the list, the
Senate shall choose the Vice President; a
quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds
of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of
the whole number shall be necessary to a choice.
But no person constitutionally ineligible to the
office of President shall be eligible to that of
Vice President of the United States.
ARTICLE XIII (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude,
except as a punishment for crime whereof the
party shall have been duly convicted, shall
exist within the United States, or any place
subject to their jurisdiction.
SECTION 2.
Congress shall have power to enforce this article
by appropriate legislation.
ARTICLE XIV (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
All persons born or naturalized in the United
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof,
are citizens of the United States and of the State
wherein they reside. No State shall make or
enforce any law which shall abridge the
privileges or immunities of citizens of the United
States; nor shall any State deprive any person of
life, liberty, or property, without due process of
law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction
the equal protection of the laws.
SECTION 2.
Representatives shall be apportioned among the
several States according to their respective
numbers, counting the whole number of persons
in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But
when the right to vote at any election for the
choice of electors for President and Vice
President of the United States, Representatives
in Congress, the executive and judicial
officers of a State, or the members of the
legislature thereof, is denied to any of the
male inhabitants of such State, being
twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the
United States, or in any way abridged, except
for participation in rebellion, or other crime,
the basis of representation therein shall be
reduced in the proportion which the number of
such male citizens shall bear to the whole
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age
in such State.
SECTION 3.
No person shall be a Senator or Representative
in Congress, or elector of President and Vice
President, or hold any office, civil or
military, under the United States, or under any
State, who, having previously taken an oath, as
a member of Congress, or as an officer of the
United States, or as a member of any State
legislature, or as an executive or judicial
officer of any State, to support the
Constitution of the United States, shall
have engaged in insurrection or rebellion
against the same, or given aid or comfort to
the enemies thereof.
But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each
house, remove such disability.
SECTION 4.
The validity of the public debt of the United
States, authorized by law, including debts
incurred for payment of pensions and bounties
for services in suppressing insurrection or
rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither
the United States nor any State shall assume or
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of
insurrection or rebellion against the United
States, or any claim for the loss or
emancipation of any slave; but all such
debts, obligations and claims shall be held
illegal and void.
SECTION 5.
The Congress shall have power to enforce, by
appropriate legislation, the provisions of this
article.
ARTICLE XV (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
The right of citizens of the United States to
vote shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States or by any State on account of
race, color, or previous condition of
servitude.
SECTION 2.
The Congress shall have power to enforce this
article by appropriate legislation.
ARTICLE XVI (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
The Congress shall have power to lay and
collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source
derived, without apportionment among the
several States, and without regard to any
census or enumeration.
ARTICLE XVII (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
The Senate of the United States shall be
composed of two Senators from each State,
elected by the people thereof, for six years;
and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors
in each State shall have the qualifications
requisite for electors of the most numerous branch
of the State legislatures.
SECTION 2.
When vacancies happen in the representation of
any State in the Senate, the executive
authority of such State shall issue writs
of election to fill such vacancies: Provided,
that the legislature of any State may empower the
executive thereof to make temporary appointments
until the people fill the vacancies by election as
the legislature may direct.
SECTION 3.
This amendment shall not be so construed as to
affect the election or term of any Senator chosen
before it becomes valid as part of the
Constitution.
ARTICLE XVIII (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
After one year from the ratification of this
article the manufacture, sale, or
transportation of intoxicating liquors within,
the importation thereof into, or the
exportation thereof from the United States and
all territory subject to the jurisdiction
thereof for beverage purposes is hereby
prohibited.
SECTION 2.
The Congress and the several States shall have
concurrent power to enforce this
article by appropriate legislation.
SECTION 3.
This article shall be inoperative unless it
shall have been ratified as an amendment to
the Constitution by the legislatures of the
several States, as provided in the
Constitution, within seven years from the date
of the submission hereof to the States by the
Congress.
ARTICLE XIX (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
The right of citizens of the United States to
vote shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States or by any State on account of
sex.
SECTION 2.
Congress shall have power to enforce this
article by appropriate legislation.
ARTICLE XX (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
The terms of the President and Vice President
shall end at noon on the 20th day of January,
and the terms of Senators and Representatives
at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years
in which such terms would have ended if this
article had not been ratified; and the terms of
their successors shall then begin.
SECTION 2.
The Congress shall assemble at least once in every
year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the
3d day of January, unless they shall by law
appoint a different day.
SECTION 3.
If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the
term of the President, the President elect
shall have died, the Vice President elect shall
become President. If a President shall not have
been chosen before the time fixed for the
beginning of his term, or if the President
elect shall have failed to qualify, then the
Vice President elect shall act as President
until a President shall have qualified; and
the Congress may by law provide for the case
wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice
President elect shall have qualified, declaring
who shall then act as President, or the manner
in which one who is to act shall be selected,
and such person shall act accordingly until a
President or Vice President shall have
qualified.
SECTION 4.
The Congress may by law provide for the case of
the death of any of the persons from whom the
House of Representatives may choose a President
whenever the right of choice shall have
devolved upon them, and for the case of the
death of any of the persons from whom the
Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the
right of choice shall have devolved upon them.
SECTION 5.
Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th
day of October following the ratification of
this article.
SECTION 6.
This article shall be inoperative unless it shall
have been ratified as an amendment to the
Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths
of the several States within seven years from the
date of its submission.
ARTICLE XXI (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
The eighteenth article of amendment to the
Constitution of the United States is hereby
repealed.
SECTION 2.
The transportation or importation
into any State, Territory, or possession of the
United States for delivery or use therein of
intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws
thereof, is hereby prohibited.
SECTION 3.
This article shall be inoperative
unless it shall have been ratified as an
amendment to the Constitution by conventions in
the several States, as provided in the
Constitution, within seven years from the date
of the submission hereof to the States by the
Congress.
ARTICLE XXII. (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
No person shall be elected to the office of the
President more than twice, and no person who has
held the office of President, or acted as
President, for more than two years of a term to
which some other person was elected President
shall be elected to the office of the President
more than once. But this article shall not apply
to any person holding the office of President when
this article was proposed by the Congress, and
shall not prevent any person who may be holding
the office of President, or acting as President,
during the term within which this article becomes
operative from holding the office of President or
acting as President during the remainder of such
term.
SECTION 2.
This article shall be inoperative unless it shall
have been ratified as an amendment to the
Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths
of the several States within seven years from the
date of its submission to the States by the
Congress.
ARTICLE XXIII (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
The District constituting the seat of
Government of the United States shall appoint
in such manner as the Congress may direct:
A number of electors of President and Vice
President equal to the whole number of Senators
and Representatives in Congress to which the
District would be entitled if it were a State, but
in no event more than the least populous State;
they shall be in addition to those appointed by
the States, but they shall be considered, for the
purposes of the election of President and Vice
President, to be electors appointed by a State;
and they shall meet in the District and perform
such duties as provided by the twelfth article of
amendment.
SECTION 2.
The Congress shall have power to enforce this
article by appropriate legislation.
ARTICLE XXIV (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
The right of citizens of the United States to vote
in any primary or other election for President or
Vice President, for electors for President or Vice
President, or for Senator or Representative in
Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States or any State by reason of failure to
pay any poll tax or other tax.
SECTION 2.
The Congress shall have power to
enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
ARTICLE XXV (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
In case of the removal of the President from
office or of his death or resignation, the Vice
President shall become President.
SECTION 2.
Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the
Vice President, the President shall nominate a
Vice President who shall take office upon
confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of
Congress.
SECTION 3.
Whenever the President transmits to the President
pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the
House of Representatives his written declaration
that he is unable to discharge the powers and
duties of his office, and until he transmits to
them a written declaration to the contrary, such
powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice
President as Acting President.
SECTION 4.
Whenever the Vice President and a majority of
either the principal officers of the
executive departments or of such other body as
Congress may by law provide, transmit to the
President pro tempore of the Senate and the
Speaker of the House of Representatives their
written declaration that the President is unable
to discharge the powers and duties of his office,
the Vice President shall immediately assume the
powers and duties of the office as Acting
President.
Thereafter, when the President transmits to the
President pro tempore of the Senate and the
Speaker of the House of Representatives his
written declaration that no inability exists, he
shall resume the powers and duties of his office
unless the Vice President and a majority of either
the principal officers of the executive department
or of such other body as Congress may by law
provide, transmit within four days to the
President pro tempore of the Senate and the
Speaker of the House of Representatives their
written declaration that the President is unable
to discharge the powers and duties of his office.
Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue,
assembling within forty-eight hours for that
purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within
twenty-one days after receipt of the latter
written declaration, or, if Congress is not in
session, within twenty-one days after Congress is
required to assemble, determines by two-thirds
vote of both Houses that the President is
unable to discharge the powers and duties of his
office, the Vice President shall continue to
discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise,
the President shall resume the powers and duties
of his office.
ARTICLE XXVI (Amendments) (U.S.Constitution)
SECTION 1.
The right of citizens of the United States who are
18 years of age or older, to vote shall not be
denied or abridged by the United States or by any
State on account of age.
SECTION 2.
The Congress shall have power to enforce this
article by appropriate legislation.
The Emancipation Proclamation
President Lincoln first issued the Emancipation
Proclamation, freeing the slaves, on September 22,
1862. The final proclamation was issued on January
1, 1863, as follows:
By the President of the United
States of America:
A Proclamation.
Whereas on the 22d day of September, A.D.
1862, a proclamation was issued by the President
of the United States, containing, among other
things, the following, to wit:
"That on the 1st day of January, A.D. 1863,
all persons held as slaves within any State or
designated part of a State the people whereof
shall then be in rebellion against the United
States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever
free; and the executive government of the United
States, including the military and naval authority
thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom
of such persons and will do no act or acts to
repress such persons, or any of them, in any
efforts they may make for their actual freedom.
"That the executive will of the 1st day of
January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the
States and parts of States, if any, in which the
people thereof, respectively, shall then be in
rebellion against the United States; and the fact
that any State or the people thereof shall on that
day be in good faith represented in the Congress
of the United States by members chosen thereto at
elections wherein a majority of the qualified
voters of such States shall have participated
shall, in the absence of strong countervailing
testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such
State and the people thereof are not then in
rebellion against the United States."
Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President
of the United States, by virtue of the power in me
vested as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy
of the United States in time of actual armed
rebellion against the authority and government of
the United States, and as a fit and necessary war
measure for suppressing said rebellion, do, on
this 1st day of January, A.D. 1863, and in
accordance with my purpose to do so, publicly
proclaimed for the full period of one hundred days
from the first day above mentioned, order and
designate as the States and parts of States
wherein the people thereof, respectively, are this
day in rebellion against the United States the
following, to wit:
Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the
parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson,
St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension,
Assumption, Terrebonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St.
Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New
Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia,
South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia
(except the forty-eight counties designated as
West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley,
Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York,
Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the cities
of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted
parts are for the present left precisely as if
this proclamation were not issued.
And by virtue of the power and for the
purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all
persons held as slaves within said designated
States and parts of states are, and henceforward
shall be, free; and that the Executive Government
of the United States, including the military and
naval authorities thereof, will recognize and
maintain the freedom of said persons.
And I hereby enjoin upon the people so
declared to be free to abstain from all violence,
unless in necessary self-defense; and I recommend
to them that, in all cases when allowed, they
labor faithfully for reasonable wages.
And I further declare and make known that
such persons of suitable condition will be
received into the armed service of the United
States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and
other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in
said service.
And upon this act, sincerely believe to be an
act of justice, warranted by the Constitution upon
military necessity, I invoke the considerate
judgement of mankind and the gracious favor of
Almighty God.
The Monroe Doctrine
In his message to Congress on December 2, 1823,
President James Monroe established what has come to
be known as the Monroe Doctrine, a statement of U.S.
foreign policy that expresses opposition to the
extension of European control or influence in the
Western Hemisphere. Following is part of Monroe's
message:
In the discussions to which this interest has
given rise, and in the arrangements by which they
may terminate, the occasion has been deemed proper
for asserting as a principle in which rights and
interest of the United States are involved, that the
American continents, by the free and independent
condition which they have assumed and maintain, are
henceforth not to be considered as subjects for
future colonization by any European power....We owe
it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable
relations existing between the United States and
those powers to declare that we should consider any
attempt on their part to extend their system to any
portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace
and safety. With the existing colonies or
dependencies of any European power we have not
interfered and shall not interfere. But with the
governments who have declared their independence and
maintain it, and whose independence we have, on
great consideration and on just principles,
acknowledged, we could not view any interposition
for the purpose of oppressing them or controlling
in any other manner their destiny by any European
power in any other light than as the manifestation
of an unfriendly disposition toward the United
States.
The Pledge of Allegiance
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United
States of America, and to the Republic for which it
stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with
liberty and justice for all.
[The phrase "under God" was added to the pledge by
an act of Congress in 1954. The original pledge,
written in 1892 by Francis Bellamy, contained the
phrase "my flag"].
The U.S. Flag
History (U.S. Flag)
The "Stars and Stripes" as we know it today, with
its blue field of 50 white stars and 13 red and
white stripes representing the original 13
colonies, underwent several transformations.
The first flag raised in the United States was
hoisted by John Cabot in 1497; it flew the banners
of England and St. Mark. As settlers populated the
colonies, each territory adopted its own flag. By
1707, each colony had its own flag, the
forerunners of the individual state flags today.
The first colonial flag representing all the
colonies, however, was believed to have been
raised on Prospect Hill in Boston at the Battle of
Bunker Hill. The "Continental Colors" bore the
cross of the British flag in the upper left corner
with 13 alternating red and white stripes
extending horizontally. In 1777 the first
Continental Congress "Resolved, that the Flag of
the United States be thirteen stripes alternate
red and white, that the Union be thirteen stars
white on a blue field, representing a
constellation."
As the new Union grew, Congress voted in 1794 to
add two stripes and two stars to represent the two
new states of Vermont and Kentucky. This flag is
believed to be the one nicknamed the
"Star-Spangled Banner." By 1818 five more states
had joined, and on April 4 Congress voted to keep
the number of stripes at 13 and to add a star to
the field for every new state, the stars for the
new states being added the July 4th after each
state's admission to the Union.
The table below shows the order in which states
joined the Union and the number of revisions the
flag went through before arriving at its current
design.
The U.S. Flag: 1777-1960
Number Status
Date Used of Stars Designs Represented
June 14, 1977 13 1 Original 13
colonies
May 1, 1795 15 2 Vermont,
Kentucky
July 4, 1818 20 3 Tennessee,
Ohio,
Louisiana,
Indiana,
Mississippi
July 4, 1819 21 4 Illinois
July 4, 1820 23 5 Alabama,
Maine
July 4, 1822 24 6 Missouri
July 4, 1836 25 7 Arkansas
July 4, 1837 26 8 Michigan
July 4, 1845 27 9 Florida
July 4, 1846 28 10 Texas
July 4, 1847 29 11 Iowa
July 4, 1848 30 12 Wisconsin
July 4, 1851 31 13 California
July 4, 1858 32 14 Minnesota
July 4, 1859 33 15 Oregon
July 4, 1861 34 16 Kansas
July 4, 1863 35 17 West
Virginia
July 4, 1865 36 18 Nevada
July 4, 1867 37 19 Nebraska
July 4, 1877 38 20 Colorado
July 4, 1890 43 21 North
Dakota,
South
Dakota,
Montana,
Washington,
Idaho
July 4, 1891 44 22 Wyoming
July 4, 1896 45 23 Utah
July 4, 1908 46 24 Oklahoma
July 4, 1912 48 25 New Mexico,
Arizona
July 4, 1959 49 26 Alaska
July 4, 1960 50 27 Hawaii
Care and Use of the Flag (U.S. Flag)
Wherever and whenever it is displayed, the first
requirement for flying the flag is that it be
flown with respect. To show respect and honor to
the symbol of the United States, fly it only in
good weather, on all holidays and special
occasions, and on official buildings such as
schools when they are in session, post offices,
courthouses, and the like. The flag generally is
flown only from sunrise to sunset and at full
staff. If it is displayed at night, it should be
lit. Fly the flag at half staff to commemorate the
death of an official and until noon on Memorial
Day.
The White House flag is flown only when the
President is in residence and only from sunrise to
sunset. At the Capitol building, the flag flies
over the appropriate wing when the House or Senate
is in session. The flag is flown all night long
and is lit by lights from the Capitol dome. Other
special national monuments also fly the flag at
night, notably Fort McHenry National Monument in
Baltimore, Maryland, where Francis Scott Key was
inspired to write "The Star-Spangled Banner."
When handling the flag, never let it touch the
ground. When it flies with other flags, it should
appear prominently above them. The flag should be
to its own right (to the left, viewed face-on)
with its staff in front of the staff of the other
flag when placed against a wall with another flag.
In a group of flags, the U.S. flag should be at
the center. (The flag of the United Nations and a
Navy Chaplain's church pennant may be flown above
the U.S. flag.)
Hoist the flag quickly and lower it
ceremoniously to the tempo of "Taps." If the flag
is hung from a rope attached to a building, the
field of stars should face away from the building;
when hung over a street, the Union side should
face north or east.
On a platform, the flag may be hung flat against
the wall behind and above the speaker with the
field of stars to the audience's left. In a
church, the flag on its staff should be to the
right of the speaker's platform and other flags to
the left of the platform. If the flag is flown
anywhere else in the chancel or on a platform, it
should be to the right of the audience as they
face the platform.
Salute when the flag passes in a parade or
review, is being raised or lowered, is present at
the playing of the national anthem, or is present
at the saying of the Pledge of Allegiance.
Civilians should salute the flag by standing at
attention and placing their right hands over their
hearts. Men should remove their hats and hold them
over their left shoulders with their right hand.
Military personnel in uniform should give the
military salute. Noncitizens should stand at
attention.
Presidents of the United States
President
(Vice President) Term Party Congresses
---------------- ---- ----- ----------
1. George Washington 4/30/1789 - F 1,2,3,4
(John Adams) 3/3/1797
2. John Adams 3/4/1797 - F 5,6
(Thomas Jefferson) 3/3/1801
3. Thomas Jefferson 3/4/1801 - D-R 7,8
(Aaron Burr) 3/3/1805
(George Clinton) 3/4/1805 - 9,10
3/3/1809
4. James Madison 3/4/1809 - D-R 11,12
(George Clinton) 3/3/1813
(Elbridge Gerry) 3/4/1813 - 13,14
3/3/1817
5. James Monroe 3/4/1817 - D-R 15,16,17,18
(Daniel D. Tompkins) 3/3/1821
3/4/1821 -
3/3/1825
6. John Quincy Adams 3/4/1825 - D-R 19,20
(John C. Calhoun) 3/3/1929
7. Andrew Jackson 3/4/1829 - D-R 21,22
(John C. Calhoun) 3/3/1833
(Martin Van Buren) 3/4/1833 - 23,24
3/3/1837
8. Martin Van Buren 3/4/1837 - D 25,26
(Richard M. Johnson) 3/3/1841
9. William Henry Harrison 3/4/1841 - W 27
(John Tyler) 4/4/1841
10.John Tyler 4/6/1841 - W 27,28
(--------) 3/3/1845
11.James K. Polk 3/4/1845 - D 29,30
(George M. Dallas) 3/3/1849
12.Zachary Taylor 3/4/1850 - W 31
(Millard Fillmore) 7/9/1850
13.Millard Fillmore 7/10/1850 - W 31,32
(--------------) 3/3/1853
14.Franklin Pierce 3/4/1853 - D 33,34
(William R. King) 3/3/1857
15.James Buchanan 3/4/1857 - D 35,36
(John C. Breckinridge) 3/3/1861
16.Abraham Lincoln 3/4/1861 - R 37,38
(Hannibal Hamlin) 3/3/1865
(Andrew Johnson) 3/4/1865 - 39
4/15/1865
17.Andrew Johnson 4/15/1865 - NU 39,40
(------------) 3/3/1869
18.Ulysses S. Grant 3/4/1869 - R 41,42
(Schuyler Colfax) 3/3/1873
(Henry Wilson) 3/4/1873 - 43,44
3/3/1877
19.Rutherford B. Hayes 3/4/1877 - R 45,46
(William A. Wheeler) 3/3/1881
20.James Garfield 3/4/1881 - R 47
(Chester A. Arthur) 9/19/1881
21.Chester A. Arthur 9/20/1881 - R 47,48
(---------------) 3/3/1885
22.Grover Cleveland 3/4/1885 - D 49,50
(Thomas A. Hendricks) 3/3/1889
23.Benjamin Harrison 3/4/1889 - R 51,52
(Levi P. Morton) 3/3/1893
24.Grover Cleveland 3/4/1893 - D 49,50
(Adlai E. Stevenson) 3/3/1897
25.William McKinley 3/4/1897 - R 55,56
(Garret A. Hobart) 3/3/1901
(Theodore Roosevelt) 3/4/1901 - 57
9/14/1901
26.Theodore Roosevelt 9/14/1901 - R 57,58
(----------------) 3/3/1905
(Charles W. Fairbanks) 3/4/1905 - 59,60
3/3/1909
27.William H. Taft 3/4/1909 - R 61,62
(James S. Sherman) 3/3/1913
28.Woodrow Wilson 3/4/1913 - D 63,64,65,66
(Thomas R. Marshall) 3/3/1917
3/14/1917 -
3/3/1921
29.Warren G. Harding 3/4/1921 - R 67
(Calvin Coolidge) 8/2/1923
30.Calvin Coolidge 8/3/1923 - R 68
(-------------) 3/3/1925
(Charles G. Dawes) 3/4/1925 - 69,70
3/3/1929
31.Herbert C. Hoover 3/4/1929 - R 71,72
(Charles Curtis) 3/3/1933
32.Franklin D. Roosevelt 3/4/1933 - D 73,74,75,76
(John N. Garner) 1/20/1941
(Henry A. Wallace) 1/20/1941 - 77,78
1/20/1945
(Harry S. Truman) 1/20/1945 - 79
4/12/1945
33.Harry S. Truman 4/12/1945 - D 79,80
(-------------) 1/20/1949
(Alben W. Barkley) 1/20/1949 - 81,82
1/20/1953
34.Dwight D. Eisenhower 1/20/1953 - R 83,84,85,86
(Richard M. Nixon) 1/20/1961
35.John F. Kennedy 1/20/1961 - D 87,88
(Lyndon B. Johnson) 11/22/1963
36.Lyndon B. Johnson 11/22/1963 - D 88
(---------------) 1/20/1965
(Hubert H. Humphrey) 1/20/1965 - 89,90
1/20/1969
37.Richard M. Nixon 1/20/1969 - R 91,92,93
(Spiro T. Agnew) 1/20/1973
(Gerald R. Ford) 1/20/1973 - 93
8/9/1974
38.Gerald R. Ford 8/9/1974 - R 93,94
(Nelson A. Rockefeller) 1/20/1977
39.James (Jimmy) Carter 1/20/1977 - D 95,96
(Walter F. Mondale) 1/20/1981
40.Ronald Reagan 1/20/1981 - R 97,98
(George Bush) 1/20/1985
1/20/1985 - 99,100
1/20/1989
41.George Bush 1/20/1989 - R 101
(J. Danforth Quayle)
F = Federalist; D-R = Democratic-Republican;
D = Democrat; W = Whig; R = Republican;
NU = National Union Party, a coalition of
Republicans and War Democrats (Andrew Johnson
was a Democrat).
THE SEQUENCE OF PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESSION
1.Vice President
2.Speaker of the House
3.President Pro Tempore of the Senate
4.Secretary of State
5.Secretary of the Treasury
6.Secretary of Defense
7.Attorney General
8.Secretary of the Interior
9.Secretary of Agriculture
10.Secretary of Commerce
11.Secretary of Labor
12.Secretary of Health and Human Services
13.Secretary of Housing and Urban Development
14.Secretary of Transportation
15.Secretary of Energy
16.Secretary of Education
Any successor to the presidency must meet the
requirements for the office as established in the
Constitution.
Vice Presidents of the United States
Years of
Birth and
Vice President Death President Party
______________ _________ _________ _____
1. John Adams 1735-1826
George Washington F
2. Thomas Jefferson 1743-1826
John Adams F
3. Aaron Burr 1756-1836
Thomas Jefferson D-R
4. George Clinton 1739-1812
Thomas Jefferson D-R
James Madison D-R
5. Elbridge Gerry 1744-1814
James Madison D-R
6. Daniel D. Tompkins 1774-1825
James Madison D-R
7. John C. Calhoun 1782-1850
John Quincy Adams D-R
Andrew Jackson
8. Martin Van Buren 1782-1862
Andrew Jackson D-R
9. Richard M. Johnson 1780-1850
Martin Van Buren D
10.John Tyler 1790-1862
William H. Harrison W
11.George M. Dallas 1792-1864
James K. Polk D
12.Millard Fillmore 1800-1874
Zachary Taylor W
13.William R. King 1786-1853
Franklin Pierce D
14.John C. Breckinridge 1821-1875
James Buchanan D
15.Hannibal Hamlin 1809-1891
Abraham Lincoln R
16.Andrew Johnson 1808-1875
Abraham Lincoln R
17.Schuyler Colfax 1823-1885
Ulysses S. Grant R
18.Henry Wilson 1812-1875
Ulysses S. Grant R
19.William A. Wheeler 1819-1887
Rutherford B. Hayes R
20.Chester A. Arthur 1829-1886
James Garfield R
21.Thomas A. Hendricks 1819-1885
Grover Cleveland D
22.Levi P. Morton 1824-1920
Benjamin Harrison R
23.Adlai E. Stevenson 1835-1914
Grover Cleveland D
24.Garret E. Hobart 1844-1899
William McKinley R
25.Theodore Roosevelt 1858-1919
William McKinley R
26.Charles W. Fairbanks 1852-1918
Theodore Roosevelt R
27.James S. Sherman 1855-1912
William H. Taft R
28.Thomas R. Marshall 1854-1925
Woodrow Wilson D
29.Calvin Coolidge 1872-1933
Warren G. Harding R
30.Charles G. Dawes 1865-1951
Calvin Coolidge R
31.Charles Curtis 1860-1936
Herbert C. Hoover R
32.John N. Garner 1868-1967
Franklin D. Roosevelt D
33.Henry A. Wallace 1888-1965
Franklin D. Roosevelt D
34.Harry S. Truman 1884-1972
Franklin D. Roosevelt D
35.Alben W. Barkley 1877-1956
Harry S. Truman D
36.Richard M. Nixon 1913-
Dwight D. Eisenhower R
37.Lyndon B. Johnson 1908-1973
John F. Kennedy D
38.Hubert H. Humphrey 1911-1978
Lyndon B. Johnson D
39.Spiro T. Agnew 1918-
Richard M. Nixon R
40.Gerald R. Ford 1913-
Richard M. Nixon R
41.Nelson A. Rockefeller 1908-1979
Gerald R. Ford R
42.Walter F. Mondale 1928-
James (Jimmy) Carter D
43.George Bush 1924-
Ronald Reagan R
44.J. Danforth Quayle 1947-
George Bush R
F = Federalist; D-R = Democratic-Republican;
D = Democrat; W = Whig; R = Republican
Important Dates in American History
1492 (American History)
Columbus sails to Caribbean Island.
1497 (American History)
Cabot explores North America from Canada to
Delaware.
1513 (American History)
Juan Ponce de Leon explores Florida.
1524 (American History)
Giovanni da Verrazano leads French
expedition along the coast from Carolina to
Nova Scotia, entering New York harbor.
1565 (American History)
St. Augustine, Florida, is founded.
1579 (American History)
Francis Drake claims California for Britain.
1586 (American History)
St. Augustine is destroyed by Francis Drake.
1587 (American History)
Virginia Dare is the first baby born in
America to English parents.
1607 (American History)
The first European settlement in America is
established at Jamestown, Virginia.
1609 (American History)
Henry Hudson explores New York harbor and
the Hudson River to Albany; Samuel de
Champlain explores Lake Champlain in upstate
New York; Spaniards settle Santa Fe, New
Mexico.
1619 (American History)
The first black slaves land at Jamestown,
Virginia; the House of Burgesses, the first
representative assembly in America, is
established in Virginia.
1620 (American History)
Pilgrims land in Plymouth, Massachusetts;
the Mayflower Compact is drafted and signed.
1623 (American History)
The Dutch found New Netherland (later New
York).
1626 (American History)
Peter Minuit buys Manhattan Island from
Native Americans.
1630 (American History)
The Massachusetts Bay Colony is founded.
1631 (American History)
Roger Williams, pioneer of religious
tolerance, arrives in America.
1634 (American History)
Maryland is founded as a Catholic colony.
1635 (American History)
New Hampshire is founded by Captain John
Mason; the first public school, the Boston
Latin School, is established.
1636 (American History)
Harvard, the first college in America, is
founded; Roger Williams founds Providence,
Rhode Island.
1639 (American History)
The first constitution in America is
written, the Fundamental Orders of
Connecticut.
1647 (American History)
Margaret Brent is the first woman to claim
the right to vote.
1648 (American History)
The first labor organization in the United
States is authorized in the Massachusetts
Bay Colony.
1654 (American History)
The first Jews arrive in New Amsterdam.
1663 (American History)
The Colony of New Jersey is founded by Sir
William Berkeley and Sir George Carteret;
the Carolinas are founded.
1664 (American History)
The English capture New Netherland.
1682 (American History)
William Penn founds Pennsylvania.
1688 (American History)
The first formal protest against slavery is
made, by Pennsylvania Quakers.
1692 (American History)
Nineteen persons (mostly women) are executed
for "witchcraft" in Salem, Massachusetts.
1712 (American History)
A slave revolt in New York leads to the
execution of 21 blacks; six commit suicide.
1731 (American History)
The first circulating library is founded,
in Philadelphia.
1732 (American History)
Georgia is founded by James Oglethorpe and
others; Benjamin Franklin publishes the
first Poor Richard's Almanac.
1741 (American History)
The second slave uprising takes place in New
York; 13 are hanged, 13 burned, and 71
deported.
1749 (American History)
Black slavery is legalized in Georgia.
1754 (American History)
The French and Indian War begins (called the
Seven Years' War in Europe).
1758 (American History)
The first Indian reservation is established.
1763 (American History)
The French and Indian War ends.
1764 (American History)
The Sugar Act places duties on lumber,
foodstuffs, molasses, and rum in the
colonies.
1765 (American History)
Passage of the Stamp Act by Britain leads
to the Declaration of Rights, signed by nine
colonies opposed to taxation without
representation.
1766 (American History)
Britain repeals the Stamp Act.
1767 (American History)
The Townshend Acts levy taxes on glass,
painter's lead, paper, and tea.
1770 (American History)
Five colonists are killed in the Boston
Massacre.
1773 (American History)
The Boston Tea Party takes place.
1774 (American History)
The Intolerable Acts passed by Parliament
curtail Massachusetts' self-rule and bar the
use of Boston Harbor until tea is paid for.
1775 (American History)
The American Revolution begins with the
battles of Lexington and Concord.
1776 (American History)
France and Spain each donate 1 million
livres in arms to Americans; the Declaration
of Independence is drafted and signed;
Nathan Hale is executed by the British as
a spy; the first fraternity, Phi Beta
Kappa, is founded at the College of William
and Mary; the Journeymen Printers' Strike
is the first in the United States.
1777 (American History)
The Continental Congress adopts a flag with
stars and stripes; Washington defeats Lord
Cornwallis at the battle of Princeton; Major
General John Burgoyne captures Fort
Ticonderoga, but Americans defeat him
at Saratoga.
1778 (American History)
France agrees to assist the United States
and sends a fleet; the British evacuate
Philadelphia.
1779 (American History)
George Washington orders a military campaign
against the Iroquois.
1780 (American History)
Benedict Arnold is discovered to be a
traitor and escapes to the British.
1781 (American History)
Colonial and French armies defeat the
British at Yorktown, the last major battle
of the Revolutionary War.
1783 (American History)
The Revolutionary War ends with a treaty.
1784 (American History)
The first daily newspaper, Pennsylvania
Packet and General Advertiser, is published
in Philadelphia.
1787 (American History)
The Constitutional Convention begins in
Philadelphia.
1788 (American History)
New Hampshire ratifies the Constitution,
putting it into effect.
1789 (American History)
George Washington is chosen the first
President; John Adams, Vice President;
Thomas Jefferson, secretary of state; and
Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the
treasury.
1790 (American History)
Congress meets in Philadelphia, the
temporary, capital, and votes to found a new
capital on the Potomac River; the United
States signs the first treaty with the
Iroquois.
1791 (American History)
The Bill of Rights goes into effect; Vermont
is the first state to enter the Union after
the original 13 colonies.
1793 (American History)
The invention of the cotton gin by Eli
Whitney revives slavery in the South.
1794 (American History)
Suppression by the U.S. militia of the
Whiskey Rebellion, in which farmers protest
the liquor tax of 1791, established the
Authority of the new federal government.
1800 (American History)
John Brown, abolitionist, is born.
1801 (American History)
Tripoli declares war on the United States.
1803 (American History)
The Supreme Court declares an act of
Congress unconstitutional in Marbury v.
Madison; the United States buys the
Louisiana Territory from Napoleon, doubling
its land holdings.
1804 (American History)
President Jefferson orders the Lewis and
Clark expedition to explore the northwest;
Vice President Aaron Burr and Alexander
Hamilton duel; Hamilton dies the next day.
1805 (American History)
Conflict with Tripoli ends.
1808 (American History)
The importation of slaves is outlawed (about
250,000 slaves are illegally imported
between 1808 and 1860).
1810 (American History)
Margaret Fuller, feminist and
transcendentalist, is born.
1811 (American History)
Harriet Beecher Stowe is born.
1812 (American History)
The War of 1812 begins.
1814 (American History)
The war of 1812 ends with the Treaty of
Ghent. 1815 Florida is ceded to the United
States by Spain; Elizabeth Cady Stanton,
suffragist, is born.
1816 (American History)
The first savings bank is established, the
Provident Institute for Savings, in Boston.
1817 (American History)
Black abolitionist Frederick Douglass is
born.
1818 (American History)
Lucy Stone, feminist theorist, is born.
1820 (American History)
Susan B. Anthony, suffragist and
abolitionist, is born.
1821 (American History)
Elizabeth Blackwell, the first U.S. woman
physician, is born; Missouri is admitted to
the Union as a slave state; Troy Female
Seminary, the first women's college in the
United States, is founded by Emma Willard.
1825 (American History)
The Erie Canal is opened, cutting travel
time from New York City to Buffalo and the
Great Lakes by one-third.
1827 (American History)
Freedom's Journal, the first black U.S.
newspaper, is published.
1828 (American History)
The first Native American newspaper,
Cherokee Phoenix, begins publication.
1829 (American History)
The first school for the blind is
incorporated in the United States.
1830 (American History)
Mary Harris (Mother) Jones is born;
President Jackson signs the Indian Removal
Act.
1831 (American History)
Nat Turner leads a slave rebellion in
Virginia.
1832 (American History)
The first meeting of the New England
Anti-Slavery Society is held; Oberlin
College, Ohio, becomes the first college to
establish coeducation.
1836 (American History)
Texans are besieged at the Alamo in San
Antonio; Texas declares independence from
Mexico.
1837 (American History)
The panic of 1837 begins a seven-year
depression.
1838 (American History)
Cherokees begin the Trail of Tears, their
1,200-mile forced march to Oklahoma.
1841 (American History)
Oberlin College, Ohio, becomes the first
college to confer degrees on women; the
first wagon train leaves from Independence,
Missouri, for California.
1843 (American History)
Sojourner Truth, former slave, begins an
abolitionist lecture tour.
1844 (American History)
The first telegraph message is sent from
Washington to Baltimore by Samuel F. B.
Morse.
1846 (American History)
The United States declares war on Mexico;
as a result, the United States obtains
Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico,
Nevada, Utah, and part of Colorado; a treaty
with Great Britain gives the United States
the Oregon Territory to the 49th
parallel; Henry David Thoreau is jailed for
tax resistance.
1847 (American History)
The first postage stamp is issued; Michigan
becomes the first state to abolish capital
punishment.
1848 (American History)
The United States signs the Treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo with Mexico, ending the
Mexican War and increasing U.S. territory;
the first women's rights convention is held
in Seneca Falls, New York; gold is
discovered in California.
1849 (American History)
Eighty thousand gold prospectors flood
California.
1850 (American History)
Senator Henry Clay's Compromise of 1850
admits California to the Union as a nonslave
state, while Utah and New Mexico enter with
no decision on slavery.
1852 (American History)
Uncle Tom's Cabin, by Harriet Beecher Stowe,
is published.
1853 (American History)
The American Labor Union is founded.
1854 (American History)
The Republican party is formed in opposition
to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which left the
issue of slavery to a vote by settlers.
1857 (American History)
The Dred Scott decision by the Supreme Court
upholds slavery.
1858 (American History)
The Lincoln-Douglas debates are held in
Illinois.
1859 (American History)
John Brown, abolitionist, captures the U.S.
arsenal at Harper's Ferry, West Virginia;
Brown is hanged for treason.
1860 (American History)
A nationwide shoemakers' strike wins workers
higher wages; Charlotte Perkins Gilman,
feminist theorist, is born; the National
Labor Union is founded; social reformer Jane
Addams is born.
1861 (American History)
The American Miners Association, the first
national coal miners' union, is founded; the
Civil War begins when Confederates fire on
Fort Sumter, South Carolina.
1862 (American History)
Slavery is abolished in Washington, D.C.;
the Homestead Act grants land to settlers.
1863 (American History)
Harriet Tubman frees 750 slaves in a raid;
President Lincoln delivers the Gettysburg
Address and issues the Emancipation
Proclamation; draft riots in New York City
kill approximately a thousand, including
blacks who are hanged by a mob.
1864 (American History)
Black prisoners of war are massacred by
Confederate soldiers at Fort Pillow,
Tennessee; General Sherman marches through
Georgia, capturing Atlanta; the New Orleans
Tribune, a black-run daily newspaper,
begins publication; 133 Cheyenne and
Arapahoe are killed by Colorado cavalry
volunteers at Sand Creek.
1865 (American History)
The Confederacy surrenders at Appomattox,
Virginia, ending the Civil War; the first
state civil rights law is passed, in
Massachusetts; the Thirteenth
Amendment abolishes slavery; the Ku Klux
Klan is formed in Pulaski, Tennessee;
President Lincoln is assassinated.
1868 (American History)
Impeachment proceedings begin against
President Andrew Johnson; the Fourteenth
Amendment is ratified, guaranteeing due
process to all but Native Americans; a
U.S.Sioux treaty is signed at Fort Laramie,
Wyoming.
1869 (American History)
Emma Goldman, anarchist, is born; the first
national black labor group, the Colored
National Labor Convention, meets in
Washington, D.C.; the Central Pacific and
Union Pacific railroads are linked at
Promontory, Utah, forming the first
transcontinental railroad; Wyoming territory
is the first to grant suffrage to women.
1870 (American History)
The first woman candidate for U.S.
President, Victoria Claflin Woodhull,
announces she will run; the Great Chicago
Fire takes place; the first sorority, Kappa
Alpha Theta, is established at De
Pauw University; Ada H. Kepley, the first
American woman graduate of a law school,
receives degree from Union College of Law,
Chicago.
1872 (American History)
Susan B. Anthony is arrested for voting; the
Amnesty Act restores rights to Southern
citizens except for 500 Confederate
leaders; Yellowstone, the first U.S.
national park, opens in Wyoming.
1873 (American History)
The first illustrated daily newspaper, New
York Daily Graphic, is established.
1875 (American History)
Mary McLeod Bethune, black educator and
activist, is born; the Civil Rights Act
gives equal rights to blacks in public
accommodations and jury duty.
1876 (American History)
General Custer is defeated at the battle of
the Little Bighorn.
1877 (American History)
The United States violates its treaty with
the Dakota Sioux by seizing the Black Hills;
Chief Joseph surrenders with a starving
remnant of Nez-Perce people.
1881 (American History)
Sitting Bull surrenders; President Garfield
is shot and killed; Booker T. Washington
founds Tuskegee Institute for blacks.
1883 (American History)
Margaret Sanger, birth control advocate, is
born; the Supreme Court rules that Native
Americans are aliens; Sojourner Truth dies;
the Civil Rights Act of 1875 is invalidated
by the Supreme Court.
1884 (American History)
Eleanor Roosevelt is born.
1885 (American History)
The first skyscraper is built in Chicago.
1886 (American History)
The Haymarket Square massacre takes place
in Chicago as a bomb explodes and protestors
demanding an eight-hour day are arrested;
Geronimo surrenders to Arizona Territory
leaders; the American Federation of Labor
(AFL) is founded.
1887 (American History)
Crazy Horse is assassinated while in
custody.
1890 (American History)
The United Mine Workers is formed; Sitting
Bull is killed by police at Standing Rock
Reservation, South Dakota; 200 Sioux are
massacred by troops at Wounded Knee, South
Dakota; William Kemmler is the first
criminal to be executed by electrocution,
at Auburn Prison, New York; Ellis Island
becomes a port of entry for immigrants.
1893 (American History)
NAACP leader Walter White is born; financial
panic lasting for four years begins.
1896 (American History)
The Supreme Court's Plessy v. Ferguson
decision upholds the "separate but equal"
doctrine.
1898 (American History)
The United States declares war on Spain;
U.S. troops invade Puerto Rico to liberate
it from Spain; Admiral Dewey captures
Manila.
1899 (American History)
Philippine insurrection against U.S. rule
begins; The Awakening, an early feminist
novel by Kate Chopin, is published; the Open
Door Policy makes China an international
market and preserves its integrity as a
nation.
1900 (American History)
The International Ladies Garment Workers
Union is founded; prohibitionist Cary Nation
leads the first bottle-smashing raid, in
Wichita, Kansas.
1901 (American History)
President McKinley is assassinated.
1902 (American History)
The last Philippine resistance to U.S.
intervention ends.
1903 (American History)
Panama declares its independence from
Colombia, with U.S. support, and signs the
Panama Canal Treaty; Orville and Wilbur
Wright make the first flights in a
mechanically propelled plane.
1905 (American History)
The Niagara Movement, later to become the
NAACP, is founded.
1906 (American History)
The San Francisco earthquake and fire
occurs.
1907 (American History)
Charles Curtis of Kansas becomes the first
Native American U.S. senator.
1908 (American History)
The United States bars Japanese immigration;
women demonstrate in New York City,
demanding an end to sweatshops and child
labor; the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) is established.
1909 (American History)
The National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People (NAACP) is founded; Native
American leader Geronimo dies.
1911 (American History)
The Triangle Shirt Waist Company fire in
New York City kills 146 sweatshop workers,
mostly women, and leads to demands for
better working conditions.
1912 (American History)
The "Bread and Roses" strike by 10,000
textile workers begins in Lawrence,
Massachusetts; folk singer Woody Guthrie
is born.
1913 (American History)
Ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment
authorizes income tax; the Federal Reserve
System is adopted; the first important U.S.
exhibition of modern art is held at the New
York City Armory; Harriet Tubman, leader of
the Underground Railroad, dies.
1914 (American History)
The Colorado National Guard burns a striking
miner's camp and kills 13 children and seven
adults in the Ludlow Massacre.
1915 (American History)
The Women's International League for Peace
and Freedom is founded; 25,000 women march
in New York City demanding suffrage; Haiti
becomes a U.S. protectorate after U.S.
troops land there.
1916 (American History)
The National Women's Party is founded; the
first public birth control clinic opens, in
Brooklyn, New York; Jeannette Rankin of
Montana becomes the first woman elected to
the House of Representatives; Margaret
Sanger is arrested for operating a birth
control clinic; the United States
buys the Virgin Islands from Denmark; a
military government is established in the
Dominican Republic as the country is
occupied by U.S. Marines.
1917 (American History)
Women picket the White House for the right
to vote; Puerto Rico becomes a U.S.
territory; the United States declares war
on Germany, entering World War I; a wartime
draft is enacted; Emma Goldman is sentenced
to two years for aiding draft resisters.
1918 (American History)
The Sedition Act becomes law; World War I
ends.
1919 (American History)
The Supreme Court holds that freedom of
speech does not apply to draft resistance;
a women's suffrage bill passes the House of
Representatives; the Communist Party of
America is founded; Congress overrides
President Wilson's veto of Prohibition
legislation.
1920 (American History)
Five thousand alleged subversives are
arrested nationwide in "Palmer raids"; the
sale of alcoholic beverages is banned under
the Eighteenth Amendment; women win the
right to vote with ratification of the
Nineteenth Amendment; the League of Women
Voters is founded; the first
transcontinental airmail route is
established between New York City and San
Francisco.
1921 (American History)
Immigration is curtailed by quotas set by
Congress; the Ku Klux Klan begins a revival
of violence against blacks in the North,
South, and Midwest; major powers meet at
the Limitation of Armaments Conference to
reduce naval construction, outlaw poison
gas, restrict submarine attacks on
merchantmen, and discuss the integrity of
China.
1922 (American History)
Rebecca L. Felton, from Georgia, is
appointed the first woman U.S. senator.
1923 (American History)
The War Resisters League is founded.
1924 (American History)
The Supreme Court upholds the involuntary
sterilization of mentally retarded persons;
Native Americans are declared citizens by
Congress; the first U.S. gay rights
organization, the Society for Human Rights,
is founded in Chicago.
1925 (American History)
Nellie Taylor Ross, the first woman governor
in the United States, is sworn in, in
Wyoming; Malcolm X (Malcolm Little), black
leader, is born; John T. Scopes is convicted
of teaching the theory of evolution;
Tennessee bans the teaching of evolution.
1927 (American History)
Charles Lindbergh makes the first
intercontinental flight.
1929 (American History)
The stock market crashes, beginning the
Great Depression.
1931 (American History)
The Scottsboro Boys trial begins in Alabama;
the Empire State Building opens in New York
City.
1932 (American History)
Hattie Caraway, of Tennessee, is the first
woman elected to the U.S. Senate.
1933 (American History)
President Franklin Roosevelt closes all U.S.
banks; during the "100 days," a special
session of Congress, important New Deal
legislation is passed, including the
establishment of the National Recovery
Administration and the Tennessee Valley
Authority (TVA); Frances Perkins, Secretary
of Labor, becomes the first woman Cabinet
member; the Twenty-first Amendment, ending
Prohibition, is passed.
1935 (American History)
The Works Projects Administration (WPA) is
established; the National Labor Relations
Act, recognizing workers' right to organize
and bargain collectively, passes; President
Roosevelt signs the Social Security Act.
1937 (American History)
Amelia Earhart and her co-pilot disappear
over the Pacific.
1938 (American History)
The national minimum wage is enacted; the
"War of the Worlds" broadcast by Orson
Welles causes nationwide fear that Martians
have invaded Earth.
1939 (American History)
Sit-down strikes are outlawed by the Supreme
Court; World War II begins with the German
invasion of Poland.
1940 (American History)
The Alien Registration Act (Smith Act) is
passed; Congress approves the first
peacetime draft.
1941 (American History)
The Ford Motor Company signs its first
contract with the United Auto Workers; the
Japanese attack Pearl Harbor, bringing the
United States into World War II.
1942 (American History)
President Roosevelt issues an executive
order to intern 120,000 Japanese-Americans
on the West Coast; the Manhattan Project
begins developing the atomic bomb.
1943 (American History)
President Roosevelt bars all war contractors
from racial discrimination.
1944 (American History)
Allies stage the D-Day invasion of Normandy;
Congress passes the G.I. Bill of Rights,
providing veterans' benefits.
1945 (American History)
The Yalta conference, attended by Roosevelt,
Churchill, and Stalin, brings Russia into
World War II against Japan; Roosevelt dies;
Truman becomes President; Nazi Germany and
Japan are defeated, ending World War II in
Europe and the Pacific; U.S. troops liberate
the concentration camp at Dachau; ,the first
atomic bomb is exploded, at Alamogordo, New
Mexico; the United States drops atomic bombs
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki; Congress passes
the Communist Control Act; the United
Nations Charter is adopted.
1946 (American History)
The Atomic Energy Commission is formed; the
Philippines is given independence.
1947 (American History)
The first draft-card burning takes place;
the cold war begins; aid is given to Greece
and Turkey under the Truman Doctrine; Jackie
Robinson, the first black major league
baseball player, appears in his first game
with the Brooklyn Dodgers; the Marshall Plan
for European recovery is announced;
the Department of Defense is created; the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the
National Security Council are established
under the National Security Act; the House
of Representatives cites the Hollywood Ten,
accused of subversion, for contempt of
Congress.
1948 (American History)
Twelve Communist party leaders are indicted
by the United States on grounds that they
advocated the overthrow of the government.
1949 (American History)
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) is formed by the United States,
Canada, and 10 European nations.
1950 (American History)
The United States recalls all consular
personnel from the People's Republic of
China; Truman orders the development of the
hydrogen bomb; Senator Joseph McCarthy
accuses State Department employees
of Communist party affiliation; two of the
Hollywood Ten are imprisoned for refusing
to cooperate with the House Un-American
Activities Committee; the Korean conflict
begins; the United States sends 35 military
advisers and agrees to give military and
economic aid to South Vietnam.
1951 (American History)
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and Morton Sobel
are convicted of espionage conspiracy; the
Mattachine Society, an early gay rights
organization, is formed in California;
atomic energy is first used to generate
electricity in the United States;
Korean cease-fire talks begin.
1952 (American History)
The United States explodes the world's first
hydrogen bomb; the Immigration and
Naturalization Act is passed, lifting the
last racial and ethnic barriers to
naturalization.
1953 (American History)
President Truman announces development of
the hydrogen bomb; Julius and Ethel
Rosenberg are executed; Vice President
Richard Nixon gives his "Checkers" speech;
the Korean conflict ends.
1954 (American History)
Seven thousand square miles of the Pacific
are irradiated by a Bikini Island hydrogen
bomb test, which contaminates Japanese
fishermen; the U.S. Air Force begins flying
French reinforcements to Indochina; the
Brown v. Board of Education ruling by the
Supreme Court outlaws segregation in
public schools; the Senate censures Joseph
McCarthy; the Southeast Asia Treaty
Organization (SEATO) is formed, comprising
the United States, Great Britain, France,
Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines,
Pakistan, and Thailand.
1955 (American History)
Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat
to a white person and begins the Montgomery,
Alabama, bus boycott; the AFL and CIO
merge, electing George Meany the first
president; the United States agrees to help
train the South Vietnamese army.
1956 (American History)
Passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act
inaugurates the first interstate highway
system.
1957 (American History)
Elizabeth Eckford is blocked from becoming
the first black student at Little Rock
Central High School; nine black students
enroll at Little Rock High School with the
help of federal troops; Congress approves
the first bill protecting blacks' right to
vote since the Reconstruction era.
1958 (American History)
The United States launches its first
satellite into orbit.
1959 (American History)
Alaska and Hawaii become the forty-ninth and
fiftieth states, respectively.
1960 (American History)
More than 70,000 black and white students
participate in sit-ins to protest a
Greensboro, North Carolina, incident in
which four blacks were denied service at a
lunch counter.
1961 (American History)
The United States breaks diplomatic ties
with Cuba; the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba
is thwarted; "freedom riders" test
segregation laws in the Deep South; the
Student Non-Violent Coordinating
Committee (SNCC) voter registration drive
begins in the South; the FBI launches its
Socialist Worker Disruption Program; Alan
B. Shepard, Jr. travels on the first U.S.
manned space flight.
1962 (American History)
The United States announces resumption of
atmospheric nuclear testing after test-ban
negotiations fail; James Meredith becomes
the first black to enroll at the University
of Mississippi; President Kennedy orders
a blockade of Cuba, which begins the Cuban
Missile Crisis; John H. Glenn, Jr. becomes
the first American to orbit in space;
Silent Spring, by Rachel Carson, is
published, launching the environmental
movement.
1963 (American History)
The Supreme Court rules that states must
provide free legal counsel for indigents;
blacks in Birmingham, Alabama, begin mass
demonstrations for civil rights; the Supreme
Court bars mandatory Bible readings in
public schools; Martin Luther King, Jr.
leads a civil rights march on Washington,
D.C.; a White House-Kremlin "hot line" is
installed; the War Resisters League
organizes its first demonstration against
U.S. involvement in Vietnam; President
Kennedy is assassinated; Congress passes
the first Clean Air Act.
1964 (American History)
The Twenty-fourth Amendment eliminates the
poll tax in federal elections; a Civil
Rights Act is passed by Congress; Congress
passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, giving
President Lyndon Johnson power to wage war
in Indochina; Martin Luther King, Jr.
receives the Nobel Peace Prize; Panama
suspends relations with the United States,
which offers to negotiate a new Canal
treaty.
1965 (American History)
Malcolm X, black leader, is assassinated;
49 people are arrested during protests at
Chase Manhattan Bank against loans to South
Africa; Martin Luther King, Jr. leads a
march on Selma, Alabama; a massive electric
power failure blacks out most of the
Northeast for the night of November
910; the Supreme Court holds that the "right
of privacy" covers the use of
contraceptives.
1966 (American History)
Federal courts outlaw the last poll tax; the
National Organization for Women (NOW) is
founded; Medicare begins to pay the
health-care expenses of U.S. citizens age
65 and older.
1967 (American History)
Two hundred thousand people march against
the Vietnam War in New York City; Thurgood
Marshall becomes the first black Supreme
Court justice; six days of racial rioting
in Newark, New Jersey, leave 23 dead;
week-long racial rioting in Detroit leaves
43 dead; J. Edgar Hoover, director of the
FBI, authorizes activities against black
nationalist groups.
1968 (American History)
Four black student demonstrators are killed
by police in Orangeburg, South Carolina;
500 unarmed Vietnamese are killed by U.S.
troops in the My Lai massacre; Martin Luther
King, Jr. is assassinated; Robert F.
Kennedy is assassinated hours after his
California primary victory; the American
Indian Movement is founded; a coalition of
women's groups interrupts the Miss America
Pageant in the first mass demonstration of
the modern women's movement; the United
States ends the bombing of North Vietnam;
Representative Shirley Chisholm, from New
York, becomes the first black woman elected
to Congress.
1969 (American History)
The Stonewall rebellion, at a bar in New
York City, starts the modern gay rights
movement; the Woodstock festival in upstate
New York draws 300,000 for "three days of
peace and music"; the Chicago Seven
conspiracy trial begins, in which seven
defendants are accused of inciting a riot
at the 1968 Democratic National Convention;
2 million people nationwide demonstrate
against U.S. involvement in Vietnam; 78
Native Americans seize Alcatraz Island,
demanding it be made into a cultural center;
Black Panthers Fred Hampton and Mark Clark
are murdered by Chicago police; the United
States begins peace talks with Vietnam, as
troop withdrawal starts; Neil Armstrong
becomes the first man to walk on the moon.
1970 (American History)
Chicano activists gather in Crystal City,
Texas, to found La Raza Unida Party; U.S.
postal workers hold their first strike; the
Ohio National Guard kills four students in
a Vietnam War protest at Kent State
University; Mississippi police kill two
black students at Jackson State University;
President Nixon signs a law giving
18-year-olds the right to vote; the United
Farm Workers begins a lettuce boycott; the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is
established; Congress passes the
Occupational Safety and Health Act; the
Chicago Seven are found not guilty, though
five are convicted of crossing state lines
with intent to incite riots; the first two
U.S. women generals are named by President
Nixon.
1971 (American History)
Five hundred thousand people demonstrate in
Washington, D.C., against the Vietnam War
and 14,000 are arrested; Native Americans
leave Alcatraz Island after holding it for
19 months.
1972 (American History)
The Watergate break-in, which leads to the
resignation of President Nixon, takes place;
Nixon makes an unprecedented visit to China;
the Senate approves a constitutional
amendment barring discrimination against
women because of their sex and sends the
measure to the states to ratify.
1973 (American History)
A peace treaty is signed with Vietnam in
Paris; President Nixon signs the Endangered
Species Act; Oglala Sioux occupy Wounded
Knee, South Dakota, and declare an
independent Oglala Sioux nation;
Spiro T. Agnew resigns as Vice President,
and Gerald Ford becomes the first appointed
Vice President; Nixon fires Archibald Cox,
special prosecutor in the Watergate case,
and William Ruckelshaus in the "Saturday
Night Massacre"; Attorney General Elliot
Richardson resigns; five of seven defendants
in the Watergate trial plead guilty, and
two are convicted; the Supreme Court
rules that a state may not prevent
a woman from having an abortion during the
first six months of pregnancy; Congress
overrides Nixon's veto of the War Powers
Act, which curbs a President's power to
commit armed forces to hostilities abroad
without congressional approval.
1974 (American History)
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) lifts the oil embargo; the
Coalition of Labor Union Women is founded;
the House Judiciary Committee votes Articles
of Impeachment against President Nixon, and
Nixon resigns; President Ford pardons former
President Nixon.
1975 (American History)
North Vietnamese troops enter Saigon; the
Mohawk tribe reclaims part of its homeland
in New York State; former Attorney General
John N. Mitchell and ex-presidential
advisers H. R. Haldeman and John D.
Ehrlichman are found guilty in the Watergate
trial; Congress votes $405 million in aid
for South Vietnamese refugees; Vice
President Rockefeller's blue-ribbon panel
uncovers illegal CIA operations, including
records on 300,000 persons and groups
and infiltration by agents into black,
antiwar, and political movements.
1976 (American History)
The death penalty is ruled by the Supreme
Court to be a constitutionally acceptable
form of punishment. The nation celebrates
its Bicentennial.
1977 (American History)
President Carter pardons 10,000 Vietnam
draft resisters; the Department of Energy
is established; the National Women's
Conference convenes in Houston.
1978 (American History)
The "longest walk," by 300 Native Americans,
begins, to protect treaty rights; gay
activist and City Council member Harvey Milk
and Mayor George Moscone are assassinated
in San Francisco; the Senate votes to give
the Panama Canal to Panama. The Middle East
"Framework for Peace" is signed by Egypt
and Israel after a Camp David conference led
by President Carter.
1979 (American History)
The Three Mile Island nuclear power plant
has a near meltdown; 110,000 demonstrate in
Washington, D.C., against nuclear power;
Iranian students seize the U.S. embassy in
Teheran.
1980 (American History)
Thirty thousand people march on Washington
against draft registration; 50,000 march in
Chicago for passage of the Equal Rights
Amendment (ERA); President Carter announces
an embargo on the sale of grain and high
technology to the Soviet Union because of
its invasion of Afghanistan; the U.S.
Olympic Committee votes not to participate
in the Olympic Games in Moscow.
1981 (American History)
Iran releases 52 American hostages held 444
days; 100,000 protest U.S. intervention in
El Salvador; Sandra Day O'Connor is
appointed the first woman Supreme Court
justice; 11,500 air traffic controllers
strike and are fired by President
Reagan; the first reusable spacecraft, the
shuttle Columbia, completes its two-day
mission.
1982 (American History)
The ERA lapses without ratification; the
Vietnam War Memorial is dedicated in
Washington; Anne M. Gorsuch becomes the
first Cabinet-level administrator to be
cited for contempt of Congress, for refusing
to turn over documents from the
Environmental Protection Agency.
1983 (American History)
The Puget Sound Women's Peace Camp is
founded; the Seneca Falls, New York, women's
peace encampment begins; 5,000 U.S. Marines
and Army Rangers invade the island of
Grenada; Congress applies the War Powers
Act, demanding that troops leave Grenada;
Federal District Judge Jack Tanner orders
Washington State to pay female employees
according to "comparable worth"; Dr. Sally
K. Ride becomes the first American woman
astronaut to travel in space; the Supreme
Court holds that the Internal Revenue
Service can deny tax exemptions to private
schools that practice racial discrimination.
1984 (American History)
Dr. Kathryn D. Sullivan becomes the first
woman astronaut to walk in space; Geraldine
A. Ferraro is the first woman candidate on
a major party ticket to run for Vice
President; the CIA acknowledges that it
mined Nicaraguan harbors, touching off a
controversy in Congress; veterans
of the Vietnam War reach an out-of-court
settlement with seven chemical companies
in their class-action suit relating to the
use of Agent Orange; a Salt Lake City
federal judge rules that the United States
had been negligent in its above-ground
testing of nuclear weapons in Nevada
from 1951 to 1962; the Senate votes to
impose economic sanctions on South Africa
in protest against apartheid; Palestinian
Liberation Organization (PLO) hijackers
seize an Italian cruise ship with Americans
abroad, killing one; the United States and
the Soviet Union meet at their first summit
conference in six years; Congress passes
the Gramm-Rudman Act in an attempt to curb
the federal deficit.
1985 (American History)
The United States and the Soviet Union agree
to resume negotiations on reducing nuclear
arms and the space weapons race. Soviet
leader Chernenko dies and is succeeded by
Mikhail Gorbachev. The Supreme Court bars
public school teachers from positions in
parochial schools. A summit meeting
agreement is reached by Reagan and Gorbachev
on stepping up arms control talks and
cultural ties.
1986 (American History)
The first official observance of the birth
day of Martin Luther King, Jr. takes place;
the space shuttle Challenger explodes
moments after liftoff, killing all crew
members, including a civilian, Christa
McAuliffe; the United States bombs Tripoli
and Benghazi, Libya, in retaliation
against terrorist attacks; the antiviral
drug azidothymidine (AZT) is found to
improve the health of some AIDS patients;
U.S. officials announce that AIDS cases and
deaths will increase tenfold in the next
five years; Congress passes antidrug
legislation; the United States imposes more
economic sanctions against South Africa;
President Reagan walks out on arms talks
with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in
Iceland because of a disagreement over the
development of the U.S. "Star Wars" program.
1987 (American History)
The Iran-contra affair dominates public
attention when it is revealed that arms were
traded for hostages and money was funneled
to Swiss bank accounts and used to finance
the contras in Nicaragua; insider trading
is revealed on Wall Street during the bull
market; the United States violates the SALT
II treaty with the Soviet Union; President
Reagan appoints a commission to study
the AIDS crisis and backs AIDS education;
a clean-water act is passed over a
presidential veto; the United States imposes
duties on Japanese imports to curb the trade
deficit; in a landmark case, surrogate
mother Mary Beth Whitehead is denied custody
of "Baby M"; the drug AZT is approved for
fighting AIDS; animal forms are granted
patent rights; U.S. ships are involved in
a conflict in the Persian Gulf; Robert Bork
is nominated by President Reagan to the
Supreme Court but withdraws in the face of
strong opposition; the Federal
communications Commission (FCC) drops
the Fairness Doctrine, which allowed equal
time on radio and television for
controversial issues; "Black Monday" marks
the end of the bull market, when Wall
Street experiences its three biggest
one-day point losses ever.
1988 (American History)
Panamanian General Noriega is indicted on
drug bribery charges, disrupting U.S.Panama
relations. Supreme Court Justice Anthony
Kennedy is confirmed. The U.S.Canada Trade
Agreement approves lower barriers to trade.
The space shuttle Discovery is launched
successfully after delays caused by the 1986
tragedy. The U.S. agrees after a 13-year
hiatus to meet with the Palestine
Liberation Organization.
Government Benefits
The federal government provides financial
assistance to U.S. citizens through a number of
its agencies. You will find most government
offices listed in the phone book under "U.S.
Government." To name just a few of the agencies
that offer aid to U.S. citizens, the Department of
Education oversees student financial assistance,
the Department of Health and Human Services
provides for Medicare/Medicaid, the
Department of Housing and Urban Development
offers federal funds for low-income housing, and
the Small Business Administration offers loans to
small businesses. In this section, the benefits
most Americans can receive from Social Security
and Medicare hospital and medical insurance are
outlined.
Social Security Benefits (U.S.)
Every working American is entitled to retirement
benefits by the age of 62 under the Social
Security program. To become eligible, a worker
pays into the Social Security fund based on his or
her primary insurance amount (PIA), which is
adjusted annually according to the average indexed
monthly earnings (AIME), which are standardized
by law. Social Security benefits increase based on
the Consumer Price Index (CPI). The worker's full
PIA becomes available when he or she retires at 62
or 65, becomes disabled, or dies. In May of 1987,
for example, the average monthly benefits payable
to retirees was $491, while the average amount for
disabled workers was $488. Spouses and families
are also eligible for benefits under certain
circumstances (see below).
To become fully insured and earn retirement
benefits, a worker must have earned one quarter
of coverage for every year since the age of 21 (or
since 1950), up to but not including the time when
he or she reaches age 62, becomes disabled, or
dies. (Some very old persons who do not qualify
by these standards can still receive benefits.)
For every $460 of annual earnings, a worker in
1987 earns one quarter of coverage, with a
maximum of four quarters per year. Disability
benefits are paid to those who are fully insured
plus have 20 quarters of coverage out of the
potential 40 calendar quarters. However, blind
persons qualify simply by being fully insured,
while those people disabled before 31 years of age
can qualify for benefits with a briefer period of
coverage. Survivor benefits are available to the
survivors of those who had at least 6 quarters of
coverage in the 13 quarters preceding death.
Retirement Benefits (U.S.)
At the age of 62, workers can retire and
begin collecting Social Security. Coverage for
retirement at this age, however, is only 80
percent of PIA, the full amount allowable. Those
who retire at age 65 or later receive the full
amount of their PIA. A delayed retirement credit
applies to those workers who reach 65 after 1981.
Their benefits increase 3 percent for each year
between ages 65 and 70 that they did not receive
benefits. This credit is 1 percent a year
for workers reaching 65 before 1982, although the
credit will rise from 3 percent to 8 percent per
year from 1990 to 2008.
Spouses of workers who receive Social Security
retirement or disability benefits may get a
spouse's insurance benefit of half of the worker's
PIA when the spouse reaches 65. As with the
worker's benefits, spouses may begin getting
reduced payments at age 62. Payments are also
available for divorced spouses provided they were
married to the worker for at least 10 years.
Disability Benefits (U.S.)
If a worker is unable to work because he or she is
severely disabled, Social Security offers a
monthly disability payment. The worker receives
the payments until he or she is able to work
again. If the worker is still disabled by age 65,
the payments become those for a retired worker.
If a fully insured worker retires or is disabled,
his or her spouse and children under 18 are
entitled to half of the unreduced benefit.
Benefits usually stop after children reach 18,
though payments can continue until the nineteenth
year provided the child is enrolled in an
elementary or secondary school full time. The
benefits are limited to a maximum amount, and
individual benefits are adjusted after the family
receives the maximum allowed.
Survivor Benefits (U.S.)
Benefits to survivors of fully insured workers are
available under one or more of the five conditions
listed:
1. If the spouse is 65 or older, he or she will
receive the full amount of the deceased's
PIA and may begin collecting at a reduced rate at
age 60. If the worker had begun collecting Social
Security before the age of 65, spouses 62 and over
may collect benefits at the same reduced amount
the worker would have received if alive, but not
less than 82 1/2 percent of the worker's PIA.
If the widow or widower of a deceased worker
becomes disabled before or within seven years
after the spouse's death, the last month he or she
received mother's or father's insurance benefits,
or the last month he or she received the surviving
spouse's benefits, that person may receive 71 1/2
percent of the worker's PIA.
2. As with children of disabled or retired
workers, surviving children receive benefits
until they are 18 or 19 if they are enrolled in
school full time. Benefits for such children are
three-quarters of the amount the worker would have
received had he or she lived to collect full
benefits.
3. The spouse of a deceased worker receives an
additional 75 percent of the PIA provided
he or she cares for a child 16 years of age or
younger; payments also are made to divorcees of a
deceased worker if the marriage lasted at least 10
years. Payments to the spouse stop when the child
reaches age 16, even if payments to the child
continue. Payments will start again when the
spouse is 60 (50 if disabled), unless the spouse
remarries before the age of 60 (50 if disabled).
If the child in care is disabled, benefits
continue after he or she reaches 16 years of age.
4. Parents who were dependent on a child for at
least half of their support and who have reached
the age of 62 may receive payments of 75 percent
of the worker's PIA. A sole surviving parent
receives 82 1/2 percent of the PIA.
5. A cash payment of $255 is made to a
spouse who lived with the deceased worker or to a
spouse or child eligible for immediate monthly
survivor benefits.
Self-Employed and Household Workers (U.S.)
Self-employed persons may receive the same
benefits as other workers, but they must
contribute to Social Security by filing taxes on
a quarterly basis. As with other workers,
self-employed workers earn a quarter of coverage
for every $460 (as of 1987), with a limit of four
quarters per year.
Household workers--maids, cooks, laundry
workers, nursemaids, baby-sitters, chauffeurs,
etc.--also are covered provided they are paid $50
or more in cash per quarter by at least one
employer. Carfare can be applied if it is paid in
cash, but room and board cannot be claimed.
Whether the job is regular, full time, or part
time, household workers can receive this benefit
by showing their Social Security cards to their
employers. The employer will then deduct the
Social Security tax from payment and send it to
the government.
Farm Owners and Workers (U.S.)
Self-employed farmers pay contributions to Social
Security at the same rate as other self-employed
persons. They can report two-thirds of their gross
earnings if their earnings are $2,400 or less.
Those whose gross income is $2,400 or more, and
whose net income is $1,600 or less, can report
$1,600. Cash or crop shares from a tenant or share
farmer can be counted only if the farmer
participated materially in the production or
management.
Farm employees may claim Social Security only if
they earn $150 or more in cash during the year or
if they worked on 20 or more days for cash figured
on a time basis.
Medicare (U.S.)
Medicare provides hospital and medical insurance
for Social Security and Railroad Retirement
beneficiaries 65 and over. It also provides for
those persons who are entitled to receive Social
Security disability benefits for two years and to
those with end-stage renal disease. Persons aged
65 and over not otherwise eligible for hospital
benefits may receive them by paying a special
monthly premium on a voluntary basis. (The
hospital insurance program paid almost $55 billion
in 1987 while about $25 billion was paid
for medical insurance.) Those eligible for
hospital benefits may apply for medical benefits
by paying a monthly premium.
Hospital Insurance (U.S.)
Those eligible for hospital insurance are covered
for the following:
1. Limit of 90 days of hospital care
during an illness beginning with the first
day of the stay at a hospital or a
skilled-nursing facility. The coverage
ends when the patient has not been a bed
patient in the hospital for 60 consecutive
days.
Medicare pays all but $520 for the first 60
days and all but $130 for the remaining days up to
90. A 60-day lifetime reserve can be used after
the initial 90 days. All but $260 a day of
expenses are paid during the reserve days. Mental
hospital pay is limited to 190 days.
2. A stay up to 100 days in a skilled-nursing
facility. Medicare pays for the first 20 days; for
80 days after that, insurance pays all but $65.
However, a three-day hospital stay must precede
the stay in the skilled-nursing facility for
a patient to qualify.
3. All visits by nurses and health workers except
doctors for one year after release from a hospital
or extended-care facility.
Medical Insurance (U.S.)
Medical insurance is available to those who enroll
in the Medicare program and pay a monthly premium
($17.90 in 1987, with the government covering the
rest). The monthly premium is deducted from the
payments persons receive from Social Security,
Railroad Retirement, or Civil Service retirement
benefits. Persons may enroll ten months before age
65 or in a three-month period after their
sixty-fifth birthday. For coverage to begin in the
month a person turns 65, that person must enroll
three months before his or her birthday. Those who
do not enroll during these periods may still
apply, but their premium will be 10 percent higher
for each year they did not enroll.
Except for doctors' charges for X-ray or
clinical laboratory services for hospital-bed
patients, which are paid in full by individuals,
members of this program pay 20 percent (after the
first $75) of the total amount required for the
following services:
1. Hospital, office, or home physicians' and
surgeons' fees.
2. Diagnostic tests, surgical dressings, and
splints; rental or purchase of medical
equipment; the services of a physical therapist
at home or in the office; outpatient physical
therapy received from a hospital or an
extended-care facility for those who
have used up their hospital insurance coverage.
3. Physical therapy furnished under the
supervision of a practicing hospital, clinic,
skilled-nursing facility, or agency.
4. Certain services by podiatrists.
5. All outpatient services of a participating
hospital (including diagnostic tests).
6. Services of licensed chiropractors who
meet government standards, but only for manual
manipulation treatment of the spine and
treatment of subluxation of the spine proven by
X-ray.
7. Supplies related to colostomies.
GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE
The chart below shows the structure of the U. S.
Government and its departments and agencies as of
July 1, 1985. As the chart shows, the Constitution
sets forth the organization of the government,
legislative, executive, and judicial, each have the
power to check the other. The legislative branch,
the Congress, has the power to propose and make
laws; the executive branch contains the office of
the President, who has the ultimate power to
enforce the law and oversee the government; and the
judicial branch explains the law by ruling on the
constitutionality of the laws and trying cases.
┌──────────────────┐
│ THE CONSTITUTION │
└────────┬─────────┘
┌─────────────────────────┤
│ ┌─────────┴──────────┐
│ ┌──────┤ LEGISLATIVE BRANCH ├─────┐
│ │ └────────────────────┘ │
│ │ THE CONGRESS │
│ │ │
│ │ Senate House │
│ │ │
│ │ Architect of the Capitol │
│ │ United States Botanical Garden │
│ │ General Accounting Office │
│ │ Government Printing Office │
│ │ Library of Congress │
│ │ Office of Technology Assessment │
│ │ Congressional Budget Office │
│ │ Copyright Royalty Tribunal │
│ └─────────────────────────────────┘
├─────────────────────────┐
│ ┌────────┴────────┐
│ ┌─────────────┤ JUDICIAL BRANCH ├─────────────┐
│ │ └─────────────────┘ │
│ │ The Supreme Court of the United States │
│ │ │
│ │ United States Courts of Appeals │
│ │ United States District Courts │
│ │ United States Claims Court │
│ │ U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Court │
│ │ United States Court of International Trade │
│ │ Territorial Courts │
│ │ United States Court of Military Appeals │
│ │ United States Tax Court │
│ │ Administrative Office of the │
│ │ United States Courts │
│ │ Federal Judicial Center │
│ └─────────────────────────────────────────────┘
└─────────────────────────┐
┌────────┴─────────┐
┌───────────────┤ EXECUTIVE BRANCH ├───────────────┐
│ └──────────────────┘ │
│ THE PRESIDENT │
│ │
│ Executive Office of the President │
│ │
│ White House Office │
│ Office of Management and Budget │
│ Council of Economic Advisors │
│ National Security Council │
│ Office of Policy Development │
│ Office of the United States Trade Representative │
│ Council on Environmetal Quality │
│ Office of Science and Technology Policy │
│ Office of Administration │
│ │
│ THE VICE PRESIDENT │
└────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────┘
┌────────┬─────────────┬──┴────────┬──────────┐
│ ┌──────┴──────┐┌─────┴────┐┌─────┴────┐┌────┴─────┐
│ │ DEPT. OF ││ DEPT. OF ││ DEPT. OF ││ DEPT. OF │
│ │ AGRICULTURE ││ COMMERCE ││ DEFENSE ││ ENERGY │
│ └─────────────┘└──────────┘└──────────┘└──────────┘
├───────┬────────────┬───────────┬───────────┐
│ ┌─────┴─────┐┌─────┴────┐┌─────┴────┐┌─────┴────┐
│ │ DEPT. OF ││ DEPT. OF ││ DEPT. OF ││ DEPT. OF │
│ │ EDUCATION ││ JUSTICE ││ LABOR ││ STATE │
│ └───────────┘└──────────┘└──────────┘└──────────┘
├────────┬────────────────┬─────────────────┐
│ ┌──────┴───────┐┌───────┴────────┐┌───────┴──────┐
│ │ DEPT. OF ││ DEPT. OF ││ DEPT. OF │
│ │ THE INTERIOR ││ TRANSPORTATION ││ THE TREASURY │
│ └──────────────┘└────────────────┘└──────────────┘
├───────────┬─────────────────────────┐
│ ┌─────────┴───────────┐ ┌──────────┴───────────┐
│ │ DEPT. OF HEALTH │ │ DEPT. OF HOUSING AND │
│ │ AND HUMAN RESOURCES │ │ URBAN DEVELOPMENT │
│ └─────────────────────┘ └──────────────────────┘
└──────────────────────────┐
┌──────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────┐
│ INDEPENDENT ESTABLISHMENTS AND │
│ GOVERNMENT CORPORATIONS │
│ │
│ ACTION │
│ Administrative Conference of the U.S. │
│ African Development Foundation │
│ American Battle Monuments Commission │
│ Appalachian Regional Commission │
│ Board for International Broadcasting │
│ Central Intelligence Agency │
│ Commission on Civil Rights │
│ Commission on Fine Arts │
│ Commodity Futures Trading Commission │
│ Consumer Product Safety Commission │
│ Environmental Protection Agency │
│ Equal Employment Opportunity Commission │
│ Export-Import Bank of the United States │
│ Farm Credit Administration │
│ Federal Communications Commission │
│ Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation │
│ Federal Election Commission │
│ Federal Emergency Management Agency │
│ Federal Home Loan Bank Board │
│ Federal Labor Relations Authority │
│ Federal Maritime Commission │
│ Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service │
│ Federal Reserve System, Board of Governors of the │
│ Federal Trade Commission │
│ General Services Administration │
│ Inter-American Foundation │
│ Interstate Commerce Commission │
│ Merit Systems Protection Board │
│ National Aeronautics and Space Administration │
│ National Archives and Records Administration │
│ National Capital Planning Commission │
│ National Credit Union Administration │
│ National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities │
│ National Labor Relations Board │
│ National Mediation Board │
│ National Science Foundation │
│ National Transportation Safety Board │
│ Nuclear Regulatory Commission │
│ Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission │
│ Office of Personnel Management │
│ Panama Canal Commission │
│ Peace Corps │
│ Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation │
│ Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation │
│ Postal Rate Commission │
│ Railroad Retirement Board │
│ Securities and Exchange Commission │
│ Selective Service System │
│ Small Business Administration │
│ Tennessee Valley Authority │
│ United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency │
│ United States Information Agency │
│ United States International Development │
│ Cooperation Agency │
│ United States International Trade Commission │
│ United States Postal Service │
│ Veterans Administration │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
How a Bill Becomes Law
First Reading
To become law, a bill is introduced by a senator
or representative in the Senate or Congress and is
assigned a number or title by the clerk of the
House. The bill is then assigned to the committee
of the Senate or House that is responsible for the
particular area the bill relates to (for example,
a bill providing aid to farmers would go to the
Committee on Agriculture). The committee debates
the bill, listens to the opinions of interested
people and members of the Congress, and sometimes
offers amendments to the bill. The bill is then
voted on by the committee and, if passed, is sent
back to the clerk of the House. If the bill is
unacceptable to the committee when they receive
it, they may table it, killing consideration of
the bill. This process is called the first reading
of the bill.
Second and Third Readings
In the second reading, the clerk of the House
reads the bill to the House, which then debates it
and suggests amendments. At the third reading,
after the bill is debated, a vote is called for
and the title of the bill is read before the vote.
Passage
If the bill passes, it is sent to the other house,
where it is again debated, amendments are added,
and a vote is taken. If it passes with amendments,
a joint congressional committee (composed of
members of both the House and Senate) tries to
reach a compromise between the two versions of the
bill. If the bill is not passed by the second
house, it dies.
Veto Power
When the bill is passed, it is sent to the
President, who has the power to veto it. He may
send the bill back to the house that originally
produced it, offering his suggestions for
revision. If the President signs the bill, it
becomes a law.
Once back in the house, the bill is debated
again in light of the President's comments and a
roll-call vote is taken. To remain an active bill,
it must receive at least a two-thirds vote from
that house. If it does not, it is defeated. If the
bill does get the support of two-thirds of that
house, it is sent to the other house, where it
again must receive a vote of two-thirds to
override a presidential veto.
The bill is returned to the President. If the
President holds on to the bill for 10 days (not
including Sunday), it automatically becomes law
without his signature. The President may still
kill the bill through a pocket veto if Congress
has adjourned within those 10 days.
Additional Sources of Information (U.S.)
Andriot, Donna; Andriot, Jay; and Andriot, Laurie.
Guide to U.S. Government Statistics. Documents
Index, 1987.
Barone, Michael, and Ujifusa, Grant, eds. The
Almanac of American Politics. National
Journal, 1987.
Barraclough, E. M. C., and Crampton, W. G., eds.
Flags of the World. Frederick Warne, 1978.
Baydo, Gerald. A Synoptic History of America's
Past. Random House, 1981.
Campbell, Gordon. The Book of Flags. Oxford
University Press, 1965.
Congress and the Nation: 1981-1984.
Congressional Quarterly, published every four
years.
Congressional Quarterly Almanac. Congressional
Quarterly, annual.
Congressional Quarterly Weekly. Congressional
Quarterly, weekly.
Consumer's Resource Handbook. U.S. Office
of Consumer Affairs, January 1986.
Cordasco, Francesco. Immigrant Children in
American Schools. A. M. Kelly, 1976.
The Flag Book of the United States. National
Flag Foundation, 1977.
Garwood, Alfred N. Almanac of the Fifty
States. Information Publications, 1987.
Gebhart, John R. Your State Flag. Franklin,
1975.
Gervasi, Tom. Arsenal of Democracy III. Grove
Press, 1984.
Golab, Caroline. Immigrant Destinations.
Temple University Press, 1977.
Hatch, Jane M. The American Book of Days,
3rd ed. H. W. Wilson, 1978.
Lesko, Matthew. Information U.S.A. Viking,
1986.
Manchee, Fred B. Our Heritage of Flowers: The
Official Flowers of the United States and
Canada. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.
McClellan, Grant S. Immigrants, Refugees, and
U.S. Policy. H. W. Wilson, 1981.
Ornstein, Norman, ed. Vital Statistics on
Congress. American Enterprise Institute for
Public Policy Research, 1988.
Smith, Whitney. The Flag Book of the United
States. William Morrow, 1970.
The World
Countries of the World
Afghanistan (Countries)
Area: 647,500 km2 (250,000 sq. mi.)
Capital: Kabul
Government: Communist
Population: 14,183,671
Languages: Pashtu, Afghan Persian, Turkic
Religions: Sunni Muslim, Shi'a Muslim
Albania (Countries)
Area: 28,750 km2 (11,100 sq. mi.)
Capital: Tirana
Government: Communist
Population: 3,085,985
Languages: Albanian Tosk, Greek
Religions: Muslim, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic
(before atheism campaign of 1967)
Algeria (Countries)
Area: 2,381,740 km2 (919,592 sq. mi.)
Capital: Algiers
Government: Republic
Population: 23,460,614
Languages: Arabic, French, Berber
Religions: Sunni Muslim, Christian, Jewish
Andorra (Countries)
Area: 450 km2 (188 sq. mi.)
Capital: Andorra la Vella
Government: Co-principality
Population: 47,973
Languages: Catalan, French, Castilian
Religion: Roman Catholic
Angola (Countries)
Area: 1,246,700 km2 (481,352 sq. mi.)
Capital: Luanda
Government: Marxist
Population: 7,950,244
Languages: Portuguese, Bantu
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, indigenous
beliefs
Anguilla (Countries)
Area: 91 km2 (37 sq. mi.)
Capital: The Valley
Government: British dependent territory
Population: 6,828
Language: English
Religions: Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic
Antigua and Barbuda (Countries)
Area: 440 km2 (171 sq. mi.)
Capital: St. John's
Government: British independent territory
Population: 69,280
Languages: English, local dialects
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
Argentina (Countries)
Area: 2,766,890 km2 (1,072,163 sq. mi.)
Capital: Buenos Aires
Government: Republic
Population: 31,144,775
Languages: Spanish, English, Italian, German,
French
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish
Aruba (Countries)
Area: 193 km2 (75 sq. mi.)
Capital: Oranjestad
Government: Netherlands independent territory
Population: 62,125
Languages: Dutch, Papiamento, Spanish
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish,
Hindu,_Muslim
Australia (Countries)
Area: 7,686,850 km2 (2,985,184 sq. mi.)
Capital: Canberra
Government: Federal parliamentary state affiliated
with Great Britain
Population: 16,072,986
Languages: English, native languages
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
Austria (Countries)
Area: 83,850 km2 (32,563 sq. mi.)
Capital: Vienna
Government: Federal republic
Population: 7,569,283
Language: German
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Bahamas (Countries)
Area: 13,940 km2 (5,414 sq. mi.)
Capital: Nassau
Government: Independent commonwealth affiliated
with Great Britain
Population: 238,817
Languages: English, Creole
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
Bahrain (Countries)
Area: 620 km2 (240 sq. mi.)
Capital: Manama
Government: Traditional monarchy
Population: 464,102
Languages: Arabic, English, Farsi, Urdu
Religions: Shi'a Muslim, Sunni Muslim
Bangladesh (Countries)
Area: 144,000 km2 (55,598 sq. mi.)
Capital: Dhaka
Government: Republic
Population: 107,087,586
Languages: Bangla, English
Religions: Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, Christian
Barbados (Countries)
Area: 430 km2 (166 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bridgetown
Government: Independent sovereign state within
British Commonwealth
Population: 323,839
Language: English
Religions: Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic,
Moravian
Barbuda (Countries)
See Antigua and Barbuda.
Belgium (Countries)
Area: 30,520 km2 (11,783 sq. mi.)
Capital: Brussels
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 9,873,066
Languages: Flemish, French, German
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Belize (Countries)
Area: 22,960 km2 (8,867 sq. mi.)
Capital: Belmopan
Government: Parliamentary independent state of
British Commonwealth
Population: 168,204
Languages: English, Spanish Maya, Carib
Religions: Roman Catholic, Anglican, Seventh-Day
Adventist
Benin (Countries)
Area: 112,620 km2 (43,484 sq. mi.)
Capital: Porto-Novo
Government: Soviet-type civilian government
Population: 4,339,096
Languages: French, Fon, Yoruba, tribal dialects
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Muslim, Christian
Bermuda (Countries)
Area: 50 km2 (19 sq. mi.)
Capital: Hamilton
Government: British dependent territory
Population: 58,033
Language: English
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
Bhutan (Countries)
Area: 47,000 km2 (18,147 sq. mi.)
Capital: Thimphu
Government: Monarchy
Population: 1,472,911
Languages: Dzongkha, other Tibetan dialects,
Nepalese
Religions: Lamaistic Buddhism, Hindu
Bolivia (Countries)
Area: 1,098,580 km2 (424,164 sq. mi.)
Capitals: La Paz and Sucre
Government: Republic
Population: 6,309,642
Languages: Spanish, Quechua, Aymara
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Botswana (Countries)
Area: 600,370 km2 (231,805 sq. mi.)
Capital: Gaborone
Government: Parliamentary republic affiliated with
British Commonwealth
Population: 1,149,141
Languages: English, Setswana
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Christian
Brazil (Countries)
Area: 8,511,970 km2 (3,286,488 sq. mi.)
Capital: Brasilia
Government: Federal republic
Population: 147,094,739
Languages: Portuguese, English
Religion: Roman Catholic
British Indian Ocean Territory (Countries)
Area: 80 km2 (31 sq. mi.)
Capital: None
Government: British colony
Population: No permanent civilian population.
Consists mainly of Diego Garcia and 2,300 other
islands strategically located in the central Indian
Ocean.
British Virgin Islands (Countries)
Area: 150 km2 (58 sq. mi.)
Capital: Road Town
Government: British dependent territory
Population: 12,374
Language: English
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
Brunei (Countries)
Area: 5,770 km2 (2,226 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan
Government: Constitutional sultanate
Population: 249,961
Languages: Malay, English, Chinese
Religions: Muslim, Christian, Buddhist
Bulgaria (Countries)
Area: 110,910 km2 (42,823 sq. mi.)
Capital: Sofia
Government: Communist
Population: 8,960,749
Language: Bulgarian
Religions: Bulgarian Orthodox, Muslim, Jewish,
Roman Catholic, Protestant, Gregorian-Armenian
Burkina Faso (Countries)
Area: 274,200 km2 (105,869 sq. mi.)
Capital: Ouagadougou
Government: Military
Population: 8,276,272
Languages: French, Sudanic tribal dialects
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Muslim, Christian
Burma (Countries)
Area: 676,550 km2 (261,218 sq. mi.)
Capital: Rangoon
Government: Republic
Population: 38,822,484
Languages: Burmese, ethnic dialects
Religions: Buddhist, indigenous beliefs, Muslim,
Christian
Burundi (Countries)
Area: 27,830 km2 (10,747 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bujumbura
Government: Republic
Population: 5,005,504
Languages: Kirundi, French, Swahili
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, indigenous
beliefs, Muslim
Cambodia (Countries)
Area: 181,040 km2 (69,900 sq. mi.)
Capital: Phnom Penh
Government: Communist
Population: 6,536,079
Languages: Khmer, French
Religion: Theravada Buddhist
Cameroon (Countries)
Area: 475,440 km2 (183,569 sq. mi.)
Capital: Yaounde
Government: Unitary republic
Population: 10,255,332
Languages: English, French, African languages
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Christian, Muslim
Canada (Countries)
Area: 9,976,140 km2 (3,851,809 sq. mi.)
Capital: Ottawa
Government: Federal state affiliated with Great
Britain
Population: 25,857,943
Languages: English, French
Religions: Roman Catholic, United Church, Anglican
Cape Verde (Countries)
Area: 4,030 km2 (1,557 sq. mi.)
Capital: Praia
Government: Republic
Population: 344,282
Languages: Portuguese, Crioulo
Religions: Roman Catholic, indigenous beliefs
Cayman Islands (Countries)
Area: 260 km2 (100 sq. mi.)
Capital: George Town
Government: British dependent territory
Population: 23,192
Language: English
Religions: United Church, Anglican, Roman Catholic
Central African Republic (Countries)
Area: 622,980 km2 (240,535 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bangui
Government: Republic (with military rule since
1981)
Population: 2,669,293
Languages: French, Sangho, Arabic, Hunsa, Swahili
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Protestant, Roman
Catholic, Muslim, animist
Chad (Countries)
Area: 1,284,000 km2 (495,750 sq. mi.)
Capital: N'Djamena
Government: Republic
Population: 4,646,054
Languages: French, Arabic, Sara, Sango, African
dialects
Religions: Muslim, indigenous beliefs, Christian
Chile (Countries)
Area: 756,950 km2 (292,258 sq. mi.)
Capital: Santiago
Government: Republic with military rule
Population: 12,448,008
Language: Spanish
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish
China (Countries)
Area: 9,596,960 km2 (3,691,500 sq. mi.)
Capital: Beijing
Government: Communist
Population: 1,064,147,038
Languages: Mandarin, Yue, Wu, Fuzhou, Minan,
Xiang, Gan, Hakka, local dialects
Religions: Confucianist, Taoist, Buddhist, Muslim,
Christian
Christmas Island (Countries)
Area: 130 km2 (50 sq. mi.)
Capital: The Settlement
Government: Australian territory
Population: 2,243
Languages: English, Chinese, Malayan
Colombia (Countries)
Area: 1,138,910 km2 (439,737 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bogota
Government: Republic
Population: 30,660,504
Language: Spanish
Religion: Roman Catholic
Comoros (Countries)
Area: 2,170 km2 (838 sq. mi.)
Capital: Moroni
Government: Independent republic
Population: 415,220
Languages: Shaafi Islam, Malagasy, French
Religions: Sunni Muslim, Roman Catholic
Congo (Countries)
Area: 342,000 km2 (126,360 sq. mi.)
Capital: Brazzaville
Government: People's republic
Population: 2,082,154
Languages: French, Lingala, Kikongo
Religions: Animist, Christian, Muslim
Cook Islands (Countries)
Area: 230 km2 (89 sq. mi.)
Capital: Avarua
Government: Self-governing in association with New
Zealand
Population: 17,898
Language: English
Religion: Cook Islands Christian Church
Costa Rica (Countries)
Area: 50,700 km2 (19,600 sq. mi.)
Capital: San Jose
Government: Democratic republic
Population: 2,811,652
Language: Spanish
Religion: Roman Catholic
Cuba (Countries)
Area: 110,860 km2 (42,827 sq. mi.)
Capital: Havana
Government: Communist
Population: 10,259,473
Language: Spanish
Religion: Roman Catholic
Cyprus (Countries)
Area: 9,250 km2 (3,572 sq. mi.)
Capital: Nicosia
Government: Republic
Population: 683,651
Languages: Greek, Turkish, English
Religions: Greek Orthodox, Muslim, Armenian,
Maronite
Czechoslovakia (Countries)
Area: 127,870 km2 (49,375 sq. mi.)
Capital: Prague
Government: Communist
Population: 15,581,993
Languages: Czech, Slovak, Hungarian
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Eastern
Orthodox
Denmark (Countries)
Area: 43,070 km2 (16,632 sq. mi.)
Capital: Copenhagen
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 5,121,766
Languages: Danish, Faroese, Greenlandic, German
Religions: Protestant, Roman Catholic
Djibouti (Countries)
Area: 22,000 km2 (8,880 sq. mi.)
Capital: Djibouti
Government: Republic
Population: 312,405
Languages: French, Arabic, Somali, Afar
Religions: Muslim, Christian
Dominica (Countries)
Area: 750 km2 (299 sq. mi.)
Capital: Roseau
Government: Independent state within British
Commonwealth
Population: 94,191
Languages: English, French patois
Religions: Roman Catholic, Anglican, other
Protestant faiths
Dominican Republic (Countries)
Area: 48,730 km2 (18,703 sq. mi.)
Capital: Santo Domingo
Government: Republic
Population: 6,960,743
Language: Spanish
Religion: Roman Catholic
East Germany (Countries)
See German Democratic Republic.
Ecuador (Countries)
Area: 283,560 km2 (109,484 sq. mi.)
Capital: Quito
Government: Republic
Population: 9,954,609
Languages: Spanish, Quechua
Religion: Roman Catholic
Egypt (Countries)
Area: 1,001,450 km2 (386,663 sq. mi.)
Capital: Cairo
Government: Republic
Population: 51,929,962
Languages: Arabic, English, French
Religions: Muslim, Coptic Christian
El Salvador (Countries)
Area: 21,040 km2 (8,124 sq. mi.)
Capital: San Salvador
Government: Republic
Population: 5,260,478
Language: Spanish
Religion: Roman Catholic
Equatorial Guinea (Countries)
Area: 28,050 km2 (10,831 sq. mi.)
Capital: Malabo
Government: Republic
Languages: Spanish, pidgin English, Fang
Religions: Christian, pagan
Ethiopia (Countries)
Area: 1,221,900 km2 (471,800 sq. mi.)
Capital: Addis Ababa
Government: Unitary single-party People's Republic
Population: 46,706,229
Languages: Amharic, Tigrinya, Orominga, Arabic,
English
Religions: Muslim, Ethiopan Orthodox, animist
Falkland Islands (Countries)
Area: 12,170 km2 (4,699 sq. mi.)
Capital: Stanley
Government: British dependent territory
Population: 1,821
Language: English
Religion: Anglican
Faroe Islands (Countries)
Area: 1,400 km2 (541 sq. mi.)
Capital: Torshavn
Government: Self-governing province of Denmark
Population: 46,429
Languages: Faroese, Danish
Religion: Evangelical Lutheran
Fiji (Countries)
Area: 18,270 km2 (7,056 sq. mi.)
Capital: Suva
Government: Independent parliamentary state within
British Commonwealth
Population: 727,902
Languages: English, Fijian, Hindustani
Religions: Christian, Hindu, Muslim
Finland (Countries)
Area: 337,030 km2 (130,557 sq. mi.)
Capital: Helsinki
Government: Republic
Population: 4,939,880
Languages: Finnish, Swedish, Lapp, Russian
Religions: Evangelical Lutheran, Greek Orthodox
France (Countries)
Area: 547,030 km2 (211,208 sq. mi.)
Capital: Paris
Government: Republic
Population: 55,596,030
Languages: French, regional dialects
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish,
Muslim
French Guiana (Countries)
Area: 91,000 km2 (35,135 sq. mi.)
Capital: Cayenne
Government: French department
Population: 92,038
Language: French
Religion: Roman Catholic
French Polynesia (Countries)
Area: 4,000 km2 (1,544 sq. mi.)
Capital: Papeete
Government: French territory
Languages: Polynesian, Chinese, French
Religions: Protestant, Roman Catholic
Gabon (Countries)
Area: 267,670 km2 (103,347 sq. mi.)
Capital: Libreville
Government: Republic
Population: 1,039,006
Languages: Fang, Myene, Bateke, Bapounou/Eschira,
Bandjabi
Religions: Christian, Muslim, animist
Gambia (Countries)
Area: 11,300 km2 (4,361 sq. mi.)
Capital: Banjul
Government: Independent republic affiliated with
Senegal
Population: 760,362
Languages: English, Mandinka, Wolof, Fula, local
dialects
Religions: Muslim, Christian, indigenous beliefs
German Democratic Republic (East Germany) (Countries)
Area: 108,330 km2 (41,767 sq. mi.)
Capital: East Berlin
Government: Communist
Population: 16,610,265
Language: German
Religions: Protestant, Roman Catholic
Germany, Federal Republic of (W. Germany) (Countries)
Area: 248,580 km2 (96,025 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bonn
Government: Federal republic
Population: 60,989,419
Language: German
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Ghana (Countries)
Area: 238,540 km2 (92,100 sq. mi.)
Capital: Accra
Government: Military
Population: 13,948,925
Languages: English, Akan, Mole-Dagbani, Ewe,
Ga-Adangbe
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Muslim, Christian
Gibraltar (Countries)
Area: 6.5 km2 (2.5 sq. mi.)
Capital: Gibraltar
Government: British dependent territory
Population: 29,048
Languages: English, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese,
Russian
Religions: Roman Catholic, Anglican, Jewish
Greece (Countries)
Area: 131,940 km2 (50,944 sq. mi.)
Capital: Athens
Government: Parliamentary
Population: 9,987,785
Languages: Greek, English, French
Religions: Greek Orthodox, Muslim
Greenland (Countries)
Area: 2,175,600 km2 (840,000 sq. mi.)
Capital: Godthab
Government: Self-governing province of Denmark
Population: 54,205
Languages: Danish, Eskimo dialects
Religions: Evangelical Lutheran
Grenada (Countries)
Area: 340 km2 (133 sq. mi.)
Capital: St. George's
Government: Independent state affiliated with Great
Britain
Population: 84,748
Languages: English, French
Religions: Roman Catholic, Anglican, other
Protestant faiths
Guadeloupe (Countries)
Area: 1,780 km2 (687 sq. mi.)
Capital: Basse-Terre
Government: French department
Population: 336,354
Languages: French, Creole
Religions: Roman Catholic, Hindu, pagan African
Guatemala (Countries)
Area: 108,890 km2 (42,042 sq. mi.)
Capital: Guatemala
Government: Republic
Population: 8,622,387
Languages: Spanish, Quiche, Cakchiquel, Kekchi,
Amerindian dialects
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, traditional
Mayan
Guernsey (Countries)
Area: 194 km2 (75 sq. mi.)
Capital: St. Peter Port
Government: British dependency
Population: 52,947
Languages: English, French, Norman-French
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
Guinea (Countries)
Area: 245,860 km2 (94,926 sq. mi.)
Capital: Conakry
Government: Republic
Population: 6,737,760
Languages: French, tribal languages
Religions: Muslim, indigenous beliefs, Christian
Guinea-Bissau (Countries)
Area: 36,120 km2 (13,948 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bissau
Government: Republic
Population: 928,425
Languages: Portuguese, Criolo, tribal languages
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Muslim, Christian
Guyana (Countries)
Area: 214,970 km2 (83,000 sq. mi.)
Capital: Georgetown
Government: Cooperative republic
Population: 765,844
Languages: English, Amerindian dialects
Religions: Christian, Hindu, Muslim
Haiti (Countries)
Area: 27,750 km2 (10,714 sq. mi.)
Capital: Port-au-Prince
Government: Provisional military
Population: 6,187,115
Languages: French, Creole
Religions: Roman Catholic, voodoo, Protestant
Honduras (Countries)
Area: 112,090 km2 (43,277 sq. mi.)
Capital: Tegucigalpa
Government: Republic
Population: 4,823,818
Languages: Spanish, Amerindian dialects
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Hong Kong (Countries)
Area: 1,040 km2
Capital: Victoria
Government: British colony (until 1997)
Population: 5,608,610
Languages: Cantonese, English
Religions: Local religions, Christian
Hungary (Countries)
Area: 93,030 km2 (35,921 sq. mi.)
Capital: Budapest
Government: Communist
Population: 10,609,447
Language: Hungarian (Magyar)
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Iceland (Countries)
Area: 103,000 km2 (39,769 sq. mi.)
Capital: Reykjavik
Government: Republic
Population: 244,676
Language: Icelandic
Religions: Evangelical Lutheran, other Protestant
faiths, Roman Catholic
India (Countries)
Area: 3,287,590 km2 (1,269,213 sq. mi.)
Capital: New Delhi
Government: Federal republic
Population: 800,325,817
Languages: Hindi, English, official and local
languages, including 24 used by over 1 million
people
Religions: Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist
Indonesia (Countries)
Area: 1,904,570 km2 (735,272 sq. mi.)
Capital: Jakarta
Government: Republic
Population: 180,425,534
Languages: Indonesian, Javanese, English, Dutch
Religions: Muslim, Protestant, Roman Catholic,
Hindu
Iran (Countries)
Area: 1,648,000 km2 (636,296 sq. mi.)
Capital: Teheran
Government: Theocratic republic
Population: 50,407,763
Languages: Farsi, Turki, Kurdish, Arabic, English,
French
Religions: Shi'a Muslim, Sunni Muslim, Zoroastrian,
Jewish, Christian, Baha'i
Iraq (Countries)
Area: 434,920 km2 (167,925 sq. mi.)
Capital: Baghdad
Government: Republic
Population: 16,970,948
Languages: Arabic, Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian
Religions: Shi'a Muslim, Sunni Muslim, Christian
Ireland (Countries)
Area: 70,280 km2 (27,136 sq. mi.)
Capital: Dublin
Government: Republic
Population: 3,534,553
Languages: Irish Gaelic, English
Religions: Roman Catholic, Anglican
Israel (Countries)
Area: (excluding occupied territories) 20,770 km2
(8,019 sq. mi.)
Capital: Jerusalem
Government: Republic
Population: 4,222,118 (excluding occupied
territories)
Languages: Hebrew, Arabic, English
Religions: Jewish, Muslim, Christian, Druze
See also West Bank and Gaza Strip.
Italy (Countries)
Area: 301,230 km2 (116,318 sq. mi.)
Capital: Rome
Government: Republic
Population: 57,350,850
Languages: Italian, German, French, Slovene
Religion: Roman Catholic
Ivory Coast (Countries)
Area: 322,460 km2 (124,504 sq. mi.)
Capital: Abidjan (also Yamoussoukro)
Government: Republic
Population: 10,766,632
Languages: French, Dioula, tribal languages
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Muslim, Christian
Jamaica (Countries)
Area: 10,990 km2 (4,409 sq. mi.)
Capital: Kingston
Government: Independent state within British
Commonwealth
Population: 2,455,536
Languages: English, Creole
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic, spiritualist cults
Japan (Countries)
Area: 372,310 km2 (143,751 sq. mi.)
Capital: Tokyo
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 122,124,293
Language: Japanese
Religions: Shinto, Buddhist, Christian
Jersey (Countries)
Area: 117 km2 (45 sq. mi.)
Capital: Saint Helier
Government: British dependency
Population: 80,511
Languages: English, French, Norman-French
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
Jordan (Countries)
Area: 97,740 km2 (37,738 sq. mi.)
Capital: Amman
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 2,761,695 (excluding West Bank)
Languages: Arabic, English
Religions: Sunni Muslim, Christian
See also West Bank and Gaza Strip.
Kampuchea (Countries)
See Cambodia.
Kenya (Countries)
Area: 582,650 km2 (224,961 sq. mi.)
Capital: Nairobi
Government: Republic within British Commonwealth
Population: 22,377,802
Languages: English, Swahili, local languages
Religions: Protestant, Roman Catholic, indigenous
beliefs, Muslim
Kiribati (Countries)
Area: 710 km2 (277 sq. mi.)
Capital: Tarawa
Government: Republic
Population: 66,441
Languages: English, Gilbeterese
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Seventh-Day
Adventist, Baha'i
Korea, North (Countries)
Area: 120,540 km2 (46,540 sq. mi.)
Capital: P'yongyang
Government: Communist
Population: 21,447,977
Language: Korean
Religions: Buddhist, Confucianist
Korea, South (Countries)
Area: 98,480 km2 (38,221 sq. mi.)
Capital: Seoul
Government: Republic
Population: 41,986,669
Languages: Korean, English
Religions: Confucianist, Christian, Buddhist,
Shamanist, Chondokyo
Kuwait (Countries)
Area: 17,820 km2 (6,880 sq. mi.)
Capital: Kuwait
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 1,863,615
Languages: Arabic, English
Religions: Sunni Muslim, Shi'a Muslim, Christian,
Hindu, Parsi
Laos (Countries)
Area: 236,800 km2 (91,400 sq. mi.)
Capital: Vientiane
Government: Communist
Population: 3,765,887
Languages: Lao, French, English
Religions: Buddhist, animist
Lebanon (Countries)
Area: 10,400 km2 (3,950 sq. mi.)
Capital: Beirut
Government: Republic
Population: 3,320,522
Languages: Arabic, French, Armenian, English
Religions: Muslim, Druze, Christian
Lesotho (Countries)
Area: 30,350 km2 (11,720 sq. mi.)
Capital: Maseru
Government: Constitutional monarchy affiliated with
British Commonwealth
Population: 1,621,932
Languages: Sethoso, English, Zulu, Xhosa
Religions: Christian, indigenous beliefs
Liberia (Countries)
Area: 111,370 km2 (43,000 sq. mi.)
Capital: Monrovia
Government: Republic, with military rule
Population: 2,384,189
Languages: English, Niger-Congo
Religions: Christian, Muslim, indigenous beliefs
Libya (Countries)
Area: 1,759,540 km2 (679,363 sq. mi.)
Capital: Tripoli
Government: Republic, with military rule
Population: 3,306,825
Languages: Arabic, Italian, English
Religion: Sunni Muslim
Liechtenstein (Countries)
Area: 160 km2 (62 sq. mi.)
Capital: Vaduz
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 27,074
Languages: German, Alemannic
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Luxembourg (Countries)
Area: 2,586 km2 (999 sq. mi.)
Capital: Luxembourg
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 366,127
Languages: Luxembourgian, German, French, English
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish
Macau (Countries)
Area: 20 km2 (8 sq. mi.)
Capital: Macau
Government: Chinese territory under Portuguese
administration
Population: 437,822
Languages: Chinese, Portuguese
Religions: Buddhist, Roman Catholic
Madagascar (Countries)
Area: 587,040 km2 (226,658 sq. mi.)
Capital: Antananarivo
Government: Presidential with Supreme Revolutionary
Council
Population: 10,730,754
Languages: French, Malagasy
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Christian, Muslim
Malawi (Countries)
Area: 118,480 km2 (45,747 sq. mi.)
Capital: Lilongwe
Government: Republic
Population: 7,437,911
Languages: English, Chichewa, Tombuka
Religions: Protestant, Roman Catholic, Muslim,
indigenous beliefs
Malaysia (Countries)
Area: 329,750 km2 (127,581 sq. mi.)
Capital: Kuala Lumpur
Government: Constitutional monarchy with hereditary
rulers in peninsular states
Population: 16,068,516
Languages: Malay, English, Tamil, Mandarin, Hakka,
tribal dialects
Religions: Muslim, Buddhist, Hindu, Christian,
Confucianist
Maldives (Countries)
Area: 300 km2 (115 sq. mi.)
Capital: Male
Government: Republic
Population: 195,837
Languages: Dihevi, English
Religion: Sunni Muslim
Mali (Countries)
Area: 1,240,000 km2 (478,767 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bamako
Government: Republic
Population: 8,422,810
Languages: French, Bambara
Religions: Muslim, indigenous beliefs, Christian
Malta (Countries)
Area: 320 km2 (122 sq. mi.)
Capital: Valletta
Government: Independent republic affiliated with
British Commonwealth
Population: 361,704
Languages: Maltese, English
Religion: Roman Catholic
Man, Isle of (Countries)
Area: 588 km2 (227 sq. mi.)
Capital: Douglas
Government: Self-governing British dependent
territory
Population: 64,934
Languages: English, Manx Gaelic
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
Martinique (Countries)
Area: 1,100 km2 (425 sq. mi.)
Capital: Fort-de-France
Government: French department
Population: 344,922
Languages: French, Creole patois
Religions: Roman Catholic, Hindu, pagan African
Mauritania (Countries)
Area: 1,030,700 km2 (1,781,000 sq. mi.)
Capital: Nouakchott
Government: Republic
Population: 1,863,208
Languages: Hasaniya, Arabic, French, Toucouleur,
Fula, Sarakole, Wolof
Religion: Muslim
Mauritius (Countries)
Area: 1,860 km2 (790 sq. mi.)
Capital: Port Louis
Government: Independent state affiliated with Great
Britain
Population: 1,079,627
Languages: English, Creole, French, Hindi, Urdu,
Hakka, Bojpoori
Religions: Hindu, Roman Catholic, Anglican, Muslim
Mayotte (Countries)
Area: 375 km2 (145 sq. mi.)
Capital: Dzaoudzi
Government: French territory
Population: 64,481
Languages: Mahorian, French
Religions: Muslim, Christian
Mexico (Countries)
Area: 1,972,550 km2 (756,062 sq. mi.)
Capital: Mexico City
Government: Federal republic
Population: 81,860,566
Language: Spanish
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Monaco (Countries)
Area: 1.9 km2 (.7 sq. mi.)
Capital: Monaco
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 28,641
Languages: French, English, Italian, Monegarque
Religion: Roman Catholic
Mongolia (Countries)
Area: 1,565,000 km2 (604,250 sq. mi.)
Capital: Ulaanbaatar
Government: Communist
Population: 2,011,066
Languages: Khalkha Mongol, Turkic, Russian,
Chinese
Religions: Tibetan Buddhist, Muslim
Montserrat (Countries)
Area: 100 km2 (38.6 sq. mi.)
Capital: Plymouth
Government: British indepenent territory
Population: 12,076
Language: English
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
Morocco (Countries)
Area: 446,550 km2 (177,115 sq. mi.)
Capital: Rabat
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 23,361,495
Languages: Arabic, French, Berber dialects
Religions: Muslim, Christian, Jewish
Mozambique (Countries)
Area: 801,950 km2 (309,496 sq. mi.)
Capital: Maputo
Government: People's republic
Population: 14,535,805
Languages: Portuguese, indigenous languages
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Christian, Muslim
Namibia (Countries)
Area: 824,290 km2 (318,259 sq. mi.)
Capital: Windhoek
Government: South African administrative
protectorate
Population: 1,273,263
Languages: Afrikaans, German, English, indigenous
languages
Religions: Christian, indigenous beliefs
Nauru (Countries)
Area: 20 km2 (8 sq. mi.)
Capital: None (government agencies in Yaren
District)
Government: Republic
Population: 8,748
Languages: Nauruan, English
Religions: Protestant, Roman Catholic
Nepal (Countries)
Area: 140,800 km2 (54,362 sq. mi.)
Capital: Kathmandu
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 17,814,294
Languages: Nepali, local languages
Religions: Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Christian
Netherlands (Countries)
Area: 37,310 km2 (15,770 sq. mi.)
Capitals: Amsterdam and The Hague
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 14,641,554
Language: Dutch
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Netherlands Antilles (Countries)
Area: 960 km2 (371 sq. mi.)
Capital: Willemstad (on Curacao)
Government: Autonomous Netherlands territory
Population: 182,218
Languages: Dutch, Papiamento, English, Spanish
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish,
Seventh-Day Adventist
New Caledonia (Countries)
Area: 19,060 km2 (7,359 sq. mi.)
Capital: Noumea
Government: French territory
Population: 149,795
Languages: French, Melanesian-Polynesian dialects
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
New Zealand (Countries)
Area: 268,680 km2 (103,736 sq. mi.)
Capital: Wellington
Government: Independent state within
British_Commonwealth
Population: 3,307,239
Languages: English, Maori
Religions: Christian, Hindu, Confucian
Nicaragua (Countries)
Area: 130,000 km2 (50,193 sq. mi.)
Capital: Managua
Government: Republic
Population: 3,319,059
Languages: Spanish, English, Amerindian dialects
Religion: Roman Catholic
Niger (Countries)
Area: 1,267,000 km2 (489,191 sq. mi.)
Capital: Niamey
Government: Republic (under military control)
Population: 6,988,540
Languages: French, Hausa, Djerma
Religions: Muslim, indigenous beliefs, Christian
Nigeria (Countries)
Area: 923,770 km2 (356,669 sq. mi.)
Capital: Lagos
Government: Military
Population: 108,579,764
Languages: English, Hausa, Yoruba, Ibo, Fulani
Religions: Muslim, Christian, indigenous beliefs
Niue (Countries)
Area: 260 km2 (100 sq. mi.)
Capital: Alofi
Government: Self-governing territory affiliated
with New Zealand
Population: 2,602
Languages: Polynesian/Tongan-Samoan, English
Religions: Niuean, Mormon, Roman Catholic,
Jehovah's Witness, Seventh-Day Adventist
Norfolk Island (Countries)
Area: 40 km2 (15.4 sq. mi.)
Capital: Kingston
Government: Australian territory
Population: 2,537
Languages: English, Norfolk
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic, Seventh-Day Adventist
Norway (Countries)
Area: 324,220 km2 (149,411 sq. mi.)
Capital: Oslo
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 4,178,545
Languages: Norwegian, Lapp, Finnish
Religions: Evangelical Lutheran, other Protestant
_faiths, Roman Catholic
Oman (Countries)
Area: 212,460 km2 (82,030 sq. mi.)
Capital: Muscat
Government: Absolute monarchy
Population: 1,226,923
Languages: Arabic, English, Baluchi, Zanzibari
Religions: Ibadhi Muslim, Sunni Musim, Shi'a
Muslim, Hindu
Pakistan (Countries)
Area: 803,940 km2 (310,404 sq. mi.)
Capital: Islamabad
Government: Federal republic
Population: 104,600,799
Languages: Urdu, English, Punjabi, Sindhi, Pushtu,
Baluchi
Religions: Muslim, Christian, Hindu
Panama (Countries)
Area: 77,080 km2 (29,762 sq. mi.)
Capital: Panama
Government: Centralized republic
Population: 2,274,833
Languages: Spanish, English
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Papua New Guinea (Countries)
Area: 461,690 km2 (178,704 sq. mi.)
Capital: Port Moresby
Government: Independent parliamentary state within
British Commonwealth
Population: 3,395,000
Languages: English, pidgin English, Motu, local
dialects
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Paraguay (Countries)
Area: 406,750 km2 (157,048 sq. mi.)
Capital: Asuncion
Government: Republic
Population: 4,251,924
Languages: Spanish, Guarani
Religions: Roman Catholic, Mennonite, other
Protestant faiths
Peru (Countries)
Area: 1,285,220 km2 (496,225 sq. mi.)
Capital: Lima
Government: Republic
Population: 20,738,218
Languages: Spanish, Quechua, Aymara
Religion: Roman Catholic
Philippines (Countries)
Area: 300,000 km2 (115,831 sq. mi.)
Capital: Manila
Government: Republic
Population: 61,524,761
Languages: Pilipino (Tagalog), English
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Muslim,
Buddhist
Pitcairn Islands (Countries)
Area: 47 km2 (18 sq. mi.)
Capital: Adamstown
Government: British dependent territory
Population: 62
Languages: English, English/Tahitian dialect
Religion: Seventh-Day Adventist
Poland (Countries)
Area: 312,680 km2 (120,727 sq. mi.)
Capital: Warsaw
Government: Communist
Population: 37,726,699
Language: Polish
Religions: Roman Catholic, Uniate, Greek Orthodox,
Protestant
Portugal (Countries)
Area: 92,080 km2 (35,553 sq. mi.)
Capital: Lisbon
Government: Republic
Population: 10,314,727
Language: Portuguese
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant
Qatar (Countries)
Area: 11,000 km2 (4,416 sq. mi.)
Capital: Doha
Government: Traditional monarchy
Population: 315,741
Languages: Arabic, English
Religion: Muslim
Reunion (Countries)
Area: 2,510 km2 (969 sq. mi.)
Capital: Saint-Denis
Government: French department
Population: 549,697
Languages: French, Creole
Religion: Roman Catholic
Rumania (Countries)
Area: 237,500 km2 (91,699 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bucharest
Government: Communist
Population: 22,936,503
Languages: Rumanian, Hungarian, German
Religions: Rumanian Orthodox, Roman Catholic,
Protestant, Jewish
Russian (Countries)
See Soviet Union.
Rwanda (Countries)
Area: 26,340 km2 (10,169 sq. mi.)
Capital: Kigali
Government: Republic (under military control)
Population: 6,811,336
Languages: Kingyarwanda, French, Kiswahili
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Muslim,
indigenous beliefs
St. Christopher and Nevis (Countries)
Area: 360 km2 (139 sq. mi.)
Capitals: Basseterre; Charlestown
Government: Independent state within British
Commonwealth
Population: 54,775
Language: English
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
St. Helena (Countries)
Area: 310 km2 (120 sq. mi.)
Capital: Jamestown
Population: 8,524
Language: English
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic
St. Lucia (Countries)
Area: 620 km2 (238 sq. mi.)
Capital: Castries
Government: Independent state within British
Commonwealth
Population: 152,305
Languages: English, French patois
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Anglican
St. Vincent and the Grenadines (Countries)
Area: 340 km2 (150 sq. mi.)
Capital: Kingstown
Government: Independent state within British
Commonwealth
Population: 131,215
Languages: English, French patois
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic, Seventh-Day Adventist
San Marino (Countries)
Area: 60 km2 (23 sq. mi.)
Capital: San Marino
Government: Republic
Population: 22,791
Language: Italian
Religion: Roman Catholic
Sao Tome and Principe (Countries)
Area: 960 km2 (372 sq. mi.)
Capital: Sao Tome
Government: Republic
Population: 114,025
Language: Portuguese
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Seventh-Day
Adventist
Saudi Arabia (Countries)
Area: 2,149,690 km2 (830,000 sq. mi.)
Capital: Riyadh
Government: Monarchy
Population: 14,904,794
Language: Arabic
Religion: Muslim
Senegal (Countries)
Area: 196,190 km2 (75,954 sq. mi.)
Capital: Dakar
Government: Republic affiliated with Gambia
Population: 7,064,025
Languages: French, Wolof, Pulaar, Dialo, Mandingo
Religions: Muslim, indigenous beliefs, Christian
Seychelles (Countries)
Area: 280 km2 (119 sq. mi.)
Capital: Victoria
Government: Republic within British Commonwealth
Population: 67,552
Languages: English, French, Creole
Religions: Roman Catholic, Anglican
Sierra Leone (Countries)
Area: 71,740 km2 (27,699 sq. mi.)
Capital: Freetown
Government: Republic
Population: 3,754,088
Languages: English, Mende, Krio, Temne
Singapore (Countries)
Area: 580 km2 (239 sq. mi.)
Capital: Singapore
Government: Republic within British Commonwealth
Population: 2,616,236
Languages: Chinese, Tamil, Malay, English
Religions: Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, Hindu,
Sikh, Taoist, Confucianist
Solomon Islands (Countries)
Area: 28,450 km2 (10,983 sq. mi.)
Capital: Honiara
Government: Independent parliamentary state within
British Commonwealth
Population: 301,180
Languages: Melanesian, pidgin English, local
dialects
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic, Seventh-Day Adventist
Somalia (Countries)
Area: 637,660 km2 (246,201 sq. mi.)
Capital: Mogadishu
Government: Republic
Population: 7,741,859
Languages: Somali, Arabic, Italian, English
Religion: Sunni Muslim
South Africa (Countries)
Area: 1,221,040 km2 (471,445 sq. mi.)
Capital: Pretoria, Cape Town
Government: Republic
Population: 34,313,356
Languages: Afrikaans, English, Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana
Religions: Christian, Hindu, Muslim
Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)
Area: 22,402,200 km2 (8,649,498 sq. mi.)
Capital: Moscow
Government: Communist
Population: 284,008,160
Languages: Russian, local languages and dialects
Religions: Russian Orthodox, Muslim, Jewish,
Protestant, Georgian Orthodox, Roman Catholic
Spain (Countries)
Area: 504,750 km2 (194,897 sq. mi.)
Capital: Madrid
Government: Parliamentary monarchy
Population: 39,000,084
Languages: Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Galician,
Basque
Religion: Roman Catholic
Sri Lanka (Countries)
Area: 65,610 km2 (25,332 sq. mi.)
Capital: Colombo
Government: Republic
Population: 16,406,576
Languages: Sinhala, Tamil, English
Religions: Buddhist, Hindu, Christian, Muslim
Sudan (Countries)
Area: 2,505,810 km2 (967,500 sq. mi.)
Capital: Khartoum
Government: Republic
Population: 23,524,622
Languages: Arabic, Nubian, Ta Bedawie, Nilotic,
Nilo-Hamitic, Sudanic, English
Religions: Sunni Muslim, indigenous beliefs,
Christian
Suriname (Countries)
Area: 163,270 km2 (63,037 sq. mi.)
Capital: Paramaribo
Government: Military-civilian rule
Population: 388,636
Languages: Dutch, English, Sranan Tongo, Javanese
Religions: Hindu, Muslim, Roman Catholic,
Protestant
Swaziland (Countries)
Area: 17,360 km2 (6,704 sq. mi.)
Capital: Mbabane
Government: Independent monarchy within British
Commonwealth
Population: 715,160
Languages: English, siSwati
Religions: Christian, indigenous beliefs
Sweden (Countries)
Area: 449,960 km2 (173,654 sq. mi.)
Capital: Stockholm
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 8,383,026
Languages: Swedish, Lapp, Finnish
Religions: Evangelical Lutheran, Roman Catholic
Switzerland (Countries)
Area: 41,290 km2 (15,943 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bern
Government: Federal republic
Population: 6,572,739
Languages: German, French, Italian, Romansch
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish
Syria (Countries)
Area: 185,180 km2 (71,498 sq. mi.)
Capital: Damascus
Government: Republic
Population: 11,147,763
Languages: Arabic, Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic,
Circassian, French, English
Religions: Sunni Muslim, Alawite Druze, other
Muslim sects, Christian
Taiwan (Countries)
Area: 35,980 km2 (13,892 sq. mi.)
Capital: Taipei
Government: Republic
Population: 19,768,035
Languages: Mandarin, Taiwanese, Hakka
Religions: Buddhist, Confucianist, Taoist,
Christian
Tanzania (Countries)
Area: 945,090 km2 (364,900 sq. mi.)
Capital: Dar es Salaam
Government: Republic
Population: 23,502,472
Languages: Swahili, English
Religions: Christian, Muslim, indigenous beliefs
Thailand (Countries)
Area: 514,000 km2 (198,457 sq. mi.)
Capital: Bangkok
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 53,645,823
Languages: Thai, English, local dialects
Religions: Buddhist, Muslim
Togo (Countries)
Area: 56,790 km2 (21,162 sq. mi.)
Capital: Lome
Government: Republic
Population: 3,228,635
Languages: French, Ewe, Mina, Dagoma, Kabye
Religions: Indigenous beliefs, Christian, Muslim
Tokelau (Countries)
Area: 10 km2 (4 sq. mi.)
Capital: None (various local government agencies)
Government: New Zealand territory
Population: 1,713
Languages: Polynesian Tokelauan, English
Religions: Protestant, Roman Catholic
Tonga (Countries)
Area: 700 km2 (270 sq. mi.)
Capital: Nuku'alofa
Government: Constitutional monarchy within British
Commonwealth
Population: 98,689
Languages: Tongan, English
Religion: Christian
Trinidad and Tobago (Countries)
Area: 5,130 km2 (1,981 sq. mi.)
Capital: Port-of-Spain
Government: Parliamentary democracy
Population: 1,250,839
Languages: English, Hindi, French, Spanish
Religions: Roman Catholic, Hindu, Protestant,
Muslim
Tunisia (Countries)
Area: 163,610 km2 (63,170 sq. mi.)
Capital: Tunis
Government: Republic
Population: 7,561,641
Languages: Arabic, French
Religions: Muslim, Christian, Jewish
Turkey (Countries)
Area: 780,580 km2 (301,382 sq. mi.)
Capital: Ankara
Government: Republican parliamentary democracy
Population: 52,987,778
Languages: Turkish, Kurdish, Arabic
Religions: Sunni Muslim, Christian, Jewish
Turks and Calicos Islands (Countries)
Area: 430 km2 (166 sq. mi.)
Capital: Grand Turk (Cockburn Town)
Government: British dependent territory
Population: 9,052
Language: English
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic, Seventh-Day Adventist
Tuvalu (Countries)
Area: 26 km2 (9.5 sq. mi.)
Capital: Funafuti
Government: Independent state within British
Commonwealth
Population: 8,329
Languages: Tuvaluan, English
Religion: Protestant
Uganda (Countries)
Area: 236,040 km2 (91,134 sq. mi.)
Capital: Kampala
Government: Republic
Population: 15,908,896
Languages: English, Lugandan, Swahili, Bantu,
Nilotic
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Muslim,
indigenous beliefs
United Arab Emirates (Countries)
Area: 83,600 km2 (32,278 sq. mi.)
Capital: Abu Dhabi
Government: Federation of six Arab states
Population: 1,846,373
Languages: Arabic, Farsi, English, Hindi, Urdu
Religions: Muslim, Christian, Hindu
United Kingdom (Countries)
Area: 244,820 km2 (94,525 sq. mi.)
Capital: London
Government: Constitutional monarchy
Population: 56,845,195
Languages: English, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic
Religions: Anglican, other Protestant faiths, Roman
Catholic, Jewish
United States (Countries)
Area: 9,372,610 km2 (3,615,122 sq. mi.)
Capital: Washington, DC
Government: Federal republic
Population: 243,084,000
Language: English
Religions: Protestant, Roman Catholic, Jewish
Uruguay (Countries)
Area: 176,220 km2 (68,037 sq. mi.)
Capital: Montevideo
Government: Republic
Population: 2,964,952
Language: Spanish
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish
USSR (Countries)
See Soviet Union.
Vanuatu (Countries)
Area: 14,760 km2 (5,700 sq. mi.)
Capital: Port-Vila
Government: Republic
Population: 149,652
Languages: English, French, Bislama
Religion: Christian
Vatican City (Countries)
Area: 0.438 km2 (108.7 acres)
Capital: Vatican City
Government: Independent papal state
Population: 738
Languages: Italian, Latin
Religion: Roman Catholic
Venezuela (Countries)
Area: 912,050 km2 (352,144 sq. mi.)
Capital: Caracas
Government: Republic
Population: 18,291,134
Languages: Spanish, local Amerindian dialects
Religion: Roman Catholic
Vietnam (Countries)
Area: 329,560 km2 (128,402 sq. mi.)
Capital: Hanoi
Government: Communist
Population: 63,585,121
Languages: Vietnamese, French, Chinese, English,
Khmer, tribal dialects
Religions: Buddhist, Confucianist, Taoist, Roman
Catholic, indigenous beliefs, Muslim, Protestant
Wallis and Futuna Islands (Countries)
Area: 200 km2 (77 sq. mi.)
Capital: Mata-Utu
Government: French territory
Population: 14,593
Languages: French, Polynesian dialects
Religion: Roman Catholic
West Bank and Gaza Strip (Countries)
Area: 5,860 km2 (2,263 sq. mi.)
Capital: None
Government: Israeli military rule
Population: 1,529,235
Languages: Arabic, Hebrew, English
Religions: Muslim, Jewish, Christian
Western Sahara (Countries)
Area: 266,000 km2 (102,703 sq. mi.)
Capital: None
Government: Moroccan administrative protectorate
Population: 250,000
Languages: Hassaniya Arabic, Moroccan Arabic
Religion: Muslim
Western Samoa (Countries)
Area: 2,860 km2 (1,097 sq. mi.)
Capital: Apia
Government: Constitutional monarchy under native
chief
Population: 175,084
Languages: Samoan, English
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Seventh-Day
Adventist, Mormon
West Germany (Countries)
See Germany, Federal Republic of.
Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) (Countries)
Area: 195,000 km2 (75,290 sq. mi.)
Capital: Sanaa
Government: Republic
Population: 6,533,265
Languages: Arabic
Religion: Muslim
Yemen People's Democratic Republic (South Yemen)
Area: 332,970 km2 (128,560 sq. mi.)
Capital: Yemen
Government: Republic
Population: 2,451,131
Language: Arabic
Religions: Sunni Muslim, Christian, Hindu
Yugoslavia (Countries)
Area: 255,800 km2 (98,766 sq. mi.)
Capital: Belgrade
Government: Communist
Population: 23,430,830
Languages: Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Macedonian,
Albanian, Hungarian
Religions: Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic,
Muslim, Protestant
Zaire (Countries)
Area: 2,345,410 km2 (905,365 sq. mi.)
Capital: Kinshasa
Government: Republic
Population: 32,342,947
Languages: French, English, Lingala, Swahili,
Kingwana, Kikongo, Tshiluba
Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Kimbanguist,
Muslim, indigenous beliefs
Zambia (Countries)
Area: 752,610 km2 (290,586 sq. mi.)
Capital: Lusaka
Government: One-party state
Population: 7,281,738
Languages: English, local languages and dialects
Religions: Christian, Muslim, Hindu, indigenous
beliefs
Zimbabwe (Countries)
Area: 390,580 km2 (150,804 sq. mi.)
Capital: Harare
Government: Independent parliamentary democracy
Population: 9,371,972
Languages: English, Shona, Si Ndebele
Religions: Christian, indigenous beliefs, Muslim
Great Events in World History
1,600,000 B.C. Earliest humanlike ancestors.
250,000 B.C. Earliest Homo sapiens.
70,000 B.C. Neanderthals use stone tools and
fire.
40,000 B.C. Ice Age ends: Cro-Magnons
migrate into Europe.
30,000 B.C. Neanderthals disappear.
28,000 B.C. Asians cross land bridge
between Asia and America.
20,000 B.C. European cave art exists.
8000 B.C. Agriculture develops in Near
East.
7000 B.C. First walled cities, pottery,
and use of metals appear.
4236 B.C. Earliest date on Egyptian
calendar.
3760 B.C. Earliest date on Jewish
calendar.
3100 B.C. Egypt united under first
dynasty.
3000 B.C. Phoenicians migrate to eastern
Mediterranean.
2780 B.C. First Egyptian pyramid
2697 B.C. Huang-ti becomes "Yellow
Emperor" of China.
2150 B.C. Aryans invade Indus Valley.
2000 B.C. Bronze age begins in Europe.
1760 B.C. Shang dynasty is founded in
China.
1400 B.C. Iron Age begins in Asia.
1250 B.C. Exodus of Israelites from
Egypt.
1193 B.C. Greeks destroy city of Troy.
1050 B.C. Dorian tribes invade
Peloponnesus.
1000 B.C. Hebrews establish Jerusalem as
capital of Israel.
994 B.C. Teutons migrate to Rhine River
area.
815 B.C. Carthage is founded by
Phoenicians.
776 B.C. First Olympic Games are held in
Greece.
753 B.C. Rome is founded.580 B.C.
King Nebuchadnezzar builds
Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
563 B.C. Buddha is born.
551 B.C. Confucius is born.
336 B.C. Alexander III, king of
Macedonia, begins world
conquest.
321 B.C. Chandragupta founds first
empire of India.
215 B.C. Great Wall of China is built.
55 B.C. Julius Caesar conquers Gaul,
invades Britain.
5 B.C. Jesus Christ is born.
30 A.D. Jesus is executed.
64 A.D. Rome under Nero is partly
destroyed by fire.
79 A.D. Eruption of Vesuvius destroys
Pompeii.
268 A.D. Goths invade Greece.
370 A.D. Asian Huns invade Europe.
406 A.D. Vandals invade Gaul; Romans
leave Britain.
410 A.D. Goths sack Rome.
425 A.D. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes
invade Britain.
433 A.D. Attila the Hun begins reign.
476 A.D. Goths depose Western Roman
emperor, Romulas Augustus;
Middle Ages begin.
570 A.D. Muhammad is born at Mecca.
620 A.D. Vikings invade Ireland.
632 A.D. Muhammad dies.
634 A.D. Muslims begin conquest of Near
East and Africa.
711 A.D. Moors invade Spain.
768 A.D. Reign of Charlemagne begins.
800 A.D. Charlemagne is crowned Holy
Roman emperor.
814 A.D. Arabic numerals are
established.
862 A.D. Viking Russ tribe seizes
control of northern Russia.
874 A.D. Vikings settle Iceland.
900 A.D. Spain begins to drive out
Moors.
932 A.D. Printed books from woodblocks
are developed in China.
981 A.D. Eric the Red begins settlement
of Greenland.
1000 A.D. Vikings begin exploration of
North America.
1021 Muslim Druse sect is found by
Caliph al-Hakim.
1054 Byzantine Empire breaks with
Holy Roman Church.
1066 Normans conquer Britain.
1096 First Crusade is launched to
oust Muslims from Holy Land.
1148 Second Crusade begins.
1156 Civil wars are fought in Japan.
1161 Chinese use explosives in
warfare.
1189 Last recorded Viking voyage to
North America.
1190 Genghis Khan begins conquest of
Asia.
1204 Crusaders capture and sack
Constantinople.
1210 Mongols invade China.
1215 England's Magna Carta is signed
by King John.
1228 Sixth Crusade results in
capture of Jerusalem.
1240 Mongols capture Moscow, destroy
Kiev.
1260 Kublai Khan founds Yuan dynasty
in China.
1271 Marco Polo leaves for China to
visit Kublai Khan.
1274 Mongols attempt invasion of
Japan but fail.
1291 Crusades end as Muslims rout
Christians in Palestine.
1336 Civil war lasting until 1392
begins in Japan.
1337 Hundred Years' War between
England and France begins.
1347 Bubonic plague spreads from
China to Cyprus.
1348 Black Death (plague) spreads to
England.
1351 Plague reaches Russia; Europe's
toll tops 25 million.
1363 Tamerlane begins conquest of
Asia.
1368 Mongol dynasty ends in China;
Ming dynasty begins.
1390 Turks conquer Asia Minor.
1402 Tamerlane conquers Ottoman
Empire.
1431 Jeanne d'Arc is burned as a
witch at Rouen.
1453 Hundred Years' War ends; fall
of Constantinople ends
Byzantine Empire; Middle Ages
end; Renaissance begins.
1454 Movable-type printing press is
introduced.
1455 England's War of the Roses is
fought.
1478 Spanish Inquisition is begun by
Ferdinand and Isabella; period
of exploration by Europeans
begins.
1482 Portuguese colonize African
Gold Coast.
1488 Bartholomew Diaz sails around
Cape of Good Hope.
1492 Christopher Columbus discovers
West Indies.
1497 John Cabot discovers
Newfoundland.
1500 Pedro Cabral discovers Brazil.
1502 Columbus discovers Nicaragua.
1505 Portuguese colonize Mozambique.
1507 First world map showing
"America" is produced.
1513 Balboa discovers the Pacific
Ocean.
1517 Martin Luther's Reformation
begins.
1522 Magellan circumnavigates the
world.
1534 Henry VIII is excommunicated
and founds Church of England.
1541 Hernando de Soto discovers
Mississippi River.
1557 Portuguese establish colony at
Macao.
1558 Elizabeth I becomes queen of
England.
1582 Gregorian calendar is
introduced.
1588 Spanish Armada is defeated by
English fleet.
1595 Dutch colonize Guinea Coast.
1600 English East India Company is
chartered.
1602 Dutch East India Company is
formed.
1604 Russia begins settlement in
Siberia.
1606 Willem Jansz discovers
Australia.
1607 English found North American
colony of Virginia.
1610 Hudson Bay is discovered.
1618 Thirty Years' War begins.
1619 First black slaves arrive in
Virginia.
1620 English Pilgrims reach Cape
Cod, found Plymouth Colony.
1626 Dutch found New Amsterdam (New
York).
1633 Colony of Connecticut is
established.
1637 Russian explorers reach Pacific
coast of Siberia.
1642 French found Montreal in
Canada; King Charles I battles
Parliament in English Civil
War.
1652 English and Dutch begin series
of wars.
1654 Portuguese take Brazil from
Dutch.
1655 England takes Jamaica from
Spain.
1661 English take control of Bombay
in India.
1664 England takes New Amsterdam
(New York) from Dutch; Manchu
dynasty is founded in China.
1683 Turkish army overruns Vienna.
1686 English establish Dominion of
New England.
1704 English seize Gibraltar from
Spain.
1759 England captures Quebec in war
with France.
1763 Peace of Paris gives Canada to
England.
1767 Townshend Acts tax American
colony imports; Mason-Dixon
line is established.
1770 Boston Massacre occurs;
Townshend Acts are repealed
except for tea tax.
1773 Boston Tea Party occurs.
1774 First Continental Congress of
American colonies is held.
1775 War of Independence begins in
Massachusetts.
1776 Declaration of Independence is
signed.
1781 English General Cornwallis
surrenders at Yorktown.
1783 Treaty of Paris ends American
War of Independence; India Act
allows English control of
India.
1787 United States Constitution
takes effect.
1788 First English convicts are
transported to Australia.
1789 George Washington becomes first
U.S. President; French
Revolution begins.
1791 U.S. Bill of Rights takes
effect.
1792 France is declared a republic;
Denmark becomes first country
to ban slave trade.
1793 First free settlers migrate to
Australia; French Reign of
Terror exists.
1798 Napoleon Bonaparte invades
Egypt, capturing Cairo.
1803 Louisiana Purchase is
completed.
1804 Lewis and Clark begin
exploration of American
Northwest; Bonaparte crowns
himself Napoleon I, emperor of
France.
1806 Napoleon dissolves Holy Roman
Empire.
1807 England abolishes slave trade.
1812 War is fought between England
and United States; Napoleon
invades Russia, occupies
Moscow.
1814 Napoleon is exiled to Elba.
1815 Napoleon is defeated at Battle
of Waterloo and exiled again.
1819 Florida is ceded by Spain to
United States.
1820 Missouri Compromise on U.S.
slave states becomes effective.
1823 Monroe Doctrine against foreign
activity in Americas is
adopted.
1833 England bans slavery and child
labor in factories.
1836 Texas secedes from Mexico;
battle of the Alamo is fought.
1846 War is fought between Mexico
and United States; Irish potato
famine is suffered, with deaths
reaching 1 million.
1848 Revolutions erupt throughout
Europe; Marx and Engels produce
The Communist Manifesto; United
States takes California and New
Mexico from Mexico.
1854 Crimean War is fought; Japan
ends isolation, signs U.S.
commercial treaty.
1860 South Carolina secedes from
United States.
1861 U.S. Civil War begins.
1863 President Abraham Lincoln
abolishes slavery in United
States.
1865 U.S. Civil War ends; President
Lincoln is assassinated.
1867 United States acquires Alaska
from Russia; Dominion of Canada
is established.
1868 Japan ends 700-year shogun
rule, begins modernization.
1869 Suez Canal is completed.
1870 Franco-Prussian War is fought.
1883 Germany introduces health
insurance.
1898 War between Spain and United
States is fought over Cuba;
United States acquires Hawaiian
Islands.
1900 Boxer Rebellion erupts in
China, hundreds of Europeans
are killed; England and Germany
begin arms race.
1902 Boer War ends; England acquires
South African states.
1903 Panama, aided by U.S., secedes
from Colombia.
1904 Russo-Japanese War is fought;
Japan acquires Korea and
Manchuria.
1906 Earthquake destroys much of San
Francisco.
1909 England introduces old-age
pensions; assembly line
production is introduced in
Detroit.
1912 Chinese revolution ends Manchu
dynasty, republic is formed;
passenger ship Titanic sinks,
with 1,513 lives lost; Balkan
wars begin.
1914 World War I follows
assassination of Austrian
archduke; trench warfare
begins; airplanes are used as
weapons; Panama Canal opens.
1915 Poison gas is first used by
Germans in warfare.
1916 Tanks are first used by England
in warfare.
1917 United States joins Allies in
European fighting; Bolsheviks
led by Lenin seize power in
Russia; Balfour Declaration
urges Jewish state in
Palestine.
1918 Russia withdraws from World War
I fighting; Kaiser of Germany
abdicates; Germany forms
republic after revolt;
armistice ends World War I.
1919 Treaty of Versailles causes
heavy German economic losses;
League of Nations is founded;
Sinn Fein rebellion erupts in
Ireland; Benito Mussolini
introduces fascism in Italy;
Gandhi begins passive
resistance movement in India.
1920 Civil war is fought in Ireland;
England establishes a
Palestinian Jewish state;
United States prohibits use of
alcoholic beverages.
1921 Irish Free State is
established.
1922 Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics is established;
fascists march on Rome;
Mussolini is named prime
minister of Italy.
1923 Adolf Hitler forms National
Socialist Party in Germany;
Turkey becomes a republic after
revolt ends sultanate.
1924 Joseph Stalin succeeds Lenin as
leader of Soviet Union; new
Chinese government is formed
with communist members.
1927 Purge of communists leads to
civil war in China.
1929 U.S. stock market crash
triggers worldwide depression;
fighting begins between Jews
and Arabs in Palestine.
1931 Japanese organize puppet state
in Manchuria; Spain becomes a
republic, King Alfonso is
deposed; British Empire status
is changed to British
Commonwealth.
1933 Adolf Hitler is named
chancellor of Germany, and
National Socialists (Nazis)
purge opposition; Stalin purges
opposition in Russia; United
States ends prohibition
experiment.
1934 Hitler assumes title of
"Fuhrer"; Mao Tse-tung starts
"Long March" of Chinese
communists.
1935 Italy invades Ethiopia; Hitler
renounces Versailles Treaty and
begins open rearmament.
1936 Germany reoccupies Rhineland
and forms "Axis" with Italy;
General Franco begins Spanish
Civil War; King Edward of
England abdicates to marry an
American.
1937 Japanese invade China,
capturing Peking and Shanghai;
German aircraft bomb Spain in
support of Franco.
1938 Germany annexes Austria and
gains Czechoslovakia's
Sudetenland in Munich Pact.
1939 Germany annexes Czechoslovakia;
Franco captures Madrid, and
Spanish Civil War ends; Italy
invades Albania; Germany
invades Poland, triggering
World War II; Russo-Finnish War
ends in defeat of Finland.
1940 Germany invades France,
Belgium, Denmark, and Norway;
Battle of Britain prevents
German invasion of England;
Japan joins Berlin-Rome Axis;
Italy invades Greece and joins
war against England and France.
1941 Germany invades Russia; Italy
and Germany invade Egypt;
Japanese attack U.S. bases in
Hawaii; U.S. joins Allies in
war against Axis powers.
1942 Japanese capture Philippines
and much of Southeast Asia;
Battle of Midway alters naval
balance in Pacific; Germans
begin retreat in North Africa.
1943 United States begins recapture
of Japanese Pacific bases;
Allies invade Sicily; Italians
surrender; Germans surrender to
Russians at Stalingrad.
1944 Allies invade Normandy; German
retreat begins; Allies liberate
Rome, Paris, and Brussels; U.S.
forces defeat Japanese navy in
Leyte Gulf.
1945 Yalta Conference is attended by
United States, Great Britain,
and Soviet Union; Germany
surrenders; Mussolini is
assassinated; Hitler commits
suicide; atom bombs are dropped
at Hiroshima and Nagasaki;
Japan surrenders, ending World
War II; Potsdam Conference
discusses postwar settlements.
1946 League of Nations is replaced
by United Nations; Ho Chi Minh
begins war against French in
Indochina; German war crimes
trials are held in Nuremberg.
1947 Marshall Plan aids European war
recovery; Arabs reject plan for
separate Jewish and Arab
states; independent states of
India and Pakistan are formed.
1948 Nation of Israel is
established; war begins between
Israel and Arab League; Gandhi
is assassinated by a Hindu
extremist; communists gain
control of Czechoslovakia;
Korea is divided into North
Korea and South Korea; Berlin
is blockaded by Soviet Union.
1949 Mao Tse-tung's communists gain
control of China; Nationalist
Chinese move government to
Taiwan; South Africa
establishes apartheid policy;
Germany is divided into East
Germany and West Germany; North
American Treaty Organization
(NATO) is formed.
1950 North Korean troops invade
South Korea.
1951 Chinese communists occupy
Tibet.
1952 Jawaharlal Nehru is elected
first prime minister of India.
1953 Stalin dies and is replaced by
Malenkov; USSR announces
development of hydrogen bomb;
Vietnamese Viet Minh forces
invade Laos.
1954 Viet Minh troops defeat French
at Dien Bien Phu; Vietnam is
divided into North Vietnam and
South Vietnam; South-East Asia
Treaty Organization (SEATO) is
formed.
1955 European communist states sign
Warsaw Pact; Argentine
President Juan Peron is exiled.
1956 Soviets crush anti-Russian
uprising in Hungary; Egypt
nationalizes Suez Canal,
British withdraw; Israel
invades Egypt.
1957 Russia launches first
artificial satellite, Sputnik
I; Fidel Castro begins
revolution in Cuba; European
Common Market is formed.
1958 Egypt, Syria, and Yemen form
United Arab States; Charles de
Gaulle is elected president of
France; United States launches
an artificial satellite,
Explorer I.
1959 Fidel Castro overthrows
Fulgencio Batista and becomes
Cuban premier.
1960 Many European colonies in
Africa gain independence.
1961 Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba
fails; Russian Yuri Gargarin is
first man in space; communists
build Berlin Wall; United
States sends thousands of
military advisers to Vietnam.
1962 Soviet missile crisis threatens
in Cuba; Algeria gains
independence from France.
1963 Russian Valentina Kareshkova is
first woman in space; President
Kennedy is assassinated; United
States, Great Britain, and
Soviet Union sign nuclear test
ban treaty; North Vietnamese
boats attack U.S. Navy in Gulf
of Tonkin; President Lyndon
Johnson orders attack on North
Vietnam.
1965 U.S. Marines are sent to
Vietnam; U.S. aircraft begin
air strikes against North
Vietnam.
1966 China undergoes "Cultural
Revolution."
1967 Six-Day War between Israel and
Arabs is fought; Israel
occupies Jerusalem and West
Bank of Jordan River.
1968 Martin Luther King, Jr. is
assassinated; U.S. senator
Robert Kennedy is assassinated;
Soviets invade Czechoslovakia
to crush uprising; Vietcong
stage Tet offensive in South
Vietnam; U.S. troop deployment
in Vietnam passes 500,000;
North Korea seizes U.S. Navy
ship Pueblo.
1969 U.S. military begins withdrawal
from Vietnam; U.S. astronauts
land on the moon.
1970 U.S. troops invade Cambodia.
1971 Communist China replaces Taiwan
in United Nations.
1972 President Nixon travels to
China to renew relations; Great
Britain takes over direct rule
of Northern Ireland.
1973 Military coup in Chile
overthrows Marxist government;
Arabs attack Israel in October
War; participants in Vietnam
War sign peace agreements.
1974 Watergate scandal ends Nixon
term in White House.
1975 Vietnam War ends with communist
seizure of Saigon; communists
take control of government of
Cambodia; U.S. and Soviet
spacecraft link up in space.
1978 United States votes to return
Canal Zone to Panama in year
2000.
1979 Ayatollah Khomeini gains
control of Iran; Shah of Iran
leaves; Iranians seize U.S.
Embassy in Teheran, holding
hostages; Soviet Union invades
Afghanistan; Israel and Egypt
sign peace treaty.
1980 War begins between Iran and
Iraq; Solidarity trade union
confronts communists in Poland.
1981 United States begins series of
space shuttle flights;
assassination attempt is made
on President Ronald Reagan;
assassination attempt is made
on Pope John Paul II; Sandra
Day O'Connor becomes first
woman on U.S. Supreme Court.
1982 Falklands War between Argentina
and England is fought; Israel
withdraws troops from Egypt's
Sinai.
1983 Soviets shoot down South Korean
airliner, and 269 are killed;
Sally Ride is first U.S. woman
in space; bomb kills 237 U.S.
Marines in Beirut, Lebanon;
U.S. forces invade island of
Grenada.
1984 Marines withdraw from Beirut;
Geraldine Ferraro is nominated
as U.S. vice president.
1985 Mikhail Gorbachev becomes
leader of Soviet Union.
1986 U.S. space shuttle explodes in
flight, killing crew; Corazon
Aquino is elected president of
Philippines; U.S. aircraft raid
Libya in retaliation for
terrorism; nuclear accident
occurs at Soviet Chernobyl
power station.
1987 U.S. stock market crashes with
508-point loss; Iran-contra aid
scandal involves U.S.
officials; United States and
Soviet Union agree to reduce
nuclear arms; U.S. Navy ship
Stark is attacked in Persian
Gulf.
1988 Panamanian General Noriega is
indicted in U.S. Courts,
disrupting Panamanian economy;
cease-fire agreement is signed
between Nicaraguan government
and contra leaders; Iran
accepts peace plan offer by
Iraq; King Hussein abandons
claim to West Bank territory
and cedes authority to
Palestine Liberation
Organization; George Bush is
elected President; U.S. space
shuttle program makes first two
successful trips since 1986
disaster; Palestine Liberation
Organization recognizes Israel
as a state and renounces
terrorism; Soviet leader
Gorbachev agrees to reduce
European forces in U.N.
address; devastating earthquake
in Armenia kills tens of
thousands.
Significant Figures in World History
3500 B.C. Menes unites kingdoms of Egypt,
introduces irrigation.
2780 B.C. Imhotep designs first step
pyramid at Saqqara, Egypt.
2700 B.C. Cheops builds Great Pyramid at
Giza.
2697 B.C. Huang-ti becomes legendary
"Yellow Emperor" of China.
2640 B.C. Si Ling-chi introduces silk
production in China.
2340 B.C. Sargon establishes Semitic and
Sumerian civilizations.
1750 B.C. Hammurabi, Babylonian king,
issues code of laws.
1270 B.C. Abulfaraj, Syrian historian,
compiles first encyclopedia.
1250 B.C. Moses, Hebrew lawgiver, leads
Israelites from Egypt to
Canaan.
1100 B.C. Pa-out-She, Chinese scholar,
compiles first dictionary.
1000 B.C. David, first king of Judah,
establishes Jerusalem as
capital.
760 B.C. Homer, poet, writes Iliad and
Odyssey.
730 B.C. Ahaz, prince of Judah, invents
sundial.
700 B.C. Sennacherib, Syrian king,
builds first aqueduct.
673 B.C. Terpander, Greek musician,
develops stringed instruments.
600 B.C. Lao-tze develops philosophy of
Taoism.
563 B.C. Siddhartha Gautama develops
Buddhist philosophy.
559 B.C. Cyrus establishes Persian
Empire.
551 B.C. K'ung Fu-tzu develops
philosophy of Confucianism.
550 B.C. Anaximander invents star charts
and model of spherical Earth.
540 B.C. Pythagoras, mathematician,
studies musical harmonics.
508 B.C. Cleisthenes introduces
democratic government in
Athens.
485 B.C. Aeschylus writes first early
Greek tragedies.
480 B.C. Sophocles writes early Greek
tragic poems.
460 B.C. Pericles establishes democracy
in Athens.
450 B.C. Euripides writes Greek
tragedies; Herodotus becomes
known as father of history.
440 B.C. Democritus introduces concept
of atomic structure of matter;
Hippocrates becomes known as
father of medicine; Socrates
teaches that virtue and
knowledge are identical.
400 B.C. Aristophanes introduces
political satire in Greek
comedies; Plato writes
dialogues that help shape
Western thought.
340 B.C. Aristotle contributes to
development of logical thought.
334 B.C. Alexander the Great begins
conquest of known world.
321 B.C. Chandragupta forms first great
empire in India.
300 B.C. Euclid develops deductive
system of mathematics; Meng-tse
spreads philosophy of Confucius
in Orient.
250 B.C. Aristrarchus develops modern
concept of universe.
236 B.C. Asoka, emperor of India,
becomes Buddhist missionary.
221 B.C. Shih Hwang-ti, first emperor of
China, begins Great Wall.
220 B.C. Archimedes, Greek
mathematician, develops physics
and mechanics.
218 B.C. Hannibal leads army from Spain
over Alps to Italy.
160 B.C. Hipparchus develops
trigonometry.
78 B.C. Julius Caesar begins his climb
as ruler of Roman Empire.
63 B.C. Cicero, orator, compiles record
of Roman life.
38 B.C. Horace, Roman poet, writes
classic satires.
30 B.C. Virgil, Roman poet, writes
Aeneid.
27 B.C. Caesar Augustus becomes first
Roman emperor.
5 B.C. Jesus of Nazareth, Christian
leader, is born.
32 A.D. Saul of Tarsus begins early
Christian missionary work.
105 A.D. T'sai Lun invents paper
manufacture.
132 A.D. Bar-Kokhba leads Roman revolt
and makes Israel independent.
250 A.D. Mani founds Manichaeism,
religion popular in Middle
Ages.
312 A.D. Constantine becomes first
Christian emperor of Rome.
391 A.D. Augustine begins work as
founder of Christian theology.
451 A.D. Attila, leader of Huns, invades
Europe.
520 A.D. Aryabhata is among first to use
algebra.
550 A.D. Justinian codifies Roman law in
Corpus Juris Civilis.
570 A.D. Muhammad, founder of Islam, is
born.
768 A.D. Charlemagne becomes king of the
Franks.
786 A.D. Harun al-Rashid makes Baghdad
center of Islamic culture.
886 A.D. Alfred the Great introduces
24-hour-day measurement system.
936 A.D. Otto I establishes Holy Roman
Empire.
995 A.D. Fugiware Michinaga founds
Japanese Golden Age.
1002 Leif Ericsson establishes North
American colony.
1054 Abdallah ben Yassim spreads
Islamic culture in Africa.
1066 William the Conqueror
establishes Norman culture in
Britain.
1096 Pope Urban II begins series of
Crusades to free Holy Land.
1162 Thomas a Becket becomes
archbishop of Canterbury.
1190 Temujin (Genghis Khan) begins
conquest of Asia and Near East.
1210 Francis of Assisi founds
Franciscan religious order.
1215 King John signs Magna Carta,
foundation of modern democracy.
1250 Roger Bacon, English
philosopher, invents magnifying
lens.
1259 Thomas Aquinas develops
official Roman Catholic
philosophy.
1264 Simon de Montfort founds House
of Commons in Parliament.
1269 Petrus Peregrinus invents
360-degree compass.
1271 Marco Polo begins 24-year
journey to court of Kublai
Khan.
1295 King Edward I summons first
representative Parliament.
1326 Rinaldo di Villamagna invents
firing cannon.
1368 Chu Yuan-chang overthrows
Mongols, founds Ming dynasty.
1369 Tamerlane becomes ruler of land
from India to Egypt.
1387 Geoffrey Chaucer writes
Canterbury Tales.
1419 Henry the Navigator begins
period of African explorations.
1429 Jeanne d'Arc, peasant girl,
leads French army against
English.
1454 Johannes Gutenberg perfects
movable-type printing press.
1474 Regiomontanus develops lunar
nautical navigation.
1478 Ferdinand and Isabella
establish Spanish Inquisition.
1482 Leonardo da Vinci, painter,
creates many modern devices.
1489 Johann Widman introduces (+)
and (-) signs in mathematics.
1492 Christopher Columbus discovers
West Indies and South America.
1497 John Cabot discovers
Newfoundland.
1498 Vasco da Gama sails around Cape
of Good Hope to India.
1510 Michelangelo paints ceiling of
Sistine Chapel.
1513 Italo Balboa discovers Pacific
Ocean at Panama.
1517 Martin Luther posts 95 theses
protesting church indulgences.
1519 Ferdinand Magellan begins first
trip to circumnavigate world.
1521 Hernan Cortes conquers Aztec
and claims Mexico for Spain.
1531 Francisco Pizarro begins
conquest of Peru.
1532 Niccolo Machiavelli outlines
principles of power politics.
1534 John Calvin begins Reformation
program in Switzerland;
Henry VIII is excommunicated
and creates Church of England;
Ignatius Loyola founds Society
of Jesus (Jesuits).
1540 Nicolaus Copernicus revises
heliocentric planet system
theory.
1547 Ivan IV becomes first czar of
united Russia.
1558 Elizabeth I rules England at
start of colonization period.
1582 Pope Gregory XIII introduces
calendar still in use.
1585 Galileo Galilei develops
understanding of many laws of
nature.
1588 Francis Drake leads English
destruction of Spanish fleet.
1589 John Harington invents flush
toilet.
1590 Hans Janssen makes compound
telescope and microscope
lenses.
1592 William Shakespeare emerges as
successful British dramatist.
1605 Francis Bacon, essayist,
teaches inductive reasoning.
1607 John Smith founds English
colony at Jamestown, Virginia.
1610 William Harvey discovers blood
circulation.
1611 Johannes Kepler explains
movements of the planets.
1614 John Napier develops
logarithmic calculator.
1628 Rene Descartes, mathematician
and philosopher, founds
analytical geometry.
1631 William Oughtred introduces
multiplication (x) sign;
Rembrandt becomes famous as
prodigious portrait painter.
1642 Blaise Pascal invents
calculating machine.
1644 Oliver Cromwell leads revolt
against English King Charles I.
1656 Isaac Newton develops
principles of integral
calculus.
1683 Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovers
bacteria with microscope.
1688 John Locke outlines political
revolutionary theory.
1696 Peter the Great leads Russian
modernization program.
1703 Gottfied Leibnitz invents
binary system of arithmetic.
1730 Voltaire leads struggle for
French justice and
enlightenment.
1733 John Kay starts Industrial
Revolution with flying shuttle.
1747 Johann S. Bach creates library
of vocal and instrumental
music.
1750 Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
philosopher, writes on
political economy.
1766 Leonhard Euler founds science
of pure mathematics.
1769 Wolfgang Mozart begins career
as musical composer. James Watt
advances Industrial Revolution
with steam engine.
1770 Immanuel Kant, philosopher,
supports American colonies.
1776 Thomas Jefferson prepares
Declaration of Independence;
Adam Smith writes Wealth of
Nations; George Washington
leads revolution of English
colonies.
1781 Benjamin Franklin begins peace
negotiations with British.
1783 Montgolfier brothers introduce
hot-air balloon travel.
1785 Charles Coulomb discovers rule
of electrical forces.
1789 Georges Danton leads French
Revolution; Antoine Lavoisier
founds modern scientific
chemistry.
1791 Thomas Paine publishes Rights
of Man.
1793 Maximilien Robespierre leads
French Reign of Terror;
Touissaint-Breda leads revolt
ending French slavery.
1795 Ludwig van Beethoven begins
career as musical composer.
1796 Edward Jenner introduces
vaccination against smallpox;
Napoleon Bonaparte begins
conquest of Europe and
Mediterranean.
1798 Thomas Malthus publishes essay
on population explosion; Eli
Whitney, cotton-gin inventor,
introduces mass production.
1800 Alessandro Volta invents method
for storing electricity.
1803 John Dalton explains atomic
nature of matter.
1804 Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark begin exploration of
Louisiana Purchase.
1807 Robert Fulton develops
steam-powered water travel.
1809 David Ricardo develops modern
concepts of finance.
1811 Simon Bolivar frees part of
South America from Spanish
rule.
1812 Bryan Donkin develops
canned-food process.
1815 Duke of Wellington crushes
Napoleon in battle of Waterloo.
1819 Hans Christian Oersted
discovers electromagnetism.
1821 Michael Faraday develops
electric motor principle; Jose
San Martin frees Chile and
Argentina from Spanish control.
1823 James Monroe issues doctrine
against foreign interference.
1825 George Stephenson develops
steam-locomotive land travel.
1833 Charles Babbage invents
differential calculating
machine.
1836 Sam Houston gains independence
of Texas from Mexico.
1837 Louis Daguerre invents
photography.
1840 Samuel Morse patents electric
telegraph system.
1846 William Morton introduces use
of anesthetic gases.
1848 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
produce Communist Manifesto.
1854 Matthew Perry ends Japanese
isolation with U.S. trade
treaty.
1855 Florence Nightingale introduces
battlefield nursing care.
1857 Gregor Mendel begins
experiments on hereditary
factors.
1859 Charles Darwin publishes Origin
of Species; Edwin Drake
develops technique for drilling
oil wells; Etienne Lenoir
invents internal combustion
engine.
1860 Giuseppe Garibaldi begins
nationalist movements in
Europe.
1862 Richard Gatling invents machine
gun.
1863 Abraham Lincoln proclaims
abolition of slavery in United
States.
1864 James Maxwell begins studies of
electromagnetic radiation;
Alfred Nobel invents
nitroglycerine and dynamite
explosives; Louis Pasteur
disproves doctrine of
spontaneous generation.
1867 Joseph Lister introduces
antiseptic practices in
hospitals.
1869 Ferdinand de Lesseps completes
Suez Canal construction.
1871 Otto von Bismarck defeats
France and forms new German
Reich.
1874 Paul Cezanne leads
Impressionist movement in
painting.
1875 Leo Tolstoy becomes established
as great Russian author.
1876 Alexander Graham Bell patents
the telephone.
1877 Nikolaus Otto invents
four-stroke internal combustion
engine.
1879 Thomas Edison develops
carbon-filament electric light.
1882 William Jenny designs first
"skyscraper" office building.
Robert Koch discovers cause of
tuberculosis and cholera.
1885 Gottlieb Daimler builds first
gasoline-powered automobile.
1889 Herman Hollerith develops
data-processing computer.
1892 Rudolph Diesel invents
compression-ignition (diesel)
engine; Dmitri Ivanovsky
discovers viruses.
1894 Sun Yat-sen begins move to end
Manchu dynasty in China;
Guglielmo Marconi invents
wireless telegraphy.
1895 Sigmund Freud develops method
of psychoanalysis; Louis and
Auguste Lumiere introduce
motion pictures; Wilhelm
Roentgen discovers X-rays;
Joseph Thomson discovers the
electron.
1896 Henri Becquerel develops
science of radioactivity.
1897 Ferdinand Braun invents the
cathode-ray tube; Ivan Pavlov
conducts conditioned-reflex
experiments; Ronald Ross
discovers cause of malaria, the
mosquito.
1898 Christiaan Eijkman discovers
vitamin-deficiency diseases.
1900 Max Planck introduces general
quantum theory.
1901 Karl Landstiner develops human
blood-group system.
1902 William Bayliss and Ernest
Starling discover hormones;
William Carrier invents air
conditioning for workplace;
Pierre and Marie Curie discover
radium.
1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright fly
first practical airplane.
1904 John Fleming invents ratio
vacuum tube.
1905 Albert Einstein develops
special theory of relativity.
1907 Pablo Picasso and Georges
Braque found Cubist movement in
art.
1908 William d'Arcy discovers oil in
Persian Gulf region.
1909 Fritz Haber develops synthetic
ammonia process.
1910 Thomas Morgan introduces gene
theory of heredity.
1913 Niels Bohr applies quantum
theory to subatomic physics;
Henry Ford develops moving
assembly line for mass
production.
1914 George Goethals completes
Panama Canal.
1915 Walter Wilson and William
Tritton develop British army
tank.
1917 Paul Langevin and Robert Boyle
develop SONAR detection system;
Vladimir Lenin leads Bolshevik
revolution in Russia.
1919 Mahatma Gandhi begins
passive-resistance campaign in
India; Benito Mussolini founds
Italian fascist movement.
1920 Woodrow Wilson helps form
League of Nations.
1921 Karel Capek introduces concept
of robots.
1924 Josef Stalin succeeds Lenin as
leader of Soviet Union; Louis
de Broglie develops
particle-wave dualism theory.
1925 Erwin Schrodinger develops
science of wave mechanics.
1927 Niels Bohr proposes fission of
uranium with neutrons; Werner
Heisenberg discovers
uncertainty principle in
physics; Chiang Kai-shek
succeeds Sun Yat-sen in China.
1928 Andre Bocage develops
tomography technique for CAT
scans; Alexander Fleming
discovers penicillin;
Chandrasekhara Raman discovers
particles in visible light.
1929 Hans Berger develops
"brain-wave"
electroencephalograph; Max
Knoll and Ernst Ruska invent
electron microscope; Joseph
Stalin succeeds Lenin as leader
of Soviet Union.
1930 Vannevar Bush develops
mechanical differential
analyzer; Ernest Lawrence and
N. E. Edlefsen invent nuclear
cyclotron.
1931 Karl Jansky develops radio
astronomy; Wolfgang Pauli
discovers neutrino; Vladimir
Zworykin invents television
camera.
1932 Wallace Carothers and Arnold
Collins invent nylon and
neoprene; John Cockcroft and
Ernest Walton bombard lithium
with protons; William
Kouwenhaven invents heart
defibrillator; Harold Urey
discovers deuterium (heavy
hydrogen).
1933 Edwin Armstrong develops
frequency modulation (FM)
radio; Adolf Hitler becomes
dictator of Nazi Germany;
Franklin D. Roosevelt becomes
thirty-second president of
United States.
1934 Mao Tse-tung leads China's
communist army on "Long March."
1935 Heinrich Focke develops first
practical helicopter; John
Keynes authors concept of
government role in economy;
Hans von Ohain and Frank
Whittle invent jet aircraft
engines.
1936 Francisco Franco begins Spanish
Civil War.
1938 Edward Kendall and Philip Hench
develop corticosteroid drugs.
1940 Winston Churchill becomes prime
minister of Great Britain. John
Randall invents cavity
magnetron (radar tube).
1941 Peter Goldmark develops color
television system.
1942 Enrico Fermi builds first
nuclear reactor.
1943 Max Newman and T. H. Flowers
build electronic computer;
Selman Waksman develops
streptomycin.
1944 Howard Aiken builds
sequence-controlled calculator.
1945 William Kolff develops
artificial kidney; J. R.
Oppenheimer develops first
atomic bomb.
1946 John Mauchly and J. P. Eckert
build ENIAC electronic
computer; Ho Chi Minh begins
war against France and United
States in Vietnam.
1947 Dennis Gabor develops 3-D
holography; Willard Libby
develops radiocarbon dating
technique; Charles Yeager is
first to fly at supersonic
speed.
1948 William Shockley develops
transistor.
1950 Paul Charpentier develops
chlorpromazine tranquilizer;
Harry Truman sends U.S. troops
to fight communists in Korea.
1951 Gregory Pincus develops oral
contraceptive.
1952 Edward Teller develops hydrogen
bomb.
1953 Francis Crick and James Watson
map DNA molecule; John Gibbon
develops heart-lung machine;
Nathan Kline develops
antihypertensive drug
reserpine.
1955 Severo Ochoa synthesizes
ribonucleic acid (RNA); Jonas
Salk announces existence of
killed-virus polio vaccine.
1956 Arthur Kornberg synthesizes DNA
with enzymes, nucleotides; Choh
Hao Li isolates human growth
hormone.
1957 Fidel Castro begins communist
revolution in Cuba; Alick
Isaacs and Jean Lindemann
discover interferon; Clarence
Lillehie develops
artificial-heart pacemaker;
Sergei Pavlovich produces
Sputnik I, Soviet satellite;
Bruce Sabin develops live-virus
polio vaccine.
1958 Charles de Gaulle becomes
president of French Fifth
Republic; Charles Townes and
Arthur Leonard develop optical
laser.
1959 Leo Esaki develops commercial
tunnel diode.
1960 D. R. Herriott develops argon
ion laser; John F. Kennedy
becomes youngest U.S.
president.
1961 Yuri Gagarin becomes first
human to orbit Earth.
1963 Murray Gell-Mann discovers
quarks (subatomic
particles); Marten Schmidt
finds quasars (quasistellar
radio sources).
1967 Jocelyn Bell discovers pulsars.
1969 Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin
walk on surface of the moon.
1972 John Charnley develops
artificial hip; John Hughes
discovers brain chemical
enkephalin.
1973 Paul Berg develops recombinant
DNA.
1975 Cesar Milstein develops
monoclonal antibodies.
1978 Tony Allison develops organ
transplant drug cyclosporin
A; Patrick Steptoe develops
method for test-tube baby.
1979 Ayatollah Khomeini leads
revolution against Shah of
Iran; Margaret Thatcher becomes
prime minister of Great
Britain.
1980 Ronald Reagan is elected
President of United States.
1985 Michael Phelps develops
positron emission tomography;
Mikhail Gorbachev becomes
leader of Soviet Union.
1988 George Bush is elected
President of United States.
World Exploration and Discovery
40,000 B.C. Cro-Magnons migrate to Europe
from Near East.
28,000 B.C. Humans migrate from Asia to
Americas over land bridge.
5000 B.C. Sumerians migrate to
Mesopotamia.
2300 B.C. Semites migrate from Arabia to
Mesopotamia.
2000 B.C. Israelites migrate from
Euphrates Valley to Canaan.
1000 B.C. Phoenician sailors explore
Britain and western Africa.
700 B.C. Central Asian tribes migrate to
Persia.
640 B.C. Greek explorer Colaeus reaches
Gibraltar and Spain.
600 B.C. Egyptian pharaoh Necho
circumnavigates Africa; Greek
explorer Midacritus finds tin
in England or Brittany.
510 B.C. Greek traveler Scylax explores
Indus River, Red Sea, and
Arabia.
500 B.C. Bantu tribes migrate through
eastern Africa; Greek explorer
Hekataios travels to Spain and
North Africa; Carthaginian
explorer Himlico visits French
Atlantic Coast.
480 B.C. Carthaginian admiral Hanno
explores west coast of Africa.
424 B.C. Greek traveler Herodotus visits
North Africa, Italy, and
Arabia.
400 B.C. Greek explorer Ctesias travels
to Ganges River in India.
345 B.C. Greek explorer Pythias explores
northwest European coastline.
327 B.C. Alexander the Great leads army
to Indus Valley of India.
325 B.C. Greek admiral Nearchus attempts
to circumnavigate Arabia.
302 B.C. Greek traveler Megasthenes
visits India, Tibet, and
Ceylon.
218 B.C. Hannibal leads army with
elephants from Spain to Italy.
138 B.C. Decimus Brutus becomes first
Roman to reach west coast of
Spain.
128 B.C. Chinese explorer of central
Asia has contact with Greeks.
112 B.C. Greek explorer Eudoxus sails to
India and western Africa.
100 B.C. Greek explorer Hippalus finds
direct ocean route to India.
55 B.C. Julius Caesar leads Roman army
to Britain.
20 A.D. King Juba of Morocco explores
Canary Islands.
80 A.D. Gnaeus Agricola explores
Atlantic coast of Britain.
100 A.D. Roman explorer Julius Maternus
crosses Sahara to Sudan;
Alexander, Greek trader, sails
to Vietnam and Cambodia;
Chinese explorer Kan Ying
reaches Black Sea and turns
back.
370 A.D. Huns, nomadic Mongols, invade
Europe and reach Gaul.
400 A.D. Chinese monk Fa Hsien visits
India, Ceylon, and Java.
407 A.D. Northern European Goths and
Vandals spread to
Mediterranean.
431 A.D. Gunavarman, prince of Kashmir,
travels to Java and China.
570 A.D. Brendan, Irish monk, reportedly
discovers America.
620 A.D. Vikings explore Ireland.
645 A.D. Chinese monk Yuan Chuang
travels overland to India and
returns.
861 A.D. Vikings discover Iceland.
872 A.D. Iraqi traveler Ibn Wahab visits
China.
900 A.D. Mayans migrate from Central
America to Yucatan Peninsula;
Arab traveler Ibn Rosteh
explores Malay Peninsula and
Java.
921 A.D. Arabian diplomat Ahmad Ibn
Fodhlan explores Russia and
Poland.
950 A.D. Maori sailors discover New
Zealand.
980 A.D. Arabs migrate to east coast of
Africa.
981 A.D. Eric the Red discovers
Greenland.
986 A.D. Viking sailor Bjarne
Herjulfsson sights North
America.
1000 A.D. Leif Ericsson explores Atlantic
coast of North America.
1002 Thorwald Ericsson explores
American coast below New
England.
1007 Viking Thorfinn Karlsefni
establishes North American
colony.
1150 Polynesian Toi Kai Rakan opens
settlement of New Zealand.
1165 Spanish rabbi Benjamin visits
synagogues of Asia and Near
East.
1245 Franciscan monk Giovanni
Carpini travels to Mongol
capital.
1271 Marco Polo begins 24-year
journey to Orient and Near
East.
1291 Vivaldi brothers try sailing
Atlantic from Genoa to India;
Italian explorer Malocello
discovers Canary Islands.
1337 Josef Faquin circumnavigates
known world of fourteenth
century.
1350 Polynesian chief Marutuahu
established colony in New
Zealand.
1419 Portuguese king Henry begins
African exploration.
1431 Portuguese explorer discovers
Azores.
1440 Italian explorer Niccolo
Conti travels in Indonesia and
Malaya.
1446 Portuguese explorer Nuno
Tristao is lost on second trip
to Africa.
1455 Venetian sailor Cadamosto
discovers Cape Verde Islands.
1482 Portuguese navigator Diego Cao
explores Congo River; Portugal
establishes African Gold Coast
settlements.
1488 Portuguese explorer Bartholomeu
Dias sails around Cape of Good
Hope.
1492 Christopher Columbus discovers
the West Indies; German
navigator Martin Behaim shows
Earth is spherical.
1493 Pope Alexander VI divides New
World between Spain and
Portugal.
1494 Bartolome Colon, brother of
Columbus, explores Haiti.
1495 Francisco de Almeida
establishes Portuguese naval
bases in eastern Africa.
1497 Italian John Cabot discovers
Newfoundland for England.
1498 Columbus discovers South
America and Trinidad;
Portuguese navigator Vasco da
Gama finds sea route to India.
1499 Spanish explorer Vincent Yanez
Pinzon discovers mouth of
Amazon River.
1500 Portuguese explorer Pedro
Cabral discovers Brazil.
1501 Amerigo Vespucci explores coast
of Brazil; Spanish explorer
Rodrigo Bastidas discovers
Colombia.
1502 Columbus discovers Nicaragua;
Spaniard Alonso de Ojeda
explores Haiti, Guiana, and
Venezuela.
1504 Portuguese explorer Pacheco
Pereira visits India.
1505 Portuguese establish
settlements in Mozambique;
Portuguese nobleman Tristao
da Cunha leads expedition to
India.
1507 German maps by Martin
Waldseemuller identify New
World as "America."
1510 Afonso de Albuquerque
establishes Portuguese base in
India at Goa.
1512 Spanish priest Bartolome Las
Casas is missionary to Cuban
Indians.
1513 Balboa, in Panama, discovers
Pacific Ocean; Ponce de Leon
explores Florida and West
Indies; Portuguese reach
Canton, China.
1514 Spanish explorer Francisco de
Montejo travels to West Indies.
1516 Spanish explorer Juan Diaz de
Solis discovers Rio de la
Plata, Uruguay.
1517 Spanish explorer Fernandez de
Cordoba discovers Mayan ruins.
1518 Pedro Alvarado explores
Southeast Mexico for Spain;
Spanish conquistador Juan de
Grijalva discovers Aztec
Empire.
1519 Hernan Cortes conquers Mexico
for Spain.
1521 Ferdinand Magellan dies in an
attempt to circumnavigate
Earth.
1522 Spanish navigator Juan
Sebastian Elcano is first to
circumnavigate Earth.
1524 Italian explorer Giovanni da
Verrazano discovers New York
harbor; Francisco Pizarro
explores the west coasts of
Panama and Peru.
1526 Italian Sebastian Cabot
explores Rio de la Plata,
Uruguay.
1527 Cabeza de Vaca begins trek from
Florida to Mexican west coast.
1528 Spanish explorer Panfilo de
Narvaez dies near mouth of
Mississippi.
1530 German adventurer Nikolaus
Federmann explores Venezuela,
Colombia, and the Andes.
1533 Spanish conquistador Francisco
Pizarro conquers Peru; Spanish
conquistador Sebastian de
Benalcazar conquers Ecuador.
1535 Jacques Cartier explores Saint
Lawrence River; Spanish explore
Chile; Spanish explorer Antonio
de Mendoza establishes city of
Buenos Aires.
1536 Spaniard Jimenez de Quesada
explores Colombia and Orinoco
River; Spanish conquistador
Domingo de Irala explores
Parana and Paraguay rivers.
1540 Vasquez de Coronado explores
Arizona and New Mexico; Spanish
monk Andres Urdaneta explores
Philippine Islands.
1541 Hernando de Soto discovers
Mississippi River; Francisco de
Orellana travels Amazon River
from source in Peru to mouth;
Gonzalo Pizarro crosses the
Andes from Ecuador to the
Amazon River.
1542 Portuguese explorer Mendes
Pinto is first European in
Japan.
1544 Spanish conquistadors explore
coast of Oregon.
1553 English explorer Richard
Chancellor establishes Russian
trade route.
1554 English explorer Sir Hugh
Willoughby dies seeking
Northeast Passage.
1557 Portuguese establish Chinese
base at Macao.
1562 French explorer Jan Ribault
establishes colony in South
Carolina.
1564 Miguel Lopez de Legazpe claims
Marianas and Philippines for
Spain and founds Manila.
1569 Spanish explorer Alvaro Bazan
crosses Chaco of South America.
1576 English explorer Sir Martin
Frobisher searches for
Northwest Passage.
1581 Cossack Timofeevich extends
Russian territory into Siberia.
1582 Cossack Koltso aids Timofeevich
in exploration of Siberia;
Spanish explorer Berrio
navigates Orinoco River.
1584 Sir Walter Raleigh explores
Virginia and North Carolina.
1592 Explorer Cornelis de Houtman
discovers Dutch route to East
Indies.
1594 Dutch explorer Willem Barents
searches for Northeast Passage.
1595 Dutch establish settlements on
Guinea Coast.
1598 Van Neck leads second Dutch
expedition to East Indies;
English explorer Will Adams
travels to Japan.
1602 Englishman Bartholomew Gosnold
explores New England coast.
1603 Samuel de Champlain explores
Saint Lawrence River as "route
to China."
1607 Englishman John Smith helps
establish Jamestown, Virginia.
1608 Champlain founds city of
Quebec; John Smith explores
Cape Cod and Chesapeake Bay.
1610 Henry Hudson discovers Hudson
Bay and River; Dutch navigator
Willem Schouten sails around
Cape Horn.
1613 Dutch colonist Jan Coen
establishes factories in
Indonesia; English explorer
William Baffin discovers Baffin
Bay and Island.
1614 Dutch captain Christianssen
establishes fort at Albany, New
York.
1615 Champlain explores lakes Huron
and Ontario.
1617 Dutch explorers Jakob LeMaire
and Willem Schouten start trip
around world.
1618 French explorer Imbert finds
Timbuktu in Africa.
1620 English Pilgrims reach Cape
Cod.
1626 French establish settlements in
Madagascar; Dutch settle New
Amsterdam in North America;
French missionary Jean de
Brebeuf explores Lake Huron
region.
1631 English captain Thomas James
explores James Bay in Canada.
1637 Russian explorers reach Pacific
coast of Siberia.
1642 French explorer Sieur de
Maisonneuve founds city of
Montreal; Dutch explorer Abel
Tasman discovers Van Dieman's
Land (Tasmania).
1645 Capuchin monks explore Congo
River.
1646 French missionary Isaac Jogues
discovers Lake George.
1649 Cossack Dezhnev explores
Siberia and Alaska for Russia;
Cossack Stadukhin explores the
Lena and Kolyma rivers in
Siberia.
1652 Dutch colonist Jan van Riebeek
founds Cape of Good Hope
settlement.
1659 French fur trader Pierre
Radisson explores Minnesota.
1670 French fur trader Perrot
explores upper Mississippi
region.
1673 French explorers Louis Joliet
and Jacques Marquette navigate
the length of the Mississippi.
1675 Belgian explorer Louis Hennepin
discovers Niagara Falls and
Mississippi source.
1679 Frenchman Daniel Duluth
explores Minnesota and Great
Lakes.
1681 Sieur de La Salle explores
Mississippi and names delta
area Louisiana; English
buccaneer William Dampier
explores South Pacific islands.
1682 Buero da Silva explores Central
Mountains region of Brazil;
Pieres de Campos explores
rivers of South America.
1683 Dutch explorer Aerssen
establishes colony of Surinam;
German naturalist Kaempfer
visits Java, Thailand, and
Japan.
1685 French missionary Claude
Allouez explores western Lake
Superior.
1697 Cossack Atlasov explores
Kamchatka Peninsula for Russia.
1699 William Dampier explores
northwest cost of Australia.
1721 Norwegian missionary Hans Egede
is first European in Greenland
in 200 years.
1723 Russian adventurer Fedorov
explores northwest cost of
America.
1732 Gvozdev explores Bering Sea and
Alaska coastline for Russia.
1741 Russian explorer Chrikov
discovers some Aleutian
Islands.
1744 Frenchman Charles La Condamine
measures arc of meridian in
Andes.
1745 Basov explores Aleutian Islands
for Russia.
1767 English navigator James Cook
explores east coast of
Australia.
1772 English explorer Samuel Hearne
is first European to reach
Arctic Ocean; Frenchman Yves
Kerguelen-Tremarec discovers
Antarctic islands; James Cook
searches for possible continent
of Antarctica.
1776 Cook searches for possible
Atlantic-Pacific maritime
passage.
1784 Daniel Boone explores
Appalachian and Ozark areas.
1789 Scottish fur trader Sir
Alexander Mackenzie explores
western Canada.
1790 Russian fur trader Aleksandr
Baranov explores Alaska;
American explorer Robert Gray
discovers Columbia River.
1797 German adventurer Hornemann
explores caravan routes of
Sahara Desert.
1798 British explorer George Bass
circumnavigates Tasmania.
1799 German explorer Alexander von
Humboldt tours North and South
America.
1802 English explorer Matthew
Flinders circumnavigates
Australia; Portuguese explorers
cross Africa.
1804 Lewis and Clark begin
exploration of Louisiana
Purchase; Russian Lisyanskii
explores Pacific from Hawaii to
Alaska.
1805 Canadian Fraser explores Canada
west of Rocky Mountains;
Russian navigator Adam
Krusenstern maps Sakhalin,
discovers Amur's mouth.
1815 Russian navigator Otto Kotzebue
discovers many Pacific islands.
1818 French explorer Rene Caille
crosses Sahara, reaching
Timbuktu.
1819 English explorer Sir William
Parry finds Northwest Passage
in Arctic.
1820 American Nathaniel Palmer
discovers Palmer Peninsula of
Antarctica.
1821 Russian Fabian Bellinghausen
leads South Pole expedition.
1825 British explorer Sir John
Franklin surveys Canadian
Arctic region.
1828 German physicist Georg Erman
circumnavigates Earth, studying
magnetic fields.
1829 English explorer Freemantle
founds West Australia colony.
1830 British Lander brothers explore
Niger River and delta.
1831 American Benjamin Bonneville
explores Rocky Mountains and
California; British explorer
James Ross finds North Magnetic
Pole.
1835 British colonist Bourke
explores new areas of
Australia; American pioneer Jim
Bowie explores U.S. Southwest.
1837 American trapper Joseph Walker
explores Sierra Mountains.
1840 Frenchman Dumont d'Urville
discovers Antarctic islands.
1842 John Fremont begins exploration
west of Rockies.
1843 British colonist Edward Eyre
explores South and West
Australia; Scottish explorer
Sir James Ross proves
Antarctica has ice barrier.
1846 German explorer Friedrich
Leichhardt disappears crossing
Australia.
1847 French naturalist Comte de
Castelnau crosses South America
west to east.
1848 American explorer Elisha Kane
surveys Gulf of Mexico.
1850 English naval officer Sir
Robert McClure discovers
Northwest Passage.
1851 German explorer Heinrich Barth
crosses Sahara Desert twice;
American explorer Savage
rediscovers Yosemite Valley.
1853 Englishman Sir Richard Burton
is first non-Muslim to visit
Mecca and Medina; American
explorer Elisha Kane leads
Arctic expedition.
1854 U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry
ends isolation of Japan; German
Schlagintweit brothers explore
Central Asia; Portuguese
explorer Silva Porto crosses
South Africa, west to east.
1855 Russian adventurer Nevelskoi
explores Amur and proves
Sakhalin is an island.
1856 Scottish missionary David
Livingstone explores Africa;
English explorers Richard
Burton and John Speke discover
Lake Tanganyika; English
explorer Gregory crosses
Australia east to west.
1857 British explorer John Speke
discovers Lake Victoria.
1860 Irish explorer Robert Burke is
first to cross Australia south
to north; German explorer Karl
Decken leads Kilimanjaro
Mountain expedition; John Speke
and James Grant prove Lake
Victoria is source of Nile;
American Isaac Hayes searches
for "open sea" above Arctic
Circle.
1861 British engineer Sir Samuel
Baker begins a search for
source of Nile; German traveler
Gustav Nachtigal begins series
of African explorations.
1863 Frenchman Louis Faidherbe
explores Senegal and Niger
River in Africa.
1864 Hermann Schlagintweit is first
European to cross Kuenlun
range.
1866 Doudart explores Mekong River
route to source for France.
1871 Russian naturalist Aleksi
Fedchenko explores Asian
mountain ranges; British
journalist Henry Stanley finds
missing Livingstone; American
Charles Hall is first to
explore above 82 degrees north
latitude.
1872 French colonist Francis Garnier
searches for China-Tibet river
route.
1874 John and Alexander Forrest
survey western Australia.
1878 German Eduard Schnitzer (Emin
Pasha) explores African lake
country; English explorer Sir
George Nares surveys Magellan
Strait; Russian Grigori Potanin
explores Gobi Desert of
Mongolia.
1879 Swedish explorer Nils
Nordenskjold discovers
Northeast Passage; Russian
Nikolai Przhevalski is first to
cross Tibet's Humboldt
Mountains; Joseph Thompson
explores Great Rift Valley of
Africa.
1880 French colonist Pierre Brazza
explores African river routes
to sea.
1882 French explorer Pierre Bonvalot
discovers ancient cities of
Asia.
1883 French officer Foucauld
explores Algerian oases and
Morocco.
1885 Portuguese explorer Capelo
crosses South Africa.
1888 Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen
explores Greenland ice cap;
French explorer Louis Binger
leads African scientific
expedition.
1889 German explorer Hans Meyer is
first to scale Kilimanjaro
peak; Austrian Oskar Baumann
explores African rivers and
lakes.
1891 German Erich von Drygalski
explores West Greenland.
1892 Scottish oceanographer William
Bruce explores Antarctic
coastline; Englishman William
Conway is first to scale
23,000-foot Himalayan peaks;
American Robert Peary explores
Greenland and proves it is an
island.
1893 Swedish engineer Andre explores
Arctic by balloon; German
explorer Goetzen crosses Africa
east to west.
1894 Englishwoman Mary Kingsley
explores Ogowe River in Africa.
1895 French explorer Charles Bonin
crosses Tibet and Mongolia;
Englishman Frederick Jackson
explores Franz Josef Land in
Arctic.
1897 Gerlache de Gomery leads
Belgian Antarctic expedition.
1899 Sweden's Sven Hedin finds
sources of Bramaputra and Indus
rivers.
1900 Norwegian Carsten Borchgrevink
is early Antarctic explorer.
1906 Norwegian Roald Amundsen is
first to navigate Northwest
Passage.
1908 British explorer Sir Ernest
Shackleton nearly reaches South
Pole.
1909 American explorer Robert Peary
is first to reach North Pole.
1910 Bavarian officer Wilhelm
Filchner leads German Antarctic
expedition.
1911 Norwegian explorer Roald
Amundsen reaches South Pole;
American explorer Bingham
discovers Machu Picchu in Peru;
British explorer Sir Douglas
Mawson leads Antarctic
expedition.
1912 British explorer Robert Scott
reaches South Pole.
1913 Theodore Roosevelt explores
central Brazilian rivers.
1926 Americans Floyd Bennett and
Richard Byrd fly over North
Pole; American Lincoln
Ellsworth flies over North
Pole; Italian engineer Umberto
Nobile flies over North Pole,
from Norway to Alaska.
1927 American Charles Lindbergh is
first to fly solo across
Atlantic Ocean.
1929 American explorer Richard Byrd
is first to fly over South
Pole; German Hugo Eckener makes
round-the-world flight.
1931 Eckener flies over North Pole.
1932 British explorer St. John
Philby crosses Arabia's
Rub-al-Kali Desert; Jean
Piccard explores stratosphere
in balloon gondola.
1935 Lincoln Ellsworth flies over
South Pole.
1937 Russian aviator Valeri Chkalov
is first to fly from USSR to
America over North Pole.
1947 Norwegian Thor Heyerdahl sails
balsa raft from Peru to
Polynesia.
1953 British mountaineer Sir Edmund
Hillary and Tenzing Norgay of
Nepal scale Mount Everest.
1956 Heyerdahl explores Easter
Island and eastern Pacific.
1958 American explorer Anderson
crosses North Pole in
submarine.
1961 Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin
is first man to orbit Earth.
1962 John Glenn is first American to
orbit Earth.
1969 American astronauts Neil
Armstrong and "Buzz" Aldrin
land on moon.
1976 Mars space probes, Viking 1 and
2, are launched by NASA.
1981 Space shuttle Columbia, the
world's first reusable
spacecraft, orbits Earth 36
times, carrying two astronauts,
marking the beginning of the
U.S. space shuttle program.
1986 Experimental airplane Voyager,
using a single load of fuel,
completes a flight around the
world, setting a record for
distance flown without
refueling.
Major World Cities
City Population (est.)
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 1,423,000
Capital since 1896
Ahmedabad, India
Founded in 1411 2,548,000
Alexandria, Egypt
Founded by Alexander the
Great, 332 B.C. 2,705,000
Algiers, Algeria
Founded in tenth century
on Roman site 2,500,000
Amman, Jordan
Site of biblical city of
Ammonites 800,000
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Founded in 1300 679,000
Ankara, Turkey
Capital of Galacia around 300 B.C. 2,252,000
Athens, Greece
Ancient Greek city-state in
700 B.C. 3,000,000
Auckland, New Zealand
Founded 1840, original capital 895,000
Baghdad, Iraq
Center of Islamic culture
since 813 3,500,000
Baku, USSR
Founded in ninth century 1,700,000
Bandung, Indonesia
Founded in 1810 l1,600,000
Bangalore, India
Founded in sixteenth century 2,900,000
Bangkok, Thailand
Capital since 1782 5,180,000
Barcelona, Spain
Founded by Carthaginians
around 300 B.C. 1,800,000
Barranquilla, Colombia
Inland seaport since 1935 900,000
Beirut, Lebanon
Site of ancient Phoenician
settlement 750,000
Belgrade, Yugoslavia
Site of Singidunum, ancient
Roman camp 1,250,000
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Cattle and cotton-trading center 2,500,000
Birmingham, England
Market town since before
thirteenth century 1,020,000
Bogota, Colombia
Founded by conquistadors in 1538 4,000,000
Bombay, India
Established in early Christian
era 8,300,000
Brisbane, Australia
Founded in 1824 as a penal colony 1,160,000
Brussels, Belgium
Capital since 1530 1,000,000
Bucharest, Rumania
Capital since 1861 1,975,000
Budapest, Hungary
Site of Aquincum, second-century
Roman camp 2,200,000
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Settled by conquistadors in 1536 3,100,000
Cairo, Egypt
Site of seventh-century
Arab military camp 12,680,000
Calcutta, India
Developed from 1690 English
factory site 9,840,000
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Originally (1875) Northwest
Mounted Police post 600,000
Cali, Colombia
Founded by conquistadors in 1536 1,325,000
Canton, China
Inland seaport since third
century B.C. l7,060,000
Cape Town, South Africa
Founded in 1652 as Dutch
naval base 1,100,000
Caracas, Venezuela
Founded by conquistadors in 1567 3,000,000
Casablanca, Morocco
Site of ancient City of Anfa 2,200,000
Chicago, Illinois
Originally portage site for
fur traders 3,000,000
Chittagong, Bangladesh
Portuguese trading post in 1600s 1,450,000
Chungking, China
Former capital of Nationalist
China 4,080,000
Cologne, West Germany
Site of Roman (50 A.D.)
Colonia Agrippina 929,000
Copenhagen, Denmark
Capital since 1443 1,400,000
Cordoba, Argentina
Founded in 1573; university
founded 1613 1,095,000
Damascus, Syria
City of Egyptians and Hittites
before 1000 B.C. 1,210,000
Delhi, India
Thirteenth-century capital of
northern India 6,000,000
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Capital since 1971 secession
from Pakistan 4,000,000
Dnepropetrovsk, USSR
Founded in 1787 at Cossack
village site 1,100,000
Donetsk, USSR
Founded in 1870; called Stalino
until 1961 1,050,000
Dresden, East Germany
Originally (922 A.D.) a Slavonic
settlement 528,000
Dublin, Ireland
Originally a ninth-century Viking
base 547,000
Dusseldorf, West Germany
Rhine River port since eleventh
century 568,000
East Berlin, East Germany
Part of divided city since 1945 1,150,000
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Originally (1795) Hudson Bay
trading post 670,000
Essen, West Germany
Ruhr Valley city founded in ninth
century 649,000
Frankfurt, West Germany
Site of ancient Roman military camp 600,000
Fukuoka, Japan
Thirteenth-century seaport on
Hakata Bay 1,300,000
Genoa, Italy
Roman settlement in third
century B.C. 750,000
Glasgow, Scotland
Founded by sixth-century
missionaries 780,000
Gorky, USSR
Founded in 1221; renamed for
Maxim Gorky 1,405,000
Guadalajara, Mexico
Originally founded in 1530 2,960,000
Guatemala City, Guatemala
Founded as capital in 1776 1,190,000
Guayaquil, Ecuador
Founded by conquistadors in 1535 1,598,000
Hamburg, West Germany
Founded in ninth century by
Charlemagne 1,700,000
Harbin, China
Village until linked by railroad
in 1898 3,500,000
Havana, Cuba
Founded in 1519 as Spanish
navy base 2,000,000
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Formerly Saigon, ancient
Khmer village 3,500,000
Hyderabad, India
Founded as Golconda; capital
in 1589 2,600,000
Hyderabad, Pakistan
Founded in 1768 as capital
of Sind 830,000
Ibadan, Nigeria
Founded around 1830 as military
camp 1,000,000
Istanbul, Turkey
Until 300 A.D., Byzantium;
until 1930, Constantinople 5,650,000
Jakarta, Indonesia
Founded in 1619 as Batavia;
renamed 1971 7,650,000
Johannesburg, South Africa
Founded as gold-mining camp in
1886 1,695,000
Kanpur, India
Village until ceded to British
in 1801 1,597,000
Karachi, Pakistan
Founded in 1725 as Hindu trading
center 5,260,000
Kharkov, USSR
Founded in 1654 as outpost
of Moscow 1,560,000
Kiev, USSR
Russian "Mother of Cities,"
founded 882 2,500,000
Kinshasa, Zaire
Founded in 1881 as Leopoldville;
renamed 1966 3,325,000
Kobe, Japan
Ancient fishing village until
1868 1,500,000
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Founded as tin-mining settlement
in 1857 1,200,000
Kuibyshev, USSR
Founded in 1586; temporary Russian
capital in World War II 1,250,000
Lagos, Nigeria
Former slave trading center;
now the capital 1,100,000
Lahore, Pakistan
Capital of Mogul sultans in
eleventh century 3,000,000
La Paz, Bolivia
Founded in 1548; capital since
1898 1,000,000
Leipzig, East Germany
Founded in eleventh century;
Bach was organist here 550,000
Leningrad, USSR
Founded in 1703 as St. Petersburg;
renamed 1924 5,000,000
Lima, Peru
Site of oldest university of
Americas (1551) 4,980,000
Lisbon, Portugal
Ancient Phoenician, Carthaginian
trading center 935,000
Liverpool, England
Chartered in 1207 by King John 509,000
Lodz, Poland
Founded in 1423; belonged to
Russia until 1919 850,500
London, England
Established in 43 A.D. as
Roman town of Londinium 6,750,000
Los Angeles, California
Founded in 1781 as capital of
Spanish colony 3,200,000
Madras, India
Founded in 1640 as British outpost 4,400,000
Madrid, Spain
A Moorish fortress until 932 3,250,000
Managua, Nicaragua
Established as capital in 1855
to end feud 700,000
Manila, Philippines
Founded by Spanish in 1571 1,800,000
Marseilles, France
Originally Massilia, Ionian Greek
Colony, in 600 B.C. 849,000
Mecca, Saudi Arabia
Birthplace of Muhammad in 570 550,000
Medellin, Colombia
Coffee, drugs, mining center
founded 1675 1,390,000
Melbourne, Australia
Founded 1835 by Tasmanian settlers 3,000,000
Mexico City, Mexico
Aztec capital until captured by
Cortes in 1521 12,650,000
Milan, Italy
Ancient Celtic town captured by
Romans in 222 B.C. 1,700,000
Minsk, USSR
Eleventh-century city on
Moscow-Warsaw rail link 1,500,000
Monterrey, Mexico
Founded in 1579; invaded by U.S.
troops in 1846 2,240,000
Montevideo, Uruguay
Settled by Spanish in 1726;
capital since 1828 1,350,000
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Site of Indian encampment;
founded by French in 1642 2,900,000
Moscow, USSR
Founded in 1147; became capital
around 1340 8,500,000
Munich, West Germany
Founded in 1158; birthplace of
Nazi movement, 1923 1,250,000
Nagoya, Japan
Buddhist temple site in second
century; now an industrial city 2,200,000
Nanking, China
Founded in 1368; twice capital
in twentieth century 4,700,000
Naples, Italy
Named Neapolis (New City) by
Greek settlers around 600 B.C. 1,250,000
New York City, New York
Founded in 1609 as New Amsterdam
by Dutch; renamed 1664 7,000,000
Novosibirsk, USSR
"Chicago of Siberia," founded
1893 on Trans-Siberian Railway 1,400,000
Odessa, USSR
Founded by Tartars in fourteenth
century 1,295,000
Osaka, Japan
Founded in sixteenth century as
capital city 2,575,000
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Selected as capital in 1858 by
Queen Victoria 800,000
Palermo, Sicily
Founded by Phoenicians in eighth
century B.C. 822,000
Paris, France
Grew from pre-Roman settlement
named Lutetia Parisiorum 2,195,000
Peking, China
Founded around 1122 B.C.;
renamed Beijing in 1949 10,000,000
Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Founded by sugar planters in 1749;
capital since 1804 750,000
Porto Alegre, Brazil
Founded in 1742 by settlers from
Azores 1,300,000
Prague, Czechoslovakia
Grew from tenth-century trading
center 1,200,000
Pusan, South Korea
Originally a fishing village;
opened to trade in 1443 3,500,000
Pyongyang, North Korea
Existed as Heijo, Korean cultural
center, in 1100 B.C. 1,500,000
Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
Site of Indian settlement visited
by Cartier in 1535 580,000
Quezon City, Philippines
Founded in 1940 as site of future
capital 1,400,000
Quito, Ecuador
Originally Quito Indian camp;
captured by Incas in 1470 1,200,000
Rangoon, Burma
Existed as fishing village in
sixth century 2,300,000
Recife, Brazil
Settled by Portuguese in 1535 1,300,000
Rio de Janeiro
Founded by Portuguese in 1502;
capital since 1889 5,750,000
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
One-time center of classic
Arabic architecture 1,250,000
Rome, Italy
According to legend, founded in
753 B.C. by Romulus 3,000,000
Rosario, Argentina
City in La Pampa region; founded
in 1730 1,000,000
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
North Sea port chartered in 1328 560,000
Salvador, Brazil
Founded in 1549 as Bahia 2,000,000
Santiago, Chile
Founded in 1541 by Spanish
conquistadors 4,300,000
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
Oldest continuous European settlement
in Americas, founded in 1496 1,500,000
Sao Paulo, Brazil
Founded in 1554 by Jesuit
missionaries on Indian campsite 12,500,000
Sapporo, Japan
Founded in 1869 in government
plan to develop Hokkaido Island 1,500,000
Seoul, South Korea
Originally named Keijo, a Korean
capital since 1392 10,000,000
Seville, Spain
Originally Hispalis, a
Phoenician trading center 770,000
Shanghai, China
Existed as Hu-tsen in Sung
dynasty, eleventh century 12,000,000
Shenyang, China
Formerly Mukden, capital city
of twelfth-century Tartars 5,250,000
Singapore, Singapore
Original Singhapura, destroyed
in 1365; refounded in 1819 2,650,000
Sofia, Bulgaria
Founded as Sardica by second-
century Romans; capital since 1879 1,100,000
Stockholm, Sweden
Originally a fishing village,
founded in thirteenth century 1,440,000
Surabaja, Indonesia
Grew from seventeenth-century
Javanese trading post 2,300,000
Sverdlovsk, USSR
Founded in 1721 as Ekaterinburg
(Catherine); renamed in 1924 1,290,000
Sydney, Australia
First British settlement in
Australia, 1788 3,400,000
Taipei, Taiwan
Settled in eighteenth century by
Chinese mainland immigrants 2,500,000
Tashkent, USSR
Ancient central Asian city;
existed in first century B.C. 1,950,000
Tbilisi, USSR
Also called Tiflis; settled in
fourth century B.C. 1,050,000
Teheran, Iran
Settled in thirteenth century
by refugees from Mongol invasion 6,100,000
Tianjin, China
Also called Tientsin, ancient
trading center 7,910,000
Tokyo, Japan
Founded in twelfth century as
fortress for warlord 8,535,000
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Originally Fort Rouille, 1749;
York, 1793; renamed 1834 3,000,000
Tripoli, Libya
Founded as Oea by Phoenicians
in seventh century B.C. 598,000
Tunis, Tunisia
Pre-Carthaginian city with
access to Mediterranean 602,000
Turin, Italy
Ancient Roman city of Augusta
Taurinorum 1,180,000
Valencia, Spain
Former city of Romans, Visgoths,
Moors 760,000
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Originally settled in 1875 as
Granville; renamed 1886 1,360,000
Vienna, Austria
Capital of the Austro-Hungarian
Empire 1278-1918; now capital
of the Austrian republic 1,550,000
Volgograd, USSR
Founded in 1589 as Tsaritsyn;
later Stalingrad; renamed 1961 968,000
Warsaw, Poland
Settled in eleventh century;
capital since 1596 1,780,000
Washington, DC
Founded in 1790 on site selected
by George Washington 765,000
Wellington, New Zealand
Founded in 1840; replaced Auckland
as capital in 1865 600,000
Yokohama, Japan
Feudal fishing village until
opened to foreign trade in 1859 3,280,000
The United Nations
The United Nations organization was established
during World War II as an outgrowth of an agreement
among 26 countries fighting the Germany-Italy-Japan
Axis. It replaced the League of Nations as an
instrument for the promotion of international peace
and security.
The name was suggested by U.S. President Franklin
D. Roosevelt in 1941 and was officially adopted the
following year. The United Nations was formally
organized on June 26, 1945, following an initial
San Francisco conference to draft a charter.
The basic charter contains 19 chapters, divided
into 111 articles, and provides for the support of
a number of international organs and agencies.
These include the General Assembly, Security
Council, Secretariat, International Court of
Justice, Trusteeship Council, Economic and Social
Council, World Health Organization, Food and
Agricultural Organization, International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development, International Labor
Organization, International Monetary Fund,
International Civil Aviation Organization,
International Telecommunications Union, Universal
Postal Union, World Meteorological Organization,
and Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO).
International Organizations
A
AAPSO Afro-Asian People's Solidarity
Organization
ADB Asian Development Bank
AfDB African Development Bank
AIOEC Association of Iron Ore
exporting Countries
ANRPC Association of Natural Rubber
Producing Countries
ANZUS ANZUS Council; treaty signed by
Australia, New Zealand, and the
United States
APC African Peanut (Groundnut)
Council
... Arab League (League of Arab
States)
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian
Nations
ASPAC Asian and Pacific Council
ASSIMER International Mercury Producers
Association
B
BENELUX Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg
Economic Union
BLEU Belgium-Luxembourg Economic
Union
C
CACM Central American Common Market
CARICOM Caribbean Common Market
CARIFTA Caribbean Free Trade Association
CCC Customs Cooperation Council
CDB Caribbean Development Bank
CEAO West African Economic Community
CEMA Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance
CENTO Central Treaty Organization
CIPEC Intergovernmental Council of
Copper Exporting Countries
... Colombo Plan
... Council of Europe
D
DAC Development Assistance Committee
(OECD)
E
EAMA African States associated with
the EEC
EC European Communities
ECA Economic Commission for Africa
(UN)
ECE Economic Commission for Europe
(UN)
ECLA Economic Commission for Latin
America (UN)
ECOSOC Economic and Social Council (UN)
ECOWAS Economic Community of West
African States
ECWA Economic Commission for Western
Asia (UN)
EEC European Economic Market
EFTA European Free Trade Association
EIB European Investment Bank
ELDO European Space Vehicle Launcher
Development Organization
EMS European Monetary System
ENTENTE Political-Economic Association
of Ivory Coast, Benin, Niger,
Burkina Faso, and Togo
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific (UN)
ESRO European Space Research
Organization
F
FAO Food and Agriculture
Organization (UN)
G
G-77 Group of 77
GA General Assembly (UN)
GATT General Agreement of Tariffs and
Trade (UN)
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
I
IADB Inter-American Defense Board
IAEA International Atomic Energy
Agency (UN)
IATP International Association of
Tungsten Producers
IBA International Bauxite
Association
IBEC International Bank for Economic
Cooperation
IBRD International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development
("World Bank," UN)
ICAC International Cotton Advisory
Committee
ICAO International Civil Aviation
Organization (UN)
ICCAT International Commission for the
Conservation of Atlantic Tunas
ICCO International Cocoa Organization
ICEM Intergovernmental Committee for
European Migration
ICES International Commission for the
Exploration of the Seas
ICJ International Court of Justice
(UN)
ICO International Coffee
Organization
IDA International Development
Association (IBRD affiliate,
UN)
IDB Inter-American Development Bank
IDB Islamic Development Bank
IEA International Energy Agency
(associated with OECD)
IFAD International Fund for
Agricultural Development (UN)
IFC International Finance
Corporation (IBRD affiliate, UN)
IHO International Hydrographic
Organization
IIB International Investment Bank
ILO International Labor Organization
(UN)
... International Lead and Zinc
Study Group
IMF International Monetary Fund (UN)
IMO International Maritime
Organization (UN)
INRO International Natural Rubber
Organization
INTELSAT International Telecommunications
Satellite Organization
IOOC International Olive Oil Council
IPU Inter-Parliamentary Union
IRC International Rice Council
ISO International Sugar Organization
ITC International Tin Council
ITU International Telecommunication
Union (UN)
IWC International Whaling Commission
IWC International Wheat Council
L
LAIA Latin American Integration
Association
N
NAM Nonaligned Movement
NATO North Atlantic Treaty
Organization
O
OAPEC Organization of Arab Petroleum
Exporting Countries
OAS Organization of American States
OAU Organization of African Unity
OCAM Afro-Malagasy and Mauritian
Common Organization
ODECA Organization of Central American
States
OECD Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development
OIC Organization of the Islamic
Conference
OPEC Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries
P
PAHO Pan American Health Organization
S
SAARC South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation
SADCC Southern African Development
Coordination Committee
SC Security Council (UN)
SELA Latin American Economic System
SPC South Pacific Commission
SPEC South Pacific Bureau for
Economic Cooperation
SPF South Pacific Forum
T
TC Trusteeship Council (UN)
TDB Trade and Development Board (UN)
U
UDEAC Economic and Customs Union of
Central Africa
UEAC Union of Central African States
UNCTAD UN Conference on Trade and
Development
UNDP UN Development Program
UNESCO UN Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization
UNICEF UN Children's Fund
UNIDO UN Industrial Development
Organization
UPEB Union of Banana Exporting
Countries
UPU Universal Postal Union (UN)
W
WEU Western European Union
WFC World Food Council (UN)
WFTU World Federation of Trade Unions
WHO World Health Organization (UN)
WIPO World Intellectual Property
Organization (UN)
WMO World Meteorological
Organization (UN)
WPC World Peace Council
WSG International Wool Study Group
WTO World Tourism Organization
INTERNATIONAL CONVERSIONS
To convert from To Multiply by
_______________ __ ___________
Acres Hectares 0.4046856
Acres Kilometers, 0.004046856
square
Acres Meters, square 4046.856
Centimeters Meters 0.01
Centimeters, Meters, square 0.0001
square
Degrees, Degrees, subtract 32 and
Fahrenheit Celsius multiply by 5/9
Feet Centimeters 30.48
Feet Meters 0.3048
Feet Kilometers 0.0003048
Feet, cubic Liters 28.316847
Feet, cubic Meters, cubic 0.28316847
Feet, square Centimeters, 929.0304
square
Feet, square Meters, square 0.09290304
Gallons, Liters 3.785412
US liquid
Gallons, Meters, cubic 0.003785412
US liquid
Grams Ounces, troy 0.032151
Grams Pounds, troy 0.002679
Hectares Kilometers, 0.01
square
Hectares Meters, square 10.000
Inches Centimeters 2.54
Inches Meters 0.0254
Inches, cubic Milliliters 16.387064
Inches, cubic Liters 0.016387064
Inches, cubic Meters, cubic 0.000016387064
Inches, square Centimeters, 6.4516
square
Inches, square Meters, square 0.00064516
Kilograms Ounces, troy 32.15075
Kilograms Pounds, troy 2.679229
Kilograms Tons, metric 0.001
Kilometers, Hectares 100
square
Liters Milliliters 1000
Litres Meters, cubic 0.001
Meters Millimeters 1000
Meters Centimeters 100
Meters Kilometers 0.001
Meters, cubic Liters 1000
Meters, cubic Tons, register 0.353147
Miles, nautical Kilometers 1.852
Miles, square Hectares 258.9998
Miles, square Kilometers, 2.589998
square
Miles, statute Centimeters 160934.4
Miles, statute Meters 1609.344
Miles, statute Kilometers 1.609344
Ounces, Grams 28.349523
avoirdupois
Ounces, Kilograms 0.028349523
avoirdupois
Ounces, troy Pounds, troy 0.083333
Ounces, troy Grams 31.10348
Pints, liquid Milliliters 473.176473
Pints, liquid Liters 0.473176473
Pounds, Grams 453.59237
avoirdupois
Pounds, Kilograms 0.45359237
avoirdupois
Pounds, Quintals 0.00453592
avoirdupois
Pounds, Tons, metric 0.000453592
avoirdupois
Pounds, troy Ounces, troy 12
Pounds, troy Grams 373.241722
Quarts, dry Liters 1.101221
Quarts, dry Dekaliters 0.1101221
Quarts, liquid Milliliters 946.352946
Quarts, liquid Liters 0.946352946
Quuintals Tons, metric 0.1
Ton-miles, long Ton-kilometers, 1.635169
metric
Ton-miles, short Ton-kilometers, 1.459972
metric
Tons, long Kilograms 1016.047
Tons, long Tons, metric 1.016047
Tons, metric Quintals 10
Tons, register Meters, cubic 2.831685
Tons, short Kilograms 907.185
Tons, short Tons, metric 0.907185
Yards Centimeters 91.44
Yards Meters 0.9144
Yards, cubic Liters 764.5549
Yards, cubic Meters, cubic 0.7645549
Yards, square Meters, square 0.836127
Foreign Dialing Codes
Note: For international telephone calls
automatically routed through AT&T, dial "011," then
dial the code for that country, the city code if
one is indicated, and the subscriber telephone
number to be reached. Other long-distance telephone
services may have other procedures and should be
consulted for their specific instructions.
Algeria 213
American Samoa 684
Andorra 33
(all points 628)
Argentina 54
(Buenos Aires 1)
Australia 61
(Melbourne 3)
(Sydney 2)
Austria 43
(Vienna 222)
Bahrain 973
Belgium 32
(Brussels 2)
(Ghent 91)
Belize 501
Bolivia 591
(Santa Cruz 33)
Brazil 55
(Brasilia 61)
(Rio de Janeiro 21)
Cameroon 237
Chile 56
(Santiago 2)
Colombia 57
(Bogota 1)
Costa Rica 506
Cyprus 357
Czechoslovakia 42
(Prague 2)
Denmark 45
(Aalborg 8)
(Copenhagen 1 or 2)
Ecuador 593
(Cuneca 7)
(Quito 2)
Egypt 20
(Alexandria 3)
(Port Said 66)
El Salvador 503
England See United Kingdom.
Ethiopia 251
(Addis Ababa 1)
Fiji 679
Finland 358
(Helsinki 0)
France 33
(Marseille 91)
(Nice 93)
(Paris 13, 14, or 16)
French Antilles 596
French Polynesia 689
Gabon 241
German Democratic Republic 37
(East Berlin 2)
Germany, Federal
Republic of 49
(Frankfurt 69)
(Munich 89)
(West Berlin 30)
Greece 30
(Athens 1)
(Rhodes 241)
Guam 671
Guantanamo Bay U.S. naval
base 53
(all points 99)
Guyana 592
(Georgetown 2)
Haiti 509
(Port-au-Prince 1)
Honduras 504
Hong Kong 852
(Hong Kong 5)
(Kowloon 3)
Hungary 36
(Budapest 1)
Iceland 354
(Akureyri 6)
(Hahnarfjorour 1)
India 91
(Bombay 22)
(New Delhi 11)
Indonesia 62
(Jakarta 21)
Iran 98
(Teheran 21)
Iraq 964
(Baghdad 1)
Ireland 353
(Dublin 1)
(Galway 91)
Israel 972
(Haifa 4)
(Jerusalem 2)
(Tel Aviv 3)
Italy 39
(Florence 55)
(Rome 6)
(Venice 41)
Ivory Coast 225
Japan 81
(Tokyo 3)
(Yokohama 45)
Jordan 962
(Amman 6)
Kenya 254
Korea, South 82
(Pusan 51)
(Seoul 2)
Kuwait 965
Liberia 231
Libya 218
(Tripoli 21)
Liechtenstein 41
(all points 75)
Luxembourg 352
Malawi 265
(Domasi 531)
Malaysia 60
(Kuala Lumpur 3)
Mexico 52
(Mexico City 5)
(Tijuana 66)
Monaco 33
(all points 93)
Morocco 212
(Agadir 8)
Namibia 264
(Olympia 61)
Netherlands 31
(Amsterdam 20)
(The Hague 70)
Netherlands Antilles 599
(Aruba 2978)
New Caledonia 687
New Zealand 64
(Auckland 9)
(Wellington 4)
Nicaragua 505
(Managua 2)
Nigeria 234
(Lagos 1)
Norway 47
(Bergen 5)
(Oslo 2)
Oman 968
Pakistan 92
(Islamabad 51)
Panama 507
Papua New Guinea 675
Paraguay 595
(Asuncion 21)
Peru 51
(Arequipa 54)
(Lima 14)
Philippines 63
(Manila 2)
Poland 48
(Warsaw 22)
Portugal 351
(Lisbon 1)
Qatar 974
Rumania 40
(Bucharest 0)
Saipan 670
San Marino 39
(all points 541)
Saudia Arabia 966
(Riyadh 1)
Senegal 221
Singapore 65
South Africa 27
(Cape Town 21)
(Pretoria 12)
Spain 34
(Barcelona 3)
(Las Palmas,
Canary Islands 28)
(Madrid 1)
(Seville 54)
Sri Lanka 94
(Kandy 8)
Suriname 597
Sweden 46
(Goteborg 31)
(Stockholm 8)
Switzerland 41
(Geneva 22)
(Lucerne 41)
(Zurich 1)
Taiwan 886
(Tainan 6)
(Taipei 3)
Thailand 66
(Bangkok 2)
Tunisia 216
(Tunis 1)
Turkey 90
(Istanbul 1)
(Izmir 51)
United Arab Emirates 971
(Abu Dhabi 2)
(Al Ain 3)
(Dubai 4)
(Ras Al Khainah 77)
(Sharjah 6)
(Umm Al Quwain 6)
United Kingdom 44
(Belfast 232)
(Cardiff 222)
(Glasgow 41)
(London 1)
Uruguay 598
(Mercedes 532)
(Montevideo 2)
Vatican City 39
(all points 6)
Venezuela 58
(Caracas 2)
(Maracaibo 61)
Yemen Arab Republic 967
(Amran 2)
Yugoslavia 38
(Belgrade 11)
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
Artemision at Ephesus, the temple of the Greek
goddess Artemis (also the Roman goddess Diana), was
begun in 541 B.C. at Ephesus (now a site in Turkey)
and completed 220 years later. The temple was 425
feet long and 220 feet wide with 127 marble
columns, each 60 feet tall. The gates were made of
cypress and the ceiling of cedar. The temple was
destroyed by the Goths in 262 A.D.
The Colossus of Rhodes, a 100-foot-tall bronze
statue of the sun god Helios, was erected between
292 and 280 B.C. in the harbor at Rhodes. According
to legend, it appeared to stand astride the harbor
but was actually on a promontory overlooking it.
The statue was toppled by an earthquake around 224
B.C. and lay in ruins until 653 A.D., when the
remains were sold as scrap metal.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a series of five
terraces of glazed brick, each 50 feet above the
next, was erected by King Nebuchadnezzar for his
wife, Amytis, in 562 B.C. The terraces, featuring
rare and exotic plants, were connected by a winding
stairway. A pumping device supplied water so the
gardens could be irrigated by fountains.
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, a 140-foot-high
white marble structure, was built in 352 B.C. at
Halicarnassus (now a site in Turkey) in memory of
King Mausolus of Caria. Its massive base contained
a sarcophagus and supported 36 columns crowned with
a stepped pyramid on which was constructed a marble
chariot. It was destroyed for the use of stone to
build a castle for the Knights of Saint John in
1402.
Olympian Zeus, a statue of the supreme god in Greek
mythology, was executed in gold and ivory for the
temple at Olympia. The figure of the seated Zeus
was 40 feet tall and rested on a base that was 12
feet high. The portions of the statue representing
the flesh of the god were covered with marble and
his cloak was made of gold. Golden lions rested
near his feet.
The Pyramids of Egypt were started by Khufu
(Cheops) around 2700 B.C. as tombs for the ancient
kings. The three largest and finest were erected
during the Fourth dynasty at Gizeh, near Cairo.
The largest of the group is the Khufu Pyramid,
built of limestone blocks from a base 756 feet wide
on each side and covering an area of 13 acres. It
is 482 feet high. Smaller pyramids were built for
wives and other members of the royal families.
The Tower of Pharos was a great lighthouse built
on the island of Pharos, at Alexandria, Egypt,
during the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 285 B.C.
Also called The Pharos, it was 500 feet tall with
a ramp leading to the top. Light was produced with
a fire and reflectors and could be seen from a
distance of 42 miles.
Royal Rulers of Europe and Asia
Europe and Russia
Great Britain (Royal Rulers)
William I the Conqueror 1066-1087
William II 1087-1100
Henry I 1100-1135
Stephen 1135-1154
Henry II 1154-1189
Richard I 1189-1199
John 1199-1216
Henry III 1216-1272
Edward I 1272-1307
Edward II 1307-1327
Edward III 1327-1377
Richard II 1377-1399
Henry IV 1399-1413
Henry V 1413-1422
Henry VI 1422-1461
Edward IV 1461-1483
Edward V 1483
Richard III 1483-1485
Henry VII 1485-1509
Henry VIII 1509-1547
Edward VI 1547-1553
Mary I 1553-1558
Elizabeth I 1558-1603
James I 1603-1625
Charles I 1625-1649
(Commonwealth period) 1649-1660
Charles II 1660-1685
James II 1685-1688
William III and Mary II 1689-1694
William III (alone) 1694-1702
Anne 1702-1714
George I 1714-1727
George II 1727-1760
George III 1760-1820
George IV 1820-1830
William IV 1830-1837
Victoria 1837-1901
Edward VII 1901-1910
George V 1910-1936
Edward VIII 1936
George VI 1936-1952
Elizabeth II 1952-
France (Royal Rulers)
Henri I 1031-1060
Philip I 1060-1108
Louis VI 1108-1137
Louis VII 1137-1180
Philip II 1180-1223
Louis VIII 1223-1226
Louis IX 1226-1270
Philip III 1270-1285
Philip IV 1285-1314
Louis X 1314-1316
John I 1316
Philip V 1316-1322
Charles IV 1322-1328
Philip VI 1328-1350
John II 1350-1364
Charles V 1364-1380
Charles VI 1380-1422
Charles VII 1422-1461
Louis XI 1461-1483
Charles VIII 1483-1498
Louis XII 1498-1515
Francois I 1515-1547
Henri II 1547-1559
Francois II 1559-1560
Charles IX 1560-1574
Henri III 1574-1589
Henri IV 1589-1610
Louis XIII 1610-1643
Louis XIV 1643-1715
Louis XV 1715-1774
Louis XVI 1774-1792
(First Republic) 1792-1804
Napoleon I 1804-1814
Louis XVIII 1814-1824
Charles X 1824-1830
Louis Philippe 1830-1848
(Second Republic) 1848-1852
Napoleon III 1852-1870
(Third Republic) 1870-1914
Germany (Royal Rulers)
Frederick I 1710-1713
Frederick William I 1713-1740
Frederick II 1740-1786
Frederick William II 1786-1797
Frederick William III 1797-1840
Frederick William IV 1840-1861
William I 1861-1888
Frederick III 1888
William II 1888-1918
Russia (Royal Rulers)
Ivan III 1462-1505
Vasilly III 1505-1533
Ivan IV 1533-1584
Theodore I 1584-1598
Boris Godunov 1598-1605
Theodore II 1605
Demetrius I 1605-1606
Basil IV 1606-1610
Wladyslaw (Polish Prince) 1610-1613
Mikhail Romanov 1613-1645
Alexis I 1645-1676
Theodore III 1676-1682
Ivan V and Peter I 1682-1689
Peter I (alone) 1689-1725
Catherine I 1725-1727
Peter II 1727-1730
Anna 1730-1740
Ivan VI 1740-1741
Elizabeth 1741-1762
Peter III 1762
Catherine II 1762-1796
Paul I 1796-1801
Alexander I 1801-1825
Nicholas I 1825-1855
Alexander II 1855-1881
Alexander III 1881-1894
Nicholas II 1894-1917
Asia
China (Royal Rulers)
Yuan (Kublai Khan) dynasty 1260-1368
Ming dynasty 1368-1644
Manchu (Ch'ing) dynasty 1644-1912
Shun Chih 1644-1661
K'ang Hsi 1661-1722
Yung Cheng 1722-1735
Ch'ien Lung 1735-1796
Chia Ch'ing 1796-1820
Tao Kuang 1820-1851
Hsien Feng 1851-1861
T'ung Chi 1861-1875
Kuang Hsu 1875-1898
Tzu Hsi 1898-1908
P'u Yi 1908-1912
Japan (Royal Rulers)
Tokugawa Shogun rule 1603-1868
(Meiji) Mutsuhito 1867-1912
Taisho (Yoshihito) 1912-1926
Showa (Hirohito) 1926-1989
Heisei (Akihito) 1989-
Additional Sources of Information (The World)
Books
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook.
U.S. Government Printing Office, published
annually.
Grun, Bernard. The Timetables of History.
Touchstone, 1987.
The Harper Atlas of World History. Harper and Row,
1987.
Hellemans, Alexander, and Bunch, Bryan. The
Timetables of Science. Simon & Schuster, 1988.
Hoffman, Mark S. The World Almanac and Book of
Facts. Pharos Books, published annually.
Kurian, George T. World Data. World Almanac
Publications, 1983.
Maps on File. Facts on File, 1987.
The New International World Atlas. Rand McNally,
1989.
Simony, Maggy. The Travelers Reading Guide. Revised
Edition. Facts on File, 1987.
Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of
Dates. World Almanac Publications, 1982.
Wetterau, Bruce. Macmillan Concise Dictionary of
World History. Macmillan, 1986.
Organizations and Services
The Asia Foundation
550 Kearney Street
San Francisco, CA 94108
Bureau of Public Affairs
U.S. Department of State
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Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
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Central Intelligence Agency
Public Affairs Director
Washington, DC 20505
European Community Information Service
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Washington, DC 20037
Middle East Institute
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Organization of American States
Pan-American Union Building
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United States Mission to the United Nations
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World Institute
777 United Nations Plaza
New York, NY 10017
